Short Questions (200 words each)

1. Briefly discuss Broca’s area.

Broca’s area is a part of the brain located in the frontal lobe, usually in the
left hemisphere. It plays a key role in the production of speech and language
processing. This area is responsible for organizing thoughts into
grammatically correct sentences and coordinating the motor functions
required for speech, such as controlling the lips, tongue, and vocal cords.
Damage to Broca’s area results in a condition called Broca’s aphasia, where
a person understands language but struggles to form proper sentences.
Their speech may be slow, effortful, and broken, though meaning is often
clear. For example, instead of saying “I am going to school,” someone with
Broca’s aphasia may say “go… school.” Despite these difficulties in speech
production, comprehension usually remains intact. Broca’s area works in
close connection with Wernicke’s area and other brain regions to allow fluent
communication. Modern neuroscience also shows that Broca’s area
contributes to functions beyond language, such as problem-solving and
action planning. In short, Broca’s area is essential for expressing thoughts
through structured speech, and its damage highlights the strong link
between brain structures and language abilities.

2. Briefly discuss Wernicke’s area.

Wernicke’s area is a brain region located in the posterior part of the left
temporal lobe, close to the auditory cortex. It plays a central role in language
comprehension. This area allows humans to understand spoken and written
language and to give meaning to words and sentences. Damage to
Wernicke’s area leads to Wernicke’s aphasia, a condition in which people can
produce fluent speech, but their sentences often lack meaning. For example,
a patient may speak long and grammatically correct sentences that are
nonsensical, such as “The clock runs fastly with the shoes.” Such individuals
often remain unaware of their errors because their comprehension is
impaired. Unlike Broca’s area, which focuses on speech production,
Wernicke’s area is specialized for understanding language and linking words
to concepts. It works together with Broca’s area through a bundle of nerve
fibers called the arcuate fasciculus, creating a strong connection between
comprehension and production. In short, Wernicke’s area ensures that
language has meaning. Without it, people may speak fluently but fail to
communicate effectively. This shows that understanding and producing
language depend on different but interconnected brain regions.

3. Explain Theoretical Assumptions behind Behaviorist Theory.

The Behaviorist Theory explains language learning as a process of habit formation. According
to this theory, language is learned in the same way as other habits are formed—through
repetition, reinforcement, and association. It emphasizes the role of the environment rather
than mental processes. Behaviorists argue that language learning is not an internal mental
activity but an observable change in behavior caused by external stimuli. For example, when a
child hears words spoken repeatedly, they try to imitate them. If their attempt is correct, they
receive positive reinforcement, such as praise, which motivates them to repeat the behavior.
Another assumption is that only human beings have the capacity to learn language. They
acquire language in small, separate units of habits instead of as a whole system. The theory also
highlights that practice and experience shape language development, not innate abilities. In short,
Behaviorist Theory treats language learning as a stimulus-response process, where reinforcement
plays the central role. Although later criticized for ignoring creativity and innate factors, these
assumptions strongly influenced early methods of teaching and child training.

4. Explain Ivan Pavlov’s experiment of Classical Conditioning.

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, discovered classical conditioning through his famous
experiment on dogs in 1903. Pavlov noticed that dogs naturally salivate when food is presented.
He then introduced a bell sound just before serving food. Initially, the bell alone caused no
response. However, after repeated pairings of the bell with food, the dogs began to salivate at the
sound of the bell alone, even when no food was given. In this process, food was the
unconditioned stimulus (naturally causing salivation), and salivation was the unconditioned
response. The bell, originally a neutral sound, became a conditioned stimulus after repeated
association with food, and salivation at the bell became a conditioned response. This
experiment demonstrated how a neutral stimulus can gain meaning through repeated pairing with
a natural stimulus. Pavlov’s work provided the foundation for understanding how behaviors are
learned through association. Applied to language learning, it suggests that children may associate
words (stimuli) with objects or actions and gradually develop speech habits. Thus, classical
conditioning explained the early steps of habit formation in both animals and humans.

