CHAPTER-3

3. Hydrometry
3.1 The need for data
3.2 Water-level determination
 Instruments for water level determination
3.3 Water depth and bottom-level
3.4 Site selection for stream gauging stations
3.4.1 Measurement of stage depth and velocity

ASTU Water Resources Engineering

 Data
 The data needed to support hydrologic analysis must be obtained in
sufficient quantity, with adequate frequency and in an appropriate
form if they are to be value
 A host of measurements are needed to support efforts in water
resources planning, management, design, and construction related to
such subjects as aquifer systems analysis, solid waste management,
flood hazard assessment, water supply availability, water quality
management, groundwater recharge, protection of fish and wildlife, and
navigation.
The need for data
• Data on hydrologic variables are fundamental to analyses, forecasting
and modeling.
• Such data may be found in numerous publications of state and federal
agencies, research institutes, universities, and other organizations.
• Several of the most significant sources of hydrologic data are:
Climatological data: this are sources of data on temperature, solar
radiation, wind, and humidity
Precipitation data, stream flow data, evaporation and transpiration
2
data
 Hydrometry
 Hydrometry means literally water measurement.
 It is defined as the measurement of flow in open water courses,
supported or complemented by the measurements of water
levels, bed levels and sediment transport
 Flow measurement (discharge measurement) constitutes the
principal part in hydrometry as shown in the diagram below

Continuous streamflow records are necessary in the design of water

supply systems, in designing hydraulic structures, in the operation of
water management systems, and in estimating sediment or chemical
loads of streams.
To do these, systematic records of stage and discharge are
essential. 3
 Water level determination
• Water levels may be considered the basis for any river study.
• Most kinds of measurements, such as discharges have to be
related to river stages.
• Water levels are obtained from gauges, either by direct
observation or in recorded form.
Purpose of water level data:
i) By plotting gauge readings against time over a hydrological year the
hydrograph for a particular gauging station is obtained. Hydrographs
of a series of consecutive years are used to determine duration curves,
indicating either the probability of occurrence of water levels at the
station considered, or, by applying rating curves, indicating the
probability of occurrence of discharges.
ii) Combining gauge readings with discharge values, a stage discharge
relation can be determined, resulting in a rating curve for the particular
station under consideration.
4
 Purpose water level data:
iii) From the readings of a number of gauges, observed under steady
flow conditions and at various stages, stage relation curves can be
derived.
iv) Apart from use in hydrological studies and for design purposes, the
data can be of direct value for other purposes such as, for instance,
navigation, flood prediction, water management and waste water
disposal.
Instruments for water level determination
• Most water level gauging stations are equipped with a sensor or
gauge and a recorder.
• In many cases the water level is measured in a stilling well, thus
eliminating strong oscillations.

5
 Instruments for water level determination
1) Staff gauge: is the simplest type and very popular
It usually consists of a graduated gauge
plate, resistant to corrosion: cast
aluminium or enamelled steel. This plate is
fixed vertically onto a stable structure,
such as a pile, a bridge pier or a wall.
Sometimes the gauge is placed in an
inclined position, for instance upon a
sloping river bank. Inclined staff gauges
are not exposed to damage by ships or
floating material.

6
 Instruments for water level determination
2) Float operated gauge: is the simplest type and very popular
• A float inside a stilling well, which is connected with the river by an
intake pipe, is moved up or down by the water level.
• The movement of the float is transmitted by the float wheel to a
mechanism which records these movements on paper
(mechanically), or in a fixed memory (electronically).

7
 Instruments for water level determination
3) Pressure transducers: are pressure sensors, pressure probes
and pressure transmitters.
• The water level is measured as a hydrostatic pressure and trans-
formed into an electrical signal, in most cases with a semi-
conductor sensor (piezo resistive pressure transducer).
• The measured value corresponds to the actual water level above
the sensor.
• Pressure transducers are used for the measurement of water
levels in open water, as well as for the continuous recording of
groundwater levels.

