CHAPTER-ONE: FUNDAMENTALS OF GEOLOGY

1.1. An Introduction to Geology

Geology is, broadly speaking, the study of the Earth. It is split into several disciplines, including:
Petrology (the study of rocks), Geophysics (the study of the Earth using physics), Paleontology (the
study of fossils) and Mineralogy (the study of minerals). The main aim of geology is to understand
how the Earth works; how mountains are built, how the oceans form, what dinosaurs looked like.
The Earth is constantly changing, both inside and outside. The atmosphere and water erode and
weather rocks; collision of continents builds mountain ranges; and new crust forms at the mid-ocean
ridges. How do these processes relate to each other, and can we come up with a model to explain
these things? Once we have such a model, the applications of geology become much simpler.
Applications include the search for oil, gas, water and minerals; environmental studies;
reconstructing the past environments of the Earth, which helps us with predicting the future.
Geology has been revolutionized by the introduction of the theory of plate tectonics. This theory
explains a great deal of the things we see on the Earth's surface and helps a great deal when trying to
fit the pieces together. It is plate tectonics which provide a model in which to put the details. The
Earth has a layered inner structure (Figure 1).

Figure 1: The interior structure of the Earth, with a close up of the

The Earth is made of three main layers: the lithosphere, the mantle and the core. This are split
further, but this is beyond the scope of this tutorial. The lithosphere is divided into a series of plates
which move around the surface of the Earth as dictated by plate tectonic theory. It is the lithosphere
which is made of rock as we see it every day.
1.2. Branches of Geology

Geology is divided into several fields, which can be grouped under the major headings of physical
and historical geology.

Physical Geology:-Physical geology includes mineralogy, the study of the chemical composition
and structure of minerals; petrology, the study of the composition and origin of rocks;
geomorphology, the study of the origin of landforms and their modification by dynamic processes;
geochemistry, the study of the chemical composition of earth materials and the chemical changes
that occur within the earth and on its surface; geophysics, the study of the behavior of rock materials
in response to stresses and according to the principles of physics; sedimentology, the science of the
erosion and deposition of rock particles by wind, water, or ice; structural geology, the study of the
forces that deform the earth's rocks and the description and mapping of deformed rock bodies;
economic geology, the study of the exploration and recovery of natural resources, such as ores and
petroleum; and engineering geology, the study of the interactions of the earth's crust with human-
made structures such as tunnels, mines, dams, bridges, and building foundations.

Historical Geology:-Historical geology deals with the historical development of the earth from the
study of its rocks. They are analyzed to determine their structure, composition, and
interrelationships and are examined for remains of past life. Historical geology includes
paleontology, the systematic study of past life forms; stratigraphy, of layered rocks and their
interrelationships; paleogeography, of the locations of ancient land masses and their boundaries; and
geologic mapping, the superimposing of geologic information upon existing topographic maps.

Historical geologists divide all time since the formation of the earliest known rocks (c.4 billion years
ago) into four major divisions: Precambrian time and the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic
eras. Each, except the Cenozoic, ended with profound changes in the disposition of the earth's
continents and mountains and was characterized by the emergence of new forms of life .Broad
cyclical patterns, which run through all historical geology, include a period of mountain and
continent building followed by one of erosion and, in turn, by a new period of elevation.

The domain of geology abounding its widened scope is further divisible into a seemingly great
number of subdivisions termed as the branches for the sake and convenience of systematic study.
The main and allied branches of geology may be named as follows:

Main (Principal) Branches of Geology include:

(1) General geology, (2) Physical geology (Geomorphology), (3) Geotectonics, (4) Mineralogy
(Crystallography inclusive), (5) Petrology (Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic), (6) Structural
geology, (7) Historical geology or Stratigraphy, (8) Palaeontology¸(9) Economic geology.

Allied Branches

(10) Engineering geology (11) Marine geology (12) Geophysics (13) Geochemistry (14) Geo-
hydrology / Hydrogeology (15) Environmental geology.
The cardinal themes of the main branches are briefed as follows:

General Geology: It is the formal branch of geology that deals with the broad features / aspects of
the earth in particular and the other members of solar family with the Sun as the kingpin and sole
controller.

It also deals with certain principal aspects of. The cosmos - the ordered universe. The features of the
earth include its origin, age, constitution, internal structure and the depth zones of the marine
(oceanic) realms.

