Data Communication – Definition, Components, Types, Channels

Human beings are the only creatures on the earth who are able to communicate with each
other through the medium of language. But humans take this gift to another extent. Distance, time, and
physical existence of the person don’t matter in communication these days because they build a
communication system through which they can communicate or share data like images, videos, text,
files, etc with their loved ones anytime anywhere. Communication is defined as a process in which
more than one computer transfers information, instructions to each other and for sharing resources. Or
in other words, communication is a process or act in which we can send or receive data. A network of
computers is defined as an interconnected collection of autonomous computers. Autonomous means
no computer can start, stop or control another computer.

Components of Data Communication

A communication system is made up of the following components:

1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one person to another.
It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer, mobile, telephone,
laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.
3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone mobile,
workstation, etc.
4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels are the medium
that connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be connected by either wired media or
wireless media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be understandable
to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless. For example, Sonali sends a message to Chetan. If
Sonali writes in Hindi and Chetan cannot understand Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.

Therefore, there are some set of rules (protocols) that is followed by every computer connected to the
internet and they are:
 TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is responsible for dividing messages into packets on the
source computer and reassembling the received packet at the destination or recipient computer. It
also makes sure that the packets have the information about the source of the message data, the
destination of the message data, the sequence in which the message data should be re-
assembled, and checks if the message has been sent correctly to the specific destination.
 IP(Internet Protocol): Do You ever wonder how does computer determine which packet belongs to
which device. What happens if the message you sent to your friend is received by your father?
Scary Right. Well! IP is responsible for handling the address of the destination computer so that
each packet is sent to its proper destination.

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Type of data communication

As we know that data communication is communication in which we can send or receive data from one
device to another. The data communication is divided into three types:
1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say that unidirectional
communication in which one device only receives and another device only sends data and devices
uses their entire capacity in transmission. For example, IoT, entering data using a keyboard, listing
music using a speaker, etc.
2. Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is a bidirectional
communication in which both the devices can send and receive data but not at the same time.
When one device is sending data then another device is only receiving and vice-versa. For
example, walkie-talkie.
3. Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it is a bidirectional
communication in which both the devices can send and receive data at the same time. For
example, mobile phones, landlines, etc.

Communication Channels

Communication channels are the medium that connects two or more workstations. Workstations can be
connected by either wired media or wireless media. It is also known as a transmission medium. The
transmission medium or channel is a link that carries messages between two or more devices. We can
group the communication media into two categories:
 Guided media transmission
 Unguided media transmission
1. Guided Media: In this transmission medium, the physical link is created using wires or cables
between two or more computers or devices, and then the data is transmitted using these cables in
terms of signals. Guided media transmission of the following types:
1. Twisted pair cable: It is the most common form of wire used in communication. In a twisted-pair
cable, two identical wires are wrapped together in a double helix. The twisting of the wire reduces the
crosstalk. It is known as the leaking of a signal from one wire to another due to which signal can corrupt
and can cause network errors. The twisting protects the wire from internal crosstalk as well as external
forms of signal interference. Types of Twisted Pair Cable :
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): It is used in computers and telephones widely. As the name
suggests, there is no external shielding so it does not protects from external interference. It is
cheaper than STP.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): It offers greater protection from crosstalk due to shield. Due to
shielding, it protects from external interference. It is heavier and costlier as compare to UTP.
2. Coaxial Cable: It consists of a solid wire core that is surrounded by one or more foil or wire shields.
The inner core of the coaxial cable carries the signal and the outer shield provides the ground. It is
widely used for television signals and also used by large corporations in building security systems. Data
transmission of this cable is better but expensive as compared to twisted pair.
3. Optical fibers: Optical fiber is an important technology. It transmits large amounts of data at very
high speeds due to which it is widely used in internet cables. It carries data as a light that travels inside
a thin glass fiber. The fiber optic cable is made up of three pieces:
1. Core: Core is the piece through which light travels. It is generally created using glass or plastic.
2. Cladding: It is the covering of the core and reflects the light back to the core.
3. Sheath: It is the protective covering that protects fiber cable from the environment.
2. Unguided Media: The unguided transmission media is a transmission mode in which the signals are
propagated from one device to another device wirelessly. Signals can wave through the air, water, or
vacuum. It is generally used to transmit signals in all directions. Unguided Media is further divided into
various parts :
1. Microwave: Microwave offers communication without the use of cables. Microwave signals are just
like radio and television signals. It is used in long-distance communication. Microwave transmission

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consists of a transmitter, receiver, and atmosphere. In microwave communication, there are parabolic
antennas that are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna. The higher the tower, the
greater the range.
2. Radio wave: When communication is carried out by radio frequencies, then it is termed radio waves
transmission. It offers mobility. It is consists of the transmitter and the receiver. Both use antennas to
radiate and capture the radio signal.
3. Infrared: It is short-distance communication and can pass through any object. It is generally used in
TV remotes, wireless mouse, etc.
Types of Computer Networks

A computer network is a cluster of computers over a shared communication path that works to share
resources from one computer to another, provided by or located on the network nodes.
Uses of Computer Networks
 Communicating using email, video, instant messaging, etc.
 Sharing devices such as printers, scanners, etc.
 Sharing files.
 Sharing software and operating programs on remote systems.
 Allowing network users to easily access and maintain information.
Types of Computer Networks
There are mainly five types of Computer Networks
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Campus Area Network (CAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

Types of Computer Networks

These are explained below.