8
 Instruments for water level determination
4) Bubble Gauges: are pressure actuated system, based on the
measurement of the pressure which is needed to produce bubbles
through the bubble orifice against the water pressure. The gauges are
primarily used at sites where it would be expensive or difficult to
install a float operated recorder or a pressure transducer.

9
 Instruments for water level determination
5) Ultrasonic sensor: are used for continuous non-contact level
measurements in open channels. The sensor emits ultrasonic
pulses at a certain frequency. The inaudible sound waves are
reflected by the water surface and are received by the sensor.

6) Peak level indicators: after floods a marking line is printed along

the banks of rivers and lakes by floating debris, and sediments on
the walls of houses, bridges, etc. which have been subject to high
10
water levels.
 Presentation of results of water level measurement
Accuracy
• The required accuracy of water level data depends on the purpose
for which the data will be used
• Stage records taken along rivers and used for hydrological studies,
for design of irrigation works or for flood protection require an
accuracy of 2 to 5cm;
• Gauge readings taken upstream of flow measuring weirs, used to
calculate discharges from the measured heads require an
accuracy of 2 to 5 mm.
Presentation of water level
• Hydrographs, rating tables and stage relation curves are
typical presentations of water level data.
Hydrograph: is obtained when the stage records of a particular
station, or the measured discharges in this location, are plotted
against time.
• The hydrograph usually covers the hydrological year and also
11
frequently the calender year.
 Presentation of results of water level measurement

Rating table: At many gauging stations, discharges are measured

during the hydrological year with a fixed frequency of e.g. once or
twice per month together with the water level reading. These data
collected over a series of years allow the composition of a rating
curve or a rating table for a certain location along the river. 12
Water depth and bottom level
River bed level is defined as the
limiting level below which a
stream cannot erode its
channel.
The topography of a river bed can
be determined by sounding from
the water surface.
Echosounders(echo-depth recorder):
It calculate water depth by measuring
the time it takes for the acoustic signal
to reach the bottom and the echo to
return to the ship.
 The product is divided by two
because the measured time is the
round-trip time (from the transducer
to the seafloor and back to the
transducer)
 Water depth and bottom level
 The sounding measurements are also
referred to as bathymetry (a bathometer
measures depths).
 The bathymetric survey is an essential part
of every field study as it gives information
about:
 the bottom configuration,
 the cross sectional profiles in rivers, and
 an insight into sedimentation or degradation;
it thus gives the basic information to the
engineer of the area under study.
 design of hydraulic structures: as weirs and
bridges need information on the bed level as
a function of time.
 The bathymetric survey consists of the following components:
- position fixing. What is the location?
- Sounding. What is the depth?
14
- what is the water level during the sounding?
 Site selection for stream gauging stations
 Factors to be considered in selecting a site for a stream
gauging station are:
 The general course of the stream should be straight and
uniform for a length of about 10 to 20 times the width of the
stream (straight for about 100 meters upstream &
downstream)
 The total flow is confined into the channel at all stages and no
flow bypasses the site as sub-surface flow (Banks are
permanent, high enough to contain floods)
 The streambed is not subject to scour and fill and is free of
aquatic growth (free from vegetal growth, boulders or other
obstructions like bridge piers, etc.)
 There should be no larger overflow section at flood stage. The
best cross section is one with V-shape, so that there is
sufficient depth for immersing the current meter without being
affected by the bed roughness of the stream. 15
 Site selection for stream gauging stations
 The part of the reach having the most regular transverse section
and steady flow with the current normal to the metering section
and velocities in the range of 0.3–1.2 m/sec should be selected.
 To ensure consistency between stage and discharge, there
should be a good control section far downstream of the gauging
site. This control may be in the form of steep rapids, large rocky
boulders, restricted passages, crest of weirs, etc.
 The sites above the confluence of rivers are best avoided if the
flow is affected by back water conditions due to the varying
discharges in the tributaries.
 The stream gauging station should be easily accessible for ease
in installation and operation of it.