Physical Geology: It serves as a tool to understand the physical process which moulds the earth
surface. The terms, synonymous with this branch, are 'geomorphology' and 'dynamic geology'. This
branch deals with (a) the geometry (b) origin and developmental history of landform features of
mountains, plateaux, valleys, rivers, lakes, glaciers, deserts, oceans and ground water (c) geological
work of the exogenetic (external) geological agents mentioned above, in constantly moulding the
features of the earth's surface and (d) aspects of natural geologic phenomena such as denudation,
weathering, erosion, mass wasting, landsides, soil creep, avalanches and soil erosion.

Geotectonics: This branch deals with the major and very large sized structures of the earth's
lithosphere (the crust and its lower part) and their changes produced by crustal deformation brought
about by the interplay of the earth's endogenetic (internal) forces. It describes and explains the
geometry and mode of formation of the mega (very large scale) crustal features and their causative
processes.

These features are lofty fold mountains, Block Mountains, rift valleys, mid-oceanic ridges,
geosynclines, and island arcs etc. It also deals with the global concepts of isostasy, eustasy (sea level
changes), continental drift, convection cells, seismicity, ocean-floor-spreading and the plate-
tectonics. In a simple sense, this sub-discipline deals with the movements of various crustal parts
and the formation of resultant large scale crustal and infracrustal features.

Mineralogy: It is a formal branch that deals with the atomic structure, physico-chemical and optical
properties of the minerals present in the earth's lithosphere and the crust in particular.
Crystallography is an important sub-branch which describes the internal atomic structure in a three
dimensional perspective and the external geometric forms of the crystalline minerals. The mode of
occurrence, genesis and uses of minerals are also studied in this branch.

Petrology: It is the branch that studies the mode of occurrence, textures, structures, mineralogical
and chemical compositions, classification and genesis of the rocks of igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic classes, present in the crust and below it. Each major rock class is further divisible into
sub-branches such as plutonic, hypabyssal and volcanic types in case of igneous rocks; residual,
mechanical, chemical and organic types in case of sedimentary rocks and into contact (thermal),
dynamo-thermal, plutonic and cataclastic types of metamorphic rocks. All the three major classes of
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks are, thus, further divisible into relatively smaller sub-
types.
1.3. Structure of the Earth

Earth cutaway from core to exosphere (Picture is not to scale).

The interior structure of the Earth, similar to the outer, is layered. These layers can be
defined by either their chemical or their rheological properties. The Earth has an outer silicate
solid crust, a highly viscous mantle, a liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the
mantle, and a solid inner core. Scientific understanding of Earth's internal structure is based
on observations of topography and bathymetry, observations of rock in outcrop, samples
brought to the surface from greater depths by volcanic activity, analysis of the seismic waves
that pass through the Earth, measurements of the gravity field of the Earth, and experiments
with crystalline solids at pressures and temperatures characteristic of the Earth's deep interior.
Depth

Kilometers Miles Layer

Lithosphere (locally varies between 5 and

Crust (locally varies between 5 and

35–60 22–37 Uppermost part of mantle

35–2,890 22–1,790 Mantle

100–200 62–125 Asthenosphere

35–660 22–410 Upper mesosphere (upper mantle)

660–2,890 410–1,790 Lower mesosphere (lower mantle)

2,890–5,150 1,790–3,160 Outer core

5,150–6,360 3,160–3,954 Inner core

The layering of Earth has been inferred indirectly using the time of travel of refracted and reflected
seismic waves created by earthquakes. The core does not allow shear waves to pass through it, while
the speed of travel (seismic velocity) is different in other layers. The changes in seismic velocity
between different layers cause refraction owing to Snell's law. Reflections are caused by a large
increase in seismic velocity and are similar to light reflecting from a mirror.

Core

The average density of Earth is 5,515 kg/m3. Since the average density of surface material is only
around 3,000 kg/m3, we must conclude that denser materials exist within Earth's core. Further
evidence for the high density core comes from the study of seismology.