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
PAN is the most basic type of computer network. This network is restrained to a single person, that is,
communication between the computer devices is centered only on an individual’s workspace. PAN
offers a network range of 1 to 100 meters from person to device providing communication. Its
transmission speed is very high with very easy maintenance and very low cost.
This uses Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee as technology.
Examples of PAN are USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA, etc.

Personal Area Network (PAN)

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that connects computers
through a common communication path, contained within a limited area, that is, locally. A LAN
encompasses two or more computers connected over a server. The two important technologies

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involved in this network are Ethernet and Wi-fi. It ranges up to 2km & transmission speed is very high
with easy maintenance and low cost.
Examples of LAN are networking in a home, school, library, laboratory, college, office, etc.

Local Area Network (LAN)

3. Campus Area Network (CAN)

CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer network that is usually
used in places like a school or colleges. This network covers a limited geographical area that is, it
spreads across several buildings within the campus. CAN mainly use Ethernet technology with a range
from 1km to 5km.
Its transmission speed is very high with a moderate maintenance cost and moderate cost.
Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools, colleges, buildings, etc.

Campus Area Network (CAN)

4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer network that
connects computers over a geographical distance through a shared communication path over a city,
town, or metropolitan area. This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with a
range from 5km to 50km. Its transmission speed is average. It is difficult to maintain and it comes with a
high cost.
Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a large area within multiple
buildings, etc.

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 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large geographical distance
through a shared communication path. It is not restrained to a single location but extends over many
locations. WAN can also be defined as a group of local area networks that communicate with each
other with a range above 50km.
Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its transmission speed is very low and it comes with
very high maintenance and very high cost.
The most common example of WAN is the Internet.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Comparison between Different Computer Networks

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Parameters PAN LAN CAN MAN WAN

Personal Area Local Area Campus Area Metropolitan Wide Area

Full Name
Network Network Network Area Network Network

Technolog Bluetooth, FDDI, CDDi. Leased Line,

Ethernet & Wifi Ethernet
y IrDA,Zigbee ATM Dial-Up

Range 1-100 m Upto 2km 1 – 5 km 5-50 km Above 50 km

Transmiss
Very High Very High High Average Low
ion Speed

Ownershi Private or
Private Private Private Private or Public
p Public

Maintenan
Very Easy Easy Moderate Difficult Very Difficult
ce

Cost Very Low Low Moderate High Very High

Other Types of Computer Networks

1. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
2. Storage Area Network (SAN)
3. System-Area Network (SAN)
4. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)
5. Enterprise Private Network (EPN)
6. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
7. Home Area Network (HAN)
1. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
WLAN is a type of computer network that acts as a local area network but makes use of wireless
network technology like Wi-Fi. This network doesn’t allow devices to communicate over physical cables
like in LAN but allows devices to communicate wirelessly.
The most common example of WLAN is Wi-Fi.

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

There are several computer networks available; more information is provided below.
2. Storage Area Network (SAN)
SAN is a type of computer network that is high-speed and connects groups of storage devices to
several servers. This network does not depend on LAN or WAN. Instead, a SAN moves the storage

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resources from the network to its high-powered network. A SAN provides access to block-level data
storage.
Examples of SAN are a network of disks accessed by a network of servers.

Storage Area Network (SAN)

3. System Area Network (SAN)

A SAN is a type of computer network that connects a cluster of high-performance computers. It is a
connection-oriented and high-bandwidth network. A SAN is a type of LAN that handles high amounts of
information in large requests. This network is useful for processing applications that require high
network performance.
Microsoft SQL Server 2005 uses SAN through a virtual interface adapter.

System Area Network (SAN)

4. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

A POLAN is a type of computer network that is an alternative to a LAN. POLAN uses optical splitters to
split an optical signal from a single strand of single-mode optical fiber to multiple signals to distribute
users and devices. In short, POLAN is a point to multipoint LAN architecture.

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 Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

5. Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

EPN is a type of computer network mostly used by businesses that want a secure connection over
various locations to share computer resources.

Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

6. Virtual Private Network (VPN)

A VPN is a type of computer network that extends a private network across the internet and lets the
user send and receive data as if they were connected to a private network even though they are not.
Through a virtual point-to-point connection users can access a private network remotely. VPN protects
you from malicious sources by operating as a medium that gives you a protected network connection.

Virtual Private Network (VPN)

7. Home Area Network (HAN)

Many of the houses might have more than a computer. To interconnect those computers and with other
peripheral devices, a network should be established similar to the local area network (LAN) within that
home. Such a type of network that allows a user to interconnect multiple computers and other digital
devices within the home is referred to as Home Area Network (HAN). HAN encourages sharing of
resources, files, and programs within the network. It supports both wired and wireless communication.