5. Explain John B. Watson’s experiment of Classical Conditioning.

John B. Watson, an American psychologist and founder of Behaviorism, applied Pavlov’s ideas
to human behavior. His most famous experiment, conducted in 1920 with Rosalie Rayner,
involved a baby known as “Little Albert.” Initially, Albert showed no fear of a white rat.
Watson then paired the rat with a sudden loud noise, which naturally frightened Albert. After
several pairings, Albert began to cry and avoid the rat even when no noise was made.
Furthermore, his fear generalized to other furry objects, such as rabbits and coats. This
experiment demonstrated that emotions, like fear, could be conditioned through associations. In
Watson’s terms, the white rat became a conditioned stimulus, and Albert’s fear became the
conditioned response. This study showed that behavior could be shaped by environmental
experiences rather than inborn traits. Applied to language learning, Watson argued that children
learn to associate words with objects or actions through repeated stimulus-response patterns.
Although later criticized for ethical concerns and oversimplification, Watson’s experiment
highlighted the importance of conditioning in understanding human learning and behavior.

6. Explain Instrumental or Operant Conditioning proposed by B. F. Skinner.

B. F. Skinner expanded Behaviorism through operant conditioning, which explains how
behavior is shaped by its consequences. Unlike Pavlov’s classical conditioning, which focuses on
automatic responses, operant conditioning deals with voluntary behaviors. Skinner argued that
when a behavior is followed by a reward (reinforcer), it is more likely to be repeated.
Conversely, if it is followed by punishment, it becomes less likely. For example, if a child says
“milk” correctly and receives praise or the milk itself, they are encouraged to repeat the word.
This is positive reinforcement. If incorrect speech receives no response, it discourages the
mistake. Operant conditioning also involves punishment to reduce unwanted behaviors. Skinner
applied this theory to language learning, suggesting that children imitate adult speech, and their
correct utterances are reinforced, leading to habit formation. His famous “Skinner Box”
experiment with rats and pigeons demonstrated this principle. The animals learned to press levers
for food, showing how actions could be conditioned through reinforcement. Skinner’s operant
conditioning strongly influenced teaching methods such as the Audio-Lingual Method, where
repetition and reinforcement are central to learning language.

7. According to Behaviorist Theory, what is Positive Reinforcement? Explain with an

example.
Positive reinforcement is a concept from operant conditioning where a pleasant stimulus is
given after a desired behavior, making it more likely that the behavior will be repeated. In
language learning, this means rewarding a child for producing correct speech. For example, if a
child says “water” correctly when thirsty, and the parent responds with a smile, praise, or gives
water, the child feels encouraged to use the word again in the future. Here, the reinforcement
(praise or reward) strengthens the habit of correct speech. Another example could be in a
classroom where a teacher claps or gives stars when students answer correctly. This motivates
students to actively participate and repeat good performance. Positive reinforcement focuses on
encouraging correct behaviors instead of punishing mistakes. In the context of Behaviorist
Theory, it is an essential part of how children learn language, since frequent encouragement
motivates them to continue practicing and improving their speech.

8. According to Behaviorist Theory, what is Negative Reinforcement? Explain with an

example.
Negative reinforcement occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is removed after a desired
behavior, increasing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated. It is not the same as
punishment; rather, it encourages behavior by removing discomfort. For example, if a child
speaks correctly and the parent stops correcting or scolding them, the child feels relief and will
try to continue speaking correctly. Another classroom example is when a teacher stops giving
warnings once students start behaving properly. In language learning, if a child says a sentence
correctly after several failed attempts, the frustration or correction (unpleasant stimulus) is
removed. This motivates the child to use correct speech more often. Negative reinforcement is
about strengthening positive behaviors by taking away discomfort, unlike punishment, which
decreases unwanted actions. Within the Behaviorist Theory, it plays a crucial role in shaping
language habits, as children learn to avoid incorrect usage by seeking relief from negative
situations through correct speech.