Seismic measurements show that the core is divided into two parts, a solid inner core with a radius
of ~1,220 km and a liquid outer core extending beyond it to a radius of ~3,400 km. The solid
inner core was discovered in 1936 by Inge Lehmann and is generally believed to be composed
primarily of iron and some nickel. In early stages of Earth's formation about 4.5 billion (4.5×109)
years ago, melting would have caused denser substances to sink toward the center in a process called
planetary differentiation (see also the iron catastrophe), while less-dense materials would have
migrated to the crust. The core is thus believed to largely be composed of iron (80%), along with
nickel and one or more light elements, whereas other dense elements, such as lead and uranium,
either are too rare to be significant or tend to bind to lighter elements and thus remain in the crust
(see felsic materials). Some have argued that the inner core may be in the form of a single iron
crystal.
On August 30 2011, Professor Kei Hirose, professor of high-pressure mineral physics and petrology
at the Tokyo Institute of Technology, became the first person to recreate conditions found at the
earth's core under laboratory conditions, subjecting a sample of iron nickel alloy to the same type of
pressure by gripping it in a vice between 2 diamond tips, and then heating the sample to
approximately 4000 Kelvins with a laser. The sample was observed with x-rays, and strongly
supported the theory that the earth's inner core was made of giant crystals running north to south.

The liquid outer core surrounds the inner core and is believed to be composed of iron mixed with
nickel and trace amounts of lighter elements. Recent speculation suggests that the innermost part of
the core is enriched in gold, platinum and other siderophile elements.

The matter that comprises Earth is connected in fundamental ways to matter of certain chondrite
meteorites, and to matter of outer portion of the Sun. There is good reason to believe that Earth is,
in the main, like a chondrite meteorite. Beginning as early as 1940, scientists, including Francis Birch,
built geophysics upon the premise that Earth is like ordinary chondrites, the most common type of
meteorite observed impacting Earth, while totally ignoring another, albeit less abundant type, called
enstatite chondrites. The principal difference between the two meteorite types is that enstatite
chondrites formed under circumstances of extremely limited available oxygen, leading to certain
normally oxyphile elements existing either partially or wholly in the alloy portion that corresponds to
the core of Earth.

Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core, combined with the Coriolis effect, gives
rise to Earth's magnetic field. The solid inner core is too hot to hold a permanent magnetic field (see
Curie temperature) but probably acts to stabilize the magnetic field generated by the liquid outer
core. The average magnetic field strength in the Earth's outer core is estimated to be 25 Gauss, 50
times stronger than the magnetic field at the surface.

Recent evidence has suggested that the inner core of Earth may rotate slightly faster than the rest of
the planet. In August 2005 a team of geophysicists announced in the journal Science that, according
to their estimates, Earth's inner core rotates approximately 0.3 to 0.5 degrees per year relative to the
rotation of the surface.

The current scientific explanation for the Earth's temperature gradient is a combination of heat left
over from the planet's initial formation, decay of radioactive elements, and freezing of the inner
core.

Mantle

Earth's mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km, making it the thickest layer of the Earth. The
pressure, at the bottom of the mantle, is ~140 GPa (1.4 Matm). The mantle is composed of silicate
rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium relative to the overlying crust. Although solid, the high
temperatures within the mantle cause the silicate material to be sufficiently ductile that it can flow on
very long timescales. Convection of the mantle is expressed at the surface through the motions of
tectonic plates. The melting point and viscosity of a substance depends on the pressure it is under.
As there is intense and increasing pressure as one travels deeper into the mantle, the lower part of
the mantle flows less easily than does the upper mantle (chemical changes within the mantle may
also be important). The viscosity of the mantle ranges between 1021 and 1024 Pa·s, depending on
depth. In comparison, the viscosity of water is approximately 10−3 Pa·s and that of pitch is 107 Pa·s.

KEY: 1. Continental crust 2. Oceanic crust 3. Upper mantle 4. Lower mantle 5. Outer core

6. Inner core

A: Mohorovičić discontinuity B: Gutenberg Discontinuity C: Lehmann discontinuity

Schematic view of the interior of Earth.