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 Home Area Network (HAN)

Advantages of Computer Network

Some of the main advantages of Computer Networks are:
 Central Storage of Data: Files are stored on a central storage database which helps to easily
access and available to everyone.
 Connectivity: A single connection can be routed to connect multiple computing devices.
 Sharing of Files: Files and data can be easily shared among multiple devices which helps in easily
communicating among the organization.
 Security through Authorization: Computer Networking provides additional security and protection
of information in the system.
Disadvantages of Computer Network
Some of the main disadvantages of Computer Networks are:
 Virus and Malware: A virus is a program that can infect other programs by modifying them.
Viruses and Malware can corrupt the whole network.
 High Cost of Setup: The initial setup of Computer Networking is expensive because it consists of
a lot of wires and cables along with the device.
 loss of Information: In case of a System Failure, might lead to some loss of data.
 Management of Network: Management of a Network is somehow complex for a person, it requires
training for its proper use.
Physical Components of Computer Network

A computer network is a system that connects multiple independent computers in such a way that they
can share information and resources. Some of the Physical Components of the Computer Network are
mentioned below:
1. NIC(Network Interface Card)
2. HUB
3. Router
4. Modem
5. Switch
6. Nodes
7. Media
1. NIC(Network Interface Card): NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to
connect the computer to the network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a unique
id that is written on the chip, and it has a connector to connect the cable to it. The cable acts as an
interface between the computer and the router or modem. NIC card is a layer 2 device which means
that it works on both the physical and data link layers of the network model. There are two types of
NIC:
 Wired NIC: Cables and Connectors use Wired NIC to transfer data.
 Wireless NIC: These connect to a wireless network such as Wifi, Bluetooth, etc.

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2. HUB: A HUB is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires coming from different
branches, for example, the connector in star topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot
filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all
hosts connected through Hub remains one.

3. Router: A Router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses.
The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect LANs and WANs and have a
dynamically updating routing table based on which they make decisions on routing the data packets.
The router divides the broadcast domains of hosts connected through it.

4. Modem: A Modem is a short form of Modulator/Demodulator. The Modem is a hardware

component/device which can connect computers and other devices such as routers and switches to the
internet. Modems convert or modulate the analog signals coming from telephone wire into a digital form
that is in form of 0s and 1s.
5. Switch: A Switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its efficiency(a large
number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can
perform error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it does not forward
packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to the correct port only.
6. Nodes: Node is a term used to refer to any computing devices such as computers that send and
receive network packets across the network. Two Types of nodes are :
 End Nodes: These type of nodes is going to be the starting point or the end point of
communication. E.g., computers, security cameras, network printers, etc.
 Intermediary Nodes: These nodes are going to be in between starting point or end point of the
end nodes. E.g., Switches, Bridges, Routers, cell towers, etc.
7. Media: Also known as Link which is going to carry data from one side to another side. This link can
be Wired Medium (Guided Medium) and Wireless Medium (Unguided Medium). It is of two types:
1. Wired Media
2. Wireless Media
Examples of Wired media are as follows:
Ethernet: Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology, which is defined under IEEE standards
802.3. There are two types of Ethernet:
1. Ethernet straight-through cable (used for two different devices).
2. Ethernet crossover cable (used for two same devices).
Fibre Optic Cable: In this data is transferred in the form of light waves.

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 Optic Fibre Cable

Coaxial Cable: Mainly used for audio and video communications.

Coaxial Cable

USB Cable: USB Stands for Universal Serial Bus. Mainly used to connect PC and smartphones.

USB Cable

Examples of Wireless media are as follows:

 Infrared (E.g. short-range communication – TV remote control).
 Radio (E.g. Bluetooth, Wi-Fi).
 Microwaves (E.g. Cellular system).
 Satellite (E.g. Long range communications – GPS).

What is Modulation and Different Types

As we are living in an era of communication wherein we can easily transfer any form of information
(video, audio, and other data) in the form of electrical signals to any other device or destined area.
Although it is common in our perceptual experience that sending or receiving signals or data is simple,
but it involves quite complex procedures, possibilities, and involved scenarios within the communication
systems. So, in the scope of communication systems, modulation plays hold crucial responsibility in the
communication system to encode information digitally in the analog world. It is very important to
modulate the signals before sending them to the receiver section for larger distance transfer, accurate
data transfer, and low-noise data reception. To be clear, let us dive into the detailed concept of knowing
what is modulation, different types in it, and what are the types of modulation techniques used in
communication systems.

What is Modulation?
Modulation is a process of changing the characteristics of the wave to be transmitted by superimposing
the message signal on the high-frequency signal. In this process video, voice and other data signals
modify high-frequency signals – also known as the carrier wave. This carrier wave can be DC or AC or