16
 CHAPTER-4

4. Velocity and Streamflow Measurement

4.1 Velocity measurement
 Current meter
 Pitot tube
 Floating method
 Vane Anemometer
4.2 Streamflow measurement
 Velocity area method
 Venturi, Nozzle, Orifice and others
4.3 Methods of discharge measurement (Rating curve)

ASTU Water Resources Engineering

 Velocity Measurement
 The velocity of flow in a stream can be measured with: current
meter, pitot tube, floating and vane anemometer methods.
Current meter: is the most universally used instrument for velocity
determination.
 The principle is based upon the relation between the speed of
the water and the resulting angular velocity of the rotor
 By placing a current meter at a point in a stream and counting
the number of revolutions of the rotor during a measured time
interval, the velocity of the water at that point can be determined.
 Velocity Measurement
Current meters: are propeller devices, which has rotating element
which when placed in flowing water, the speed of revolutions has a
definite relation with the velocity of flow past the element.
 The speed with which the propeller rotates being proportional to
the flow velocity.
 The relationship between the revolution per second (N, rps) of
the meter and the velocity of flow past the meter (V. m/sec) is
given by:

V = a + bN
 Velocity Measurement
V = a + bN ; where a & b are constants (determined from the rating of the
current meter)
a = the starting velocity or velocity required to overcome mechanical
friction, b = the constant of proportionality
Initial values of a and b can be found from the calibration tables
provided by the manufacturer. With time the values of a and b are
changing and regular recalibration is essential.
 Once the rating equation of the current meter is known, actual stream
gauging can be done from bridges, boat or launch.
 The cross section of the stream at the gauging site is divided into
elemental strips of equal width b and the current meter is lowered to
a depth of 0.6d below water surface in shallow depths (one-point
method) and to depths of 0.2d and 0.8d (two-points method) in deep
waters, at the centre of each strip, look figure below.
 Velocity Measurement
 The mean velocity is taken as that at 0.6d below water surface in
shallow water (one-point method), and as the average of the
velocities at 0.2d and 0.8d below the water surface (two-point
method) in deep waters, as can be seen from the velocity
distribution in a vertical in a stream section as shown in figure
above
 Pitot tube Velocity Measurement
 A pitot tube is an open-ended right-angled tube pointing in
opposition to the flow of a fluid and used to measure pressure
using Bernoulli’s principle.

 It provides one of the most accurate means of measuring the

fluid velocity. Flow velocity V is: V = 1/2 *(2ΔP/ρ).

= which is stream flow velocity

Floating method of Velocity Measurement
Floats are the simplest
tools for measurement of
flow velocity. The time it
takes the float to drift
over a known distance
between two previously
fixed transversal lines is
a measure of the flow
velocity.

Flow Velocity is,

V = distance/average time
 Streamflow measurement
Purpose:
- basic information on river flow for the design of diversion dams
and reservoirs and for putting up bilateral agreements where
rivers are forming or crossing the national frontiers;
- distribution of irrigation water
- basic information for charging industries and treatment plants
draining away their polluted or purified water in public water
courses
- basic information for other water users, such as navigation
- water management in urban and rural areas: storage of fresh
water and removal of rainwater excess
- reliable statistics to be based on long term monitoring
(stochastic behaviour of the rainfall-runoff system)
 Streamflow measurement
Methods of stream flow measurements
1) Single measurement: Velocity area method, slope area method,
dilution method
2) Continuous measurement: stage discharge method, slope
stage discharge method, acoustic method, Electro-magnetic
method, pumping stations, flow measuring structures
1) Velocity area method: the velocity area method is directly
related based on the concept

 The cross-sectional area is calculated from the measured width in the

section, and the water depths in a number of verticals. The width is
measured with a tape or by applying one of the position fixing
methods,
 The depths are sounded in a number of m verticals, equidistantly
spaced between both banks. The number of verticals (m) must be
such, that the shape of the cross-sectional profile is described
accurately, varying from m = 5 for regular and small sections until m
= 15 for irregular and wide sections.
 The velocity area method is also referred to as the current-
meter method.
 Area-Velocity Method
A gauging site is selected carefully such that:
 Well defined cross-section
 It is easily accessible throughout the year
 Straight and stable reach
 Free from backwater effect
 Velocity area method
 The mean velocity is taken as that at 0.6d below water surface in
shallow water (one-point method), and as the average of the
velocities at 0.2d and 0.8d below the water surface (two-point
method) in deep waters, as can be seen from the velocity
distribution in a vertical in a stream section as shown in figure
above
 Streamflow measurement
Methods of stream flow measurements
2) Slope area method: from measurements of the water surface
slope S, the cross-sectional area A and the hydraulic radius R and
by estimating a roughness coefficient for the channel boundaries,
the discharge can be calculated using the Manning equation or the
Chézy equation.