Crust

The crust ranges from 5–70 km in depth and is the outermost layer. The thin parts are the oceanic
crust, which underlie the ocean basins (5–10 km) and are composed of dense (mafic) iron
magnesium silicate rocks, like basalt. The thicker crust is continental crust, which is less dense and
composed of (felsic) sodium potassium aluminium silicate rocks, like granite. The rocks of the crust
fall into two major categories - sial and sima (Suess, 1831–1914). As the main mineral constituents of
the continental mass are silica and alumina, it is thus called sial (si-silica, 65–75% and al-alumina).
The oceanic crust mainly consists of silica and magnesium. It is therefore called sima (si-silica and
ma-magnesium). It is estimated that sima starts about 11 km below the Conrad discontinuity (a
second order discontinuity). The uppermost mantle together with the crust constitutes the
lithosphere. The crust-mantle boundary occurs as two physically different events. First, there is a
discontinuity in the seismic velocity, which is known as the Mohorovičić discontinuity or Moho. The
cause of the Moho is thought to be a change in rock composition from rocks containing plagioclase
feldspar (above) to rocks that contain no feldspars (below). Second, in oceanic crust, there is a
chemical discontinuity between ultramafic cumulates and tectonized harzburgites, which has been
observed from deep parts of the oceanic crust that have been obducted onto the continental crust
and preserved as ophiolite sequences.
Many rocks now making up Earth's crust formed less than 100 million (1×108) years ago; however,
the oldest known mineral grains are 4.4 billion (4.4×109) years old, indicating that Earth has had a
solid crust for at least that long.
1.4. Plate Tectonics concept
The interior of the Earth is divided into layers based on chemical and physical properties. The Earth
has an outer silica-rich, solid crust, a highly viscous mantle, and a core comprising a liquid outer
core that is much less viscous than the mantle, and a solid inner core. Working from the centre of
the Earth out, we have, the inner core is a primarily solid sphere about 1220 km in radius situated
Earth's center. Based on the abundance of chemical elements in the solar system, their physical
properties, and other chemical constraints regarding the remainder of Earth's volume, the inner core
is believed to be composed primarily of a nickel-iron alloy, with small amounts of some unknown
elements.
•The temperature is estimated at 5,000-6,000 degrees Celsius and the pressure to be about 330 to
360 GPa (which is over 3,000,000 times that of the atmosphere!)
•The liquid outer core is 2300 km thick and like the inner core composed of a nickel-iron alloy (but
with less iron than the solid inner core).
•Seismic and other geophysical evidence indicates that the outer core is so hot that the metals are in
a liquid state.
•The mantle is approximately 2,900 km thick and comprises 70% of Earth's volume. (the core makes
up about 30% of Earth's volume, with the outer crust [where we live] <1%!!).
•The mantle is divided into sections based upon changes in its elastic properties with depth.
•In the mantle, temperatures range between 500-900 degrees Celsius at the upper boundary with the
crust to over 4,000 degrees Celsius at the boundary with the core.
•Due to the temperature difference between the Earth's surface and outer core, and the ability of the
crystalline rocks at high pressure and temperature to undergo slow, creeping, viscous-like
deformation over millions of years, there is a convective material circulation in the mantle (mantle
convection cells). Hot material rises up as mantle plumes (like a lava lamp!), while cooler (and
heavier) material sinks downward to be reheated and rise up again.
•The outer most layer is the crust - this is the most familiar to us as it is where we live. The
distinction between crust and mantle is based on chemistry, rock types and seismic characteristics.
The Earth has two different types of crust: Continental crust and Oceanic crust. Each has
different properties and therefore behaves in different ways.

Continental crust: Continental crust forms the land (the continents, as the name suggests) that we
see today. Continental crust averages about 35 km thick. Under some mountain chains, crustal
thickness is approximately twice that thickness (about 70 km thick). The mountains we see on earth
have deep roots in the crust that we can‟t see. The crust “floats” on the denser mantle and, like how
only the tip of an iceberg sticks up out of the water, we see only the tip of the continental crust - the
mountain ranges. Continental crust is less dense and therefore more buoyant than oceanic crust.
Continental crust contains some of the oldest rocks on Earth.
Ancient rocks exceeding 3.5 billion years in age are found on all of Earth's continents. The oldest
rocks on Earth found so far are the Acasta Gneisses in northwestern Canada near Great Slave Lake
(4.03 Ga) [Ga = billion years ago] and the Isua Supracrustal rocks in West Greenland (3.7 to 3.8 Ga),
but well-studied rocks nearly as old are also found in the Minnesota River Valley in the USA (3.5-3.7
billion years), in Swaziland (3.4-3.5 billion years), and in Western Australia (3.4-3.6 billion years).
Oceanic crust: As the name already suggests, this crust is below the oceans. Compared to
continental crust, Oceanic crust is thin (6-11 km). It is denser than continental crust and therefore
when the two types of crust meet, oceanic crust will sink underneath continental crust. The rocks of
the oceanic crust are very young compared with most of the rocks of the continental crust. They are
not older than 200 million years.