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pulse chain depending on the application used. Usually, a high-frequency sine wave is used as a
carrier wave signal.
These modulation techniques are classified into two major types: analog and digital or pulse
modulation. Prior to discussing further the different types of modulation techniques, let us understand
the importance of modulation.
Why Modulation is Used in Communication?
 In the modulation technique, the message signal frequency is raised to a range so that it is
more useful for transmission. The following points describe modulation’s importance in the
communication system.
 In signal transmission, the signals from various sources are transmitted through a common
channel simultaneously by using multiplexers. If these signals are transmitted simultaneously
with a certain bandwidth, they cause interference. To overcome this, speech signals are
modulated to various carrier frequencies in order for the receiver to tune them to the desired
bandwidth of his own choice within the range of transmission.
 Another technical reason is antenna size; the antenna size is inversely proportional to the
frequency of the radiated signal. The order of the antenna aperture size is at least one by a
tenth of the wavelength of the signal. Its size is not practicable if the signal is 5 kHz; therefore,
raising frequency by modulating process will certainly reduce the height of the antenna.
 Modulation is important to transfer the signals over large distances since it is not possible to
send low-frequency signals for longer distances.
 Similarly, modulation is also important to allocate more channels for users and to increase
noise immunity.
To start to know about detailed information of modulation techniques, let us know regarding the types
of signals in the modulation process.
Modulating Signal
This signal is also termed as a message signal. It holds the data that has to be transmitted and so this
termed as message signal. It is considered as the baseband signal where it undergoes a modulation
process to get broadcasted or communicated. Because of this, it is the modulating signal.
Carrier Signal
This is the high range of frequency signal which is with specific amplitude, frequency, and phase levels,
but it does not hold any data. So, it is termed as carrier signal as it is an empty one. This is simply
utilized to transmit the message to the receiver section after the process of modulation.
Modulated Signal
The consequential signal that is obtained after the procedure of modulation is called a modulated
signal. This is the product of both the carrier and modulating signals.
Different Types of Modulation
The two types of modulation: analog and digital modulation techniques have already been discussed. In
both the techniques, the baseband information is converted to Radio Frequency signals, but in analog
modulation, these RF communication signals are a continuous range of values, whereas in digital
modulation these are prearranged discrete states.

Types of Modulation
Analog Modulation
In this modulation, a continuously varying sine wave is used as a carrier wave that modulates the
message signal or data signal. The Sinusoidal wave’s general function is shown in the figure below, in

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which, three parameters can be altered to get modulation – they are mainly amplitude, frequency, and
phase, so the types of analog modulation are:
 Amplitude modulation (AM)
 Frequency modulation (FM)
 Phase modulation (PM)
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier wave is varied in proportion to the message
signal, and the other factors like frequency and phase remain constant. The modulated signal is shown
in the below figure, and its spectrum consists of a lower frequency band, upper-frequency band, and
carrier frequency components. This type of modulation requires greater bandwidth, more power.
Filtering is very difficult in this modulation.

Types of Analog Modulation

Frequency modulation (FM) varies the frequency of the carrier in proportion to the message or data
signal while maintaining other parameters constant. The advantage of FM over AM is the greater
suppression of noise at the expense of bandwidth in FM. It is used in applications like radio, radar,
telemetry seismic prospecting, and so on. The efficiency and bandwidths depend on the modulation
index and maximum modulating frequency.
In phase modulation, the carrier phase is varied in accordance with the data signal. In this type of
modulation, when the phase is changed it also affects the frequency, so this modulation also comes
under frequency modulation.
Analog modulation (AM, FM, and PM) is more sensitive to noise. If noise enters into a system, it
persists and gets carried till the end receiver. Therefore, this drawback can be overcome by the digital
modulation technique.

AM
Digital Modulation
For better quality and efficient communication, the digital modulation technique is employed. The main
advantages of digital modulation over analog modulation include permissible power, available
bandwidth, and high noise immunity. In digital modulation, a message signal is converted from analog
to digital message and then modulated by using a carrier wave.
The carrier wave is keyed or switched on and off to create pulses such that the signal is modulated.
Similar to the analog, here the parameters like amplitude, frequency, and phase variation of the carrier
wave decides the type of digital modulation.
The types of digital modulation are based on the type of signal and application used such as
Amplitude Shift Keying, Frequency Shift Keying, Phase Shift Keying, Differential Phase Shift Keying,
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying, Minimum Shift Keying, Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying, Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing, etc., as shown in the figure.

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Amplitude shift keying changes the amplitude of the carrier wave based on the baseband signal or
message signal, which is in digital format. It is used for low-band requirements and is sensitive to noise.
In frequency-shift keying, the frequency of the carrier wave is varied for each symbol in the digital data.
It needs larger bandwidths as shown in the figure. Similarly, the phase shift keying changes the phase
of the carrier for each symbol and it is less sensitive to noise.
Frequency Modulation
In order to create a frequency modulated wave, the frequency of the radio wave is varied in accordance
with the amplitude of the input signal.