• The Manning equation reads:

3)Stage discharge method: Once a unique relation has been
established between water level and discharge by one of the single
measurement methods, discharges are derived from the
continuously measured water levels.
4)Slope stage discharge method: First a relation must be set up
between water level, water surface slope and discharge based
upon the Manning equation or the Chézy equation and calibrated
by one of the single measurement methods. After this, discharges
are derived from two water levels that are measured continuously
 Streamflow measurement
Methods of stream flow measurements
5) Pumping stations: By counting the pumping hours, the total
volume of water can be calculated.
6)Flow measuring structure: Discharges are derived from
measurements of the upstream water level which is continuously
measured at a certain distance upstream of the structure (weirs,
gates and flumes).
• Discharge over Weirs crest or spillways crest: Q = CLH3/2
• Bridge openings:
where Cd = coefficient of discharge, A1 = area of the most contracted section, Δh
= difference in water surface between the upstream and down stream ends (of
the pier) & ha = head due to the velocity of approach.
• Discharge through sluices:
Where Cd = coefficient of discharge for the sluice, A = area of
sluice opening, h = height of water surface of reservoir above the
center of sluice
flow measuring structures

32
 #2 Example
During a high flood, a river reach of 1 km apart was having the following information
Up stream: Area of cross section: A1 = 180 km2,Wetted perimeter: P1 = 50m, Manning’s
roughness coefficient: n1 = 0,03, Reduced level of water: = 78.3 m
Down stream: Area of cross section: A2 = 183 km2, Wetted perimeter: P2 = 51m, Manning’s
roughness coefficient: n2 = 0,025, Reduced level of water: = 78 m
Calculate the flood discharge. Neglect other losses. Note: If two sections have
Solution different conveyance factors K1
Upstream (u/s) hydraulic radius R1 = (180/50) = 3.6 m
and K2 with roughness n1 and n2
Downstream (d/s) hydraulic radius R2 = (183/51) = 3.59 m
respectively, then the equivalent
1  1 
Conveyance of u / s K1    A1 R1     180  3.6  14100
2/3

 0.03 
2/3
K between those sections can
 n1 
be calculated as:

Average conveyance for the reach  K1 K 2   14100  17170  15560 K  K 1  K 2 

Assume fall in energy head 78.30 – 78.0 = 0.30 m between the reach of 1 km
0.30
Sf   0.0003
1000

Disch arg e Q  K S f  15560  0.0003  269.5 m3 / sec .

Example #3: Redo the above example if the head loss between the two
section is to be considered
Q 269.5 269.5
V1    1.497 m / sec, and V2   1.473 m / sec .
A1 180 183

Fall of head  h1  h 

V 1
2
 V2
2
  78.3  78  1.497 2

 1.473 2
 0.3036 say 0.304 m
2
2g 19.62
Iteration
 0.304 
Taking fall energy head now as 0.304/1000 Q  15560    271.43
 1000 
271.43 271.4
V1   1.508 m / sec, and V2   1.483 m / sec
180 183

Fall of head  78.3  78.0  

1.508  1.4832
2

 0.3038
19.62

 0.3038 
Q  15560    271.2 m / sec
3

 1000 
The flood discharge during the event is 271.2 m3/sec.
Exercise

Exercise: Compute the discharge at downstream gauge site when the water gauges
at two sites 2350 m apart are 621.10 and 605.56 m. The area of cross-section at
gauge 605.56 is 66.98 m2 and the wetted perimeter is 70.75 m. Manning’s n =
0.035.