If we can‟t go to the centre of the Earth (except in fictional movies!) how do we know what the
internal structure of the Earth is like? We need to use geophysical imaging techniques to model what
is going on below our feet. For example, when there is an earthquake it sends out seismic waves
(shock waves) through the Earth. Seismologists can measure the time it takes for these waves to
reach seismic monitoring stations set up around the globe. (The machine that measures seismic
waves is called a seismometer).

•The different layers in the earth have been inferred using the time of travel of refracted and
reflected (bent backward angularly) seismic waves created by the earthquakes. That is, changes in the
seismic velocity occur as the waves pass through different materials. Measuring these changes tell
seismologists how many layers there are and the thickness and physical properties of each layer.
•We need not wait for earthquakes to occur, on a local scale on land (cheap but slow methods) and
at sea (more expensive but quicker) explosions can be set to cause shock waves to pass through the
crust (simulating an earthquake) that can be measured in the same way.
•Other geophysical methods, for example measuring different gravity, magnetic and electrical
anomalies by air and (or) satellite can help to reconstruct shallow crustal features. We can also go
and examine rocks at and near the surface of the crust, through fieldwork, drilling boreholes and
mining.
If you look at a map of the world, you may notice that some of the continents could fit together like
pieces of a puzzle. The shape of Africa and South America are a good example. This is because they
DID used to fit together!

The Earth as we see it today was not always like it is now. Land masses have pulled apart and joined
together by the process we call Plate Tectonics.

NOTE: There are 12 major plates on Earth, each of which slide around at a rate of
centimeters per year, pulling away from, scraping against or crashing into each other.

Each type of interaction produces a characteristic “tectonic feature”, like mountain ranges,
volcanoes and (or) rift valleys, that we will discuss during this lecture.

The asthenosphere, beneath the lithosphere, is part of the upper mantle and is so hot that it is 1 –
5% liquid (I.e. 95 – 99% solid). This liquid, usually at the junctions of the crystals, allow it to flow –
which is why „astheno‟ means weak.‟ Beneath the asthenosphere is the rest of the mantle, which is
completely solid – but can also flow (on geological time scales) because of the intense temperatures
and pressures involved. The base of the lithosphere-asthenosphere boundary corresponds
approximately to the depth of the melting temperature in the mantle.
•The question of how tectonic plates are moved around the globe is answered by understanding
mantle convection cells.
•In the mantle hot material rises towards the lithosphere (like hot air rising out of an open oven).
The hot material reaches the base of the lithosphere where it cools and sinks back down through the
mantle. The cool material is replaced by more hot material, and so on forming a large “convection
cell”.
•This slow but incessant movement in the mantle causes the rigid tectonic plates to move (float)
around the earth surface (at an equally slow rate).
There are three types of plate boundary, each related to the movement seen along the boundary.
1) Divergent boundaries are where plates move away from each other
2) Convergent boundaries are where the plates move towards each other
3) Transform boundaries are where the plates slide past each other.
•Divergent Boundary: is a linear feature that exists between two tectonic plates that are moving
away from each other. These areas can form in the middle of continents or on the ocean floor.
•As the plates pull apart, hot molten material can rise up this newly formed pathway to the surface -
causing volcanic activity.
•Where a divergent boundary forms on a continent it is called a rift or continental rift.E.g. African
Rift Valley. Where a divergent boundary forms under the ocean, it is called an ocean ridge.
•Iceland is located right on top of a divergent boundary. In fact, the island exists because of this
feature. As the North American and Eurasian plates were pulled apart volcanic activity occurred
along the cracks and fissures. With many eruptions over time the island grew out of the sea!
Question: Why don’t we have islands like Iceland wherever we get an Ocean Ridge?
Answer: Scientists believe that there is a large mantle plume (an upwelling of hot mantle
material) located right underneath where Iceland has formed. This would mean that
more material would be erupted in the Iceland area compared with if there was just the
divergent boundary without the plume underneath it.