Frequency Modulation
When the audio wave is modulated with that of the radio frequency carrier signal, then the generated
frequency signal will change its frequency level. The variation by which the wave moves upward and
downward is to be noted. This is termed as deviation and is generally represented as kHz deviation.
As an instance, when the signal has a deviation of either + or – 3kHz, then it is represented as ±3kHz.
This means that the carrier signal has up and downward deviation of 3kHz.
Broadcasting stations that need very high-frequency range in the frequency spectrum (in the range of
88.5 – 108 MHz), they need certainly a large amount of deviation which is nearly ±75 kHz. This is
called wide-band frequency modulation. The signals in this range hold the ability to assist the high
quality of transmissions, whereas they require higher bandwidth too. In general, 200kHz is permitted for
every WBFM. And for narrowband FM, a deviation of ±3 kHz is enough.
While implementing an FM wave, it is more beneficial to know the effectivity range of the modulation.
This stands as the parameter in stating factors such as knowing the type of signal whether wide band
or narrow band FM signal. It also helps in making sure that the whole receivers or transmitters that are
in the system are programmed to adapt to the standardized range of modulation as this shows an
impact on the factors such as the channel spacing, bandwidth of the receiver, and others.
So, to signify the modulation level, modulation index and deviation ratio parameters are to be
determined.
The different types of frequency modulation include the following.
Narrow band FM
 This is termed as the type of frequency modulation where the modulation index value is too
minimal.
 When the modulation index value is < 0.3, then there will be an only carrier and corresponding
sidebands having bandwidth as twice the modulating signal. So, β ≤ 0.3 is called narrow band
frequency modulation.
 The maximum range of modulating frequency is of 3 kHz
 The maximum frequency deviation value is 75 kHz
Wide band FM
 This is termed as the type of frequency modulation where the modulation index value is large.
 When the modulation index value is > 0.3, then there will be more than two sidebands having
bandwidth as twice the modulating signal. When the modulation index value increases, then the
number of sidebands gets increased. So, β > 0.3 is called narrow band frequency modulation.
 The maximum range of modulating frequencies is in between 30 Hz – 15 kHz
 The maximum frequency deviation value is 75 kHz

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  This frequency modulation needs a higher bandwidth range which is almost 15 times ahead of
the narrow band frequency modulation.
The other types of modulation techniques used in the communication system are:
 Binary phase shift keying
 Differential phase-shift keying
 Differential quadrature phase shift keying
 Offset quadrature phase shift keying
 Audio FSK
 Multi FSK
 Dual-tone FSK
 Minimum shift keying
 Gaussian minimum shift keying
 Trellis coded type of modulation
Advantages of Various Types of Modulation
For transmission purposes, the size of the antenna has to be very large before the modulation
technique was not proposed. The level of communication gets restricted as there will be no long-
distance communications having zero levels of distortions.
So, with the development of modulation, there are many benefits of utilizing communication systems.
And the advantaged of modulation are:
 The size of the antenna can be lessened
 There happens no kind of signal consolidation
 The range of communication is enhanced
 There will be the possibility of multiplexing
 One can adjust bandwidth as per the requirements
 The quality of reception gets increased
 Better performance and effectivity
Applications of Various Types of Modulation
There is an extensive range of various modulation techniques and those are:
 Implemented in music mixing, and magnetic tape recording systems
 To track EEG monitoring for newly born children
 Used in telemetry
 Used in radar
 FM broadcasting techniques
To avoid making this article complex, some mathematical equations and in-depth information about
digital communication systems have been exempted from it. However, the efforts put in to bring forth
this article ensure basic information on different types of modulation in the communication system.
Also, it is more important to have a clear idea of what are the disadvantages of modulation and how
it shows an impact on other concepts?

Multiplexing (Channel Sharing) in Computer Network

Multiplexing means multiple sources but one link. An alternative approach to it is Direct Point to Point
Connection but it has several problems as it requires an I/O port for each device, a need line for each
device, and also a large amount of wiring needed if on different floors. But instead, if we use a
multiplexer approach then all devices are connected to MUX and one line to the host, the link carries
multiple channels of information and a number of lines equal to the number of lines out.
Why Multiplexing?
Multiplexing is the sharing of a medium or bandwidth. It is the process in which multiple signals coming
from multiple sources are combined and transmitted over a single communication/physical line.

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 Multiplexing

The ‘n’ input lines shown above are transmitted via a multiplexer and it combines the signals to form a
composite signal. Now, these signals are passed through DEMUX and it transfers those signals to their
respective destinations.
Types of Multiplexing
Multiplexing can be classified as:
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
2. Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)
3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Types of Multiplexer

1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

The frequency spectrum is divided among the logical channels and each user has exclusive access to
his channel. It sends signals in several distinct frequency ranges and carries multiple video channels on
a single cable. Each signal is modulated onto a different carrier frequency and carrier frequencies are
separated by guard bands. The bandwidth of the transmission medium exceeds the required bandwidth
of all the signals. Usually, for frequency division multiplexing analog signaling is used in order to
transmit the signals, i.e. more susceptible to noise. Assignment of non-overlapping frequency ranges to
each user or signal on a medium. Thus, all signals are transmitted at the same time, each using
different frequencies.

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 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

A multiplexer accepts inputs and assigns frequencies to each device. The multiplexer is attached to the
high-speed communication line. The frequency spectrum is divided up among the logical channels
where each user hangs onto a particular frequency. The radio spectrum is an example of the media
and the mechanism for extracting information from the medium.
 Radio transmissions – GPRS (General packet radio service), commercial AM and FM.
 TV transmissions.
 Wireless networks.
 Satellite communications.
 Cellular networks.

Advantages of FDM
 The process is simple and easy to modulate.
 A corresponding multiplexer or de-multiplexer is on the end of the high-speed line and separates
the multiplexed signals.
 For frequency division multiplexing analog signaling is used in order to transmit the signals.
Disadvantages of FDM
 One problem with FDM is that it cannot utilize the full capacity of the cable.
 It is important that the frequency bands do not overlap.
 There must be a considerable gap between the frequency bands in order to ensure that signals
from one band do not affect signals in another band.

2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

Each user periodically gets the entire bandwidth for a small burst of time, i.e. entire channel is
dedicated to one user but only for a short period of time. It is very extensively used in computer
communication and telecommunication. Sharing of the channel is accomplished by dividing available
transmission time on a medium among users. It exclusively uses Digital Signaling instead of dividing
the cable into frequency bands. TDM splits cable usage into time slots. The data rate of transmission
media exceeds the data rate of signals. Uses a frame and one slot for each slice of time and the time
slots are transmitted whether the source has data or not.

17
 Time Division Multiplexing

There are two types of TDMs which are as follows:

1. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing
2. Statistical Time Division Multiplexing
3. Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing
4. Interleaving Time Division Multiplexing
1. Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing: It is synchronous because the multiplexer and the de-
multiplexer have to agree on the time slots. The original time-division multiplexing. The multiplexer
accepts input from attached devices in a round-robin fashion and transmits the data in a never-ending
pattern. Some common examples of this are T-1 and ISDN telephone lines. If one device generates
data at a faster rate than other devices, then the multiplexor must either sample the incoming data
stream from that device more often than it samples the other devices or buffers the faster incoming
stream. If a device has nothing to transmit, the multiplexor must still insert a piece of data from that
device into the multiplexed stream.

Synchronous TDM

2. Statistical Time Division Multiplexing: It is a time-division but on-demand rather than fixed,
rescheduling links on a per-packet basis and packets from different sources interleaved on the link. It
allows the connection of more nodes to the circuit than the capacity of the circuit. Works on the premise
that not all the nodes will transmit at full capacity at all times. It must transmit a terminal identification
i.e destination id no. and may require storage. A statistical multiplexer transmits only the data from
active workstations. If a workstation is not active, no space is wasted on the multiplexed stream. It
accepts the incoming data streams and creates a frame containing only the data to be transmitted.

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 Statistical TDM

3. Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing: It is a type of multiplexing, where the rate of sampling
is different and also does not require a general clock, it is called Asynchronous Time Division
Multiplexing. Asynchronous TDMs have generally low bandwidth. In case when there is nothing to
transmit, this type of TDM gives its time slot to other devices.
4. Interleaving Time Division Multiplexing: Interleaving TDM can be taken as two switches rotating at
high speed, one on the multiplexing and the other on the demultiplexing surface. These switches can
also be rotated in the reverse direction. At once, when it leaves the surface of multiplexing and releases
at the surface of de-multiplexer, it is called Interleaving.

3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing(WDM)

It is the same as FDM but applied to fibers, only the difference is that here the operating frequencies
are much higher actually they are in the optical range. There’s great potential for fibers since the
bandwidth is so huge. Fibers with different energy bands are passed through a diffraction grating prism.
Combined on the long-distance link and then split at the destination. It has got high reliability and very
high capacity.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing(WDM)

It multiplexes multiple data streams onto a single fiber optic line. Different wavelength lasers(called
lambdas) transmit multiple signals. Each signal carried on the fiber can be transmitted at a different rate
from the other signals.
1. Dense wavelength division multiplexing: It combines many (30, 40, 50, or more) channels onto one
fiber. DWDM channels have a very high capacity and it keeps on improving.
2. Coarse wavelength division multiplexing: It combines only a few lambdas. In this, channels are
more widely spaced and are a cheaper version of DWDM.
Some Other Types of Multiplexing
There are some more types of multiplexing that are discussed here.

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1. Code Division Multiplexing

It is a type of multiplexing where each code is distributed among different spectrums so that each one
of them can work at the same time simultaneously. It is also called Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA). CDMA makes use of spectrum technology along with analog-to-digital conversion(ADC). It is
thus used by various radio communication technologies. Mainly, it is used for mobile communication.
Advantages of Code Division Multiplexing
 It provides enhanced data communication capabilities.
 It does not compress the bandwidth of other frequencies.

2. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing

Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM) is a digital communication technique initially

developed for use in cable television systems. OFDM is similar to the broadcasting technique known as
frequency division multiplexing (also known as FDM), which uses a multitude of transmitters and
receivers to send information on different frequencies over a single wire, such as an electrical power
cable.

OFDM vs FDM

Uses of OFDM
 OFDM is used in Digital radio, Digital Radio Mondiale, digital audio broadcasting, and satellite
radio.
 OFDM is used in Wired data transmission. LTE stands for Long Term Evolution and is sometimes
referred to as 4G

3. Space Division Multiplexing

Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) is the combination of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) and
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM). It basically means that a particular channel is used against a
particular frequency band for some time.

20
Advantages of Space Division Multiplexing
 It provides a high data transmission rate.
 Some Passive Optical Network (POV) implementations use SDM.

What is Bandwidth? Definition, Working, Importance, Uses

Network bandwidth is the maximum capacity of a wired or wireless communications link to deliver data
via a network connection in a given amount of time. Bandwidth is typically defined as the number of
bits, kilobits, megabits, or gigabits that may be sent in one second.
Bandwidth and capacity are terms that are used interchangeably to describe the pace at which data is
delivered. It is a common misconception that bandwidth is a measure of network speed. Throughput is
what bandwidth is all about.
Importance of Bandwidth
It is the bandwidth of a web page that determines how quickly it will load in a browser. When choosing
a web hosting platform, this is arguably the most important factor to consider. It is important to consider
how the website and internet connection will impact bandwidth.