Convergent Boundaries: Is where the plates move towards each other. There are three types of
convergent boundary, each defined by what type of crust (continental or oceanic) is coming
together. Therefore, we can have: continent-continent collision, continent-oceanic crust
collision or ocean-ocean collision.

When continental crust pushes against continental crust both sides of the convergent boundary have
the same properties. Neither side of the boundary wants to sink beneath the other side, and as a
result the two plates push against each other and the crust buckles and cracks, pushing up (and
down into the mantle) high mountain ranges. For example, the European Alps and Himalayas
formed this way.

•India used to be an island, but about 15 million years ago it crashed into Asia. As continental crust
was pushing against continental crust the Himalayan mountain belt was pushed up.
•“Mountains” were also pushed down into the mantle as the normally 35 km thick crust is
approximately 70 km thick in this region. Mount Everest is the highest altitude mountain on our
planet standing 8,840 meters high. This means that below the surface at the foot of the mountain
the crust is a further 61 km deep!!
At a convergent boundary where continental crust pushes against oceanic crust, the oceanic crust
which is thinner and denser than the continental crust sinks below the continental crust. This is
called a Subduction Zone.

•The oceanic crust descends into the mantle at a rate of centimeters per year. This oceanic crust is
called the “Subducting Slab”. When the subducting slab reaches a depth of around 100 kilometers, it
dehydrates and releases water into the overlying mantle wedge.
•The addition of water into the mantle wedge changes the melting point of the molten material there
forming new melt which rises up into the overlying continental crust forming volcanoes.
•Subduction is a way of recycling the oceanic crust. Eventually the subducting slab sinks down into
the mantle to be recycled. It is for this reason that the oceanic crust is much younger than the
continental crust which is not recycled. For example, the Andes mountain range along the western
edge of the South American continent is an example of a mountain belt formed by subduction.
•The continental crust of the South American plate has buckled under the compressional strain of
converging with the Nasca and Antarctic plates. Additionally there are many volcanoes, the result of
melting of the subducting slab and the production of new material that has risen through the crust
to the surface.

Transform Boundaries: is which plates slide past each other. For example, the San Andreas Fault,
adjacent to which the US city of San Francisco is built is an example of a transform boundary
between the Pacific plate and the North American plate.
Reading Assignments:
1) What is the connection between volcanoes and plate tectonics?

2) Why are all of the volcanoes located at the plate margins?

Volcanoes can be formed in three ways:

1.Via subduction. The subducting slab dehydrates to form new melt that will rise through the crust
to be erupted at the surface.
2. via rifting. When two plates pull apart magma rises, producing volcanic eruptions at the surface.
3. Hotspots. Hotspots do not necessarily occur along a plate boundary. So hotspot volcanoes can
form in the middle of tectonic plates.

•A hotspot is a location on the Earth's surface that has experienced active volcanism for a long
period of time. The source of this volcanism is a mantle plume of hot mantle material rising up from
near the core-mantle boundary through the crust to the surface. A mantle plume may rise at any
location in the mantle, and this is why hotspot volcanoes are independent from tectonic plate
boundaries. The Hawaiian island chains are an example of hotspot volcanoes.
Hotspot‟s commonly form volcanic island chains (like the Hawaiian Islands). These result from the
slow movement of a tectonic plate over a fixed hotspot. Persistent volcanic activity at a hotspot will
create new islands as the plate moves the position of the “old” volcanic island from over the
hotspot. This way, geologists can use hotspot volcano chains to track the movement of the tectonic
plate through time.
Important: We know there are three types of plate boundaries: Divergent, Convergent and
Transform. Movement and slipping along each of these types of boundaries can form an earthquake.

•Depending on the type of movement, the earthquakes occur in either a shallow or deep level in the
crust.
•The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at depths not exceeding tens of kilometers.
•In subduction zones, where old and cold oceanic crust descends beneath another tectonic plate,
“Deep Focus Earthquakes” may occur at much greater depths (up to seven hundred kilometers!).

• These earthquakes occur at a depth at which the subducted crust should no longer be brittle,
due to the high temperature and pressure. A possible mechanism for the generation of deep
focus earthquakes is faulting. Earthquakes may also occur in volcanic regions and are caused
there both by tectonic faults and by the movement of magma (hot molten rock) within the
volcano. Such earthquakes can be an early warning of volcanic eruptions.