Factors Affecting Bandwidth Performance

The following are some factors that affect the performance of the bandwidth:
 Network performance is influenced by many factors, including the maximum capacity of a
network connection. Packet loss, delay, and jitter can all decrease network throughput and
cause a high-capacity link to function as if it had less bandwidth available.
 A typical end-to-end network path consists of several connections, each with varying bandwidth
capacities. As a result, the lowest-bandwidth link is frequently referred to as the bottleneck, as
it has the potential to reduce the overall capacity of all connections in the path.
 Multiple aggregated links serving as a single logical connection are used in many enterprise-
grade networks. A switch uplink with four aggregated 1 Gbps connections, for example, has a
throughput capacity of 4 Gbps. The bandwidth limit would be reduced to 2 Gbps if two of those
links failed.
Baseband is the transmission of a signal in its original, unmodulated form. A baseband signal can be
analog (e.g., originating from a telephone) or digital (e.g., originating from a computer).
Broadband is the transmission of high-quality data of wide bandwidth. In its simplest form, it is a high-
speed Internet connection that is always on. Broadband connections include Wi-Fi, DSLs(digital
subscriber line), fiber, and satellites.

S. Basis of
No Comparison Baseband Transmission Broadband Transmission

In broadband transmission,
In baseband transmission, the type of
the type of signaling used is
signaling used is digital.
1. Type of Signal analog.

Baseband Transmission is bidirectional Broadband Transmission is

2. Direction Type in nature. unidirectional in nature.

Signal The Signal can be sent in both Sending of Signal in one

3. Transmission directions. direction only.

Signals can only travel over short Signals can be traveled over
Distance covered distances. For long distances, long distances without being
4. by the signal attenuation is required. attenuated.

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S. Basis of
No Comparison Baseband Transmission Broadband Transmission

It is used with a bus as well

It works well with bus topology.
5. Topology as tree topology.

Device used to
Repeaters are used to enhance signal Amplifiers are used to
increase signal
strength. enhance signal strength.
6. strength

Type of It utilizes Frequency Division

It utilizes Time Division Multiplexing.
7. Multiplexing used Multiplexing.

In baseband transmission, Manchester

Encoding and Differential Manchester encoding Only PSK encoding is used.
8. Techniques are used.

Twisted-pair cables, coaxial cables, and Broadband signals were

wires are used as a transfer medium for sent through optical fiber
digital signals in baseband cables, coaxial cables, and
9. Transfer medium transmission. radio waves.

Baseband transmission has a 50-ohm Broadband transmission has

10. Impedance impedance. a 70-ohm impedance.

It can send multiple signal

It can only transfer one data stream at
waves at once but in one
a time in bi-directional mode.
11. Data Streams direction only.

Broadband transmission is
Baseband transmission is easy to install
Installation and difficult to install and
and maintain.
12. Maintenance maintain.

This transmission is
This transmission is cheaper to design.
13. Cost expensive to design.

Typically seen in Ethernet LAN Typically found in cable and

14. Application networks. telephone networks.

In this, capacity of frequency is less In this, capacity of frequency

15. Frequency than 100 kHz. is higher than 100 kHz.

It is best for non-wired

It is best for wired networks.
16. Suitable for networks.

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S. Basis of
No Comparison Baseband Transmission Broadband Transmission

The structure is very simple, and no The structure is complex as

17. Structure special hardware is required. it needs unique hardware.

Types of Network Topology

In Computer Network ,there are various ways through which different components are connected to
one another. Network Topology is the way that defines the structure, and how these components are
connected to each other.
Types of Network Topology
The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and receiver is
referred to as Network Topology. The various network topologies are:
 Point to Point Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Point to Point Topology

Point-to-Point Topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the sender and receiver.
It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one is the sender and the other one is
the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

Point to Point Topology

Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. In Mesh
Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol), etc.

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 Mesh Topology

Figure 1: Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels are known as
links.
 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, the total
number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected
to each other, hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4. The total number of
ports required = N * (N-1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology, then the total
number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5
devices connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices
through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Drawbacks of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet service
providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is also used in military
communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Mesh Topology .

Star Topology

In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central
node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not
an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as
an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect
the computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision
Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

Star Topology

Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection i.e. hub.
Advantages of Star Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.

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 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Drawbacks of Star Topology
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where all computers are
connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless networks where all devices are
connected to a wireless access point.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Star Topology.

Bus Topology

Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to a single
cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the
backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols
are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Bus Topology

Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the channel via
drop lines.
Advantages of Bus Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Drawbacks of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various protocols
are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are connected to a single
coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in cable television networks. For more,
refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Bus Topology .

Ring Topology

In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring devices. A number
of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if someone wants to

25
send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass
through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the
network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token
Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to transmit the data.

Ring Topology

Figure 4: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one node to
another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for performing the
operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done, the token is
to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the token just after
transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token after the acknowledgment is
received from the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Drawbacks of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
 Less secure.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Ring Topology .
Tree Topology
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of data. In Tree
Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration ) are used.

26
 Tree Topology

Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the
repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the secondary and then to the
devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is a multi-
point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
Advantages of Tree Topology
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance that is
traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Drawbacks of Tree Topology
 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At the top of the tree is
the CEO, who is connected to the different departments or divisions (child nodes) of the company.
Each department has its own hierarchy, with managers overseeing different teams (grandchild nodes).
The team members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy, connected to their respective
managers and departments.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Tree Topology .

Hybrid Topology

This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have studied
above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It means these can be
individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies seen
above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

Hybrid Topology

27
Figure 6: The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains a
combination of all different types of networks.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
 This topology is very flexible.
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology
 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling and network
devices.
A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The network may have a
backbone of a star topology, with each building connected to the backbone through a switch or router.
Within each building, there may be a bus or ring topology connecting the different rooms and offices.
The wireless access points also create a mesh topology for wireless devices. This hybrid topology
allows for efficient communication between different buildings while providing flexibility and redundancy
within each building.
Synchronous Transmission: In Synchronous Transmission, data is sent in form of blocks or frames.
This transmission is the full-duplex type. Between sender and receiver, synchronization is compulsory.
In Synchronous transmission, There is no gap present between data. It is more efficient and more
reliable than asynchronous transmission to transfer a large amount of data.
Example:
 Chat Rooms
 Telephonic Conversations
 Video Conferencing

Asynchronous Transmission: In Asynchronous Transmission, data is sent in form of byte or

character. This transmission is the half-duplex type transmission. In this transmission start bits and stop
bits are added with data. It does not require synchronization.
Example:
 Email
 Forums

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  Letters

Now, let’s see the difference between Synchronous Transmission and Asynchronous Transmission :
S.
No. Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission

In Synchronous transmission, data is sent In Asynchronous transmission , data is sent in

1. in form of blocks or frames. form of bytes or characters.

2. Synchronous transmission is fast. Asynchronous transmission is slow.

3. Synchronous transmission is costly. Asynchronous transmission is economical.

In Synchronous transmission, the time In Asynchronous transmission, the time interval

4. interval of transmission is constant. of transmission is not constant, it is random.

In this transmission, users have to wait till Here, users do not have to wait for the
the transmission is complete before getting completion of transmission in order to get a
5. a response back from the server. response from the server.

In Synchronous transmission, there is no In Asynchronous transmission, there is a gap

6. gap present between data. present between data.

While in Asynchronous transmission, the

Efficient use of transmission lines is done
transmission line remains empty during a gap
in synchronous transmission.
7. in character transmission.

The start and stop bits are not used in The start and stop bits are used in transmitting
8. transmitting data. data that imposes extra overhead.

9. Synchronous transmission needs precisely Asynchronous transmission does not need

synchronized clocks for the information of synchronized clocks as parity bit is used in this

29
S.
No. Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission

new bytes. transmission for information of new bytes.

Errors are detected and corrected in real Errors are detected and corrected when the
10. time. data is received.

Low latency due to real-time High latency due to processing time and
11. communication. waiting for data to become available.

Examples: Telephonic conversations,

Examples: Email, File transfer,Online forms.
12. Video conferencing, Online gaming.

There are two methods used for transferring data between computers which are given below: Serial
Transmission and Parallel Transmission.
Serial Transmission:
In Serial Transmission, data-bit flows from one computer to another computer in bi-direction. In this
transmission, one bit flows at one clock pulse. In Serial Transmission, 8 bits are transferred at a time
having a start and stop bit.

Serial Transmission
Parallel Transmission:
In Parallel Transmission, many bits are flow together simultaneously from one computer to another
computer. Parallel Transmission is faster than serial transmission to transmit the bits. Parallel
transmission is used for short distance.

Parallel Transmission
Difference between Serial and Parallel Transmission:

30
S.NO Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission

In this type, a single communication link is used to In this type, multiple parallels links
1.
transfer data from one end to another used to transmit the data

In serial transmission, data(bit) flows in bi- In Parallel Transmission, data flows in

2.
direction. multiple lines.

Parallel Transmission is not cost-

3. Serial Transmission is cost-efficient.
efficient.

In serial transmission, one bit transferred at one In Parallel Transmission, eight bits
4.
clock pulse. transferred at one clock pulse.

Serial Transmission is slow in comparison of Parallel Transmission is fast in

5.
Parallel Transmission. comparison of Serial Transmission.

Generally, Serial Transmission is used for long- Generally, Parallel Transmission is

6.
distance. used for short distance.

The circuit used in Parallel

7. The circuit used in Serial Transmission is simple.
Transmission is relatively complex.

Serial Transmission is full duplex as sender can Parallel Transmission is half-duplex

8.
send as well as receive the data since the data is either send or receive

Converters are required in a serial transmission to

No converters are required in Parallel
9. convert the data between internal and parallel
Transmission
form

Parallel transmission is unreliable and

10. Serial transmission is reliable and straightforward.
complicated.

Layers of OSI Model

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It has been developed by ISO – ‘International
Organization for Standardization‘, in the year 1984. It is a 7-layer architecture with each layer having
specific functionality to perform. All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one
person to another across the globe.

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