9. According to Behaviorist Theory, what is Positive Punishment? Explain with an

example.
Positive punishment involves adding an unpleasant stimulus after an undesired behavior to
discourage it from happening again. In the context of language learning, if a child uses an
inappropriate or wrong utterance, the parent or teacher may scold them. The scolding is the
unpleasant stimulus, which discourages the child from repeating the wrong usage. Another
example could be in school, where a student who disrupts the class may be given extra
homework or detention. The addition of this negative experience makes the behavior less likely
to recur. Positive punishment is different from reinforcement because it aims to reduce or
eliminate a behavior rather than encourage it. In the Behaviorist Theory, punishment
complements reinforcement to guide children toward correct speech habits. However, many
critics argue that excessive punishment may harm motivation and creativity. Still, in controlled
situations, positive punishment can help reduce undesirable language habits.

10. According to Behaviorist Theory, what is Negative Punishment? Explain with an

example.
Negative punishment occurs when a desirable stimulus is taken away after an undesired
behavior, making the behavior less likely to be repeated. For example, if a child breaks class
rules, the teacher may stop giving them recess time. The removal of playtime (a desirable
activity) discourages the bad behavior. Similarly, in language learning, if a child refuses to speak
properly, parents may withhold attention or a small reward until correct speech is attempted. The
absence of the reward makes the child realize the importance of proper communication. Negative
punishment is not about giving pain but about removing something pleasant to correct behavior.
In Behaviorist Theory, it balances the system of reinforcement by discouraging incorrect
language habits. While effective in some cases, critics argue that punishment should not be the
primary method of teaching, as it may reduce a child’s confidence. However, when used
carefully, negative punishment can guide learners toward better speech patterns.
11. Explain the drawbacks of Behaviorist Theory.

Although Behaviorist Theory contributed greatly to early studies of learning, it has several
weaknesses. First, it ignores the innate abilities of humans. Children are not blank slates; they are
born with certain mental capacities. Second, the theory places too much importance on imitation
and reinforcement, treating learners as passive receivers of language. In reality, children are
creative—they often produce new sentences they have never heard before. Third, the approach is
mechanical, focusing only on stimulus-response patterns, while real communication is more
complex. Fourth, the theory fails to explain how children can understand or produce sentences
that they have never been taught or reinforced for. For example, children can say grammatically
correct sentences without direct modeling. Fifth, it does not account for problem-solving skills in
situations where clear stimuli are missing. Lastly, Behaviorism underestimates the speed of
language acquisition in young children. They acquire complex structures much faster than the
theory predicts. Because of these limitations, Behaviorist Theory was challenged by Chomsky’s
Innate Theory, which emphasized inborn linguistic knowledge. Still, behaviorist principles like
reinforcement remain useful in classrooms and child training.

12. Explain Theoretical Assumptions behind the Maturation Theory.

Maturation Theory, proposed by Eric Lenneberg, explains language acquisition in relation to

biological growth. It assumes that language develops like other natural abilities such as walking
or vision. According to the theory, children are born with the capacity for language, but this
ability is tied to brain maturation. A key assumption is that there is a critical period for language
learning. During this time, the brain is flexible (plastic) and able to acquire language easily. Once
this period passes, language learning becomes difficult or incomplete. Another assumption is that
the two hemispheres of the brain are initially equal in function. Over time, however,
lateralization occurs, meaning the left hemisphere takes control of language. After this process,
the right hemisphere loses its ability to fully handle language learning. Therefore, successful
language acquisition is only possible before puberty. Afterward, the ability declines sharply. In
short, the theory argues that language is a biological function determined by age, brain
development, and critical timing.

13. Discuss the evidence of ‘Childhood Aphasia’ in support of Maturation Theory. Explain with
examples.

Research on childhood aphasia provides strong evidence for the Critical Period Hypothesis
(CPH). Aphasia is a language disorder caused by brain damage, usually in the left hemisphere.
Lenneberg observed that children recover from aphasia more easily than adults. In adults, left-
hemisphere damage often causes permanent speech loss. However, children’s brains are more
flexible. If one side is injured, the other hemisphere can take over language functions. For
example, children with damage to the left hemisphere were sometimes able to regain nearly
normal speech, while adults with similar damage often remained aphasic. Even in extreme cases
where the left hemisphere was removed surgically, children could relearn language almost fully
if the surgery occurred before puberty. This recovery shows that the young brain has plasticity
during the critical period. In contrast, after the brain matures and lateralization is complete,
recovery is limited. Thus, studies on childhood aphasia strongly support Maturation Theory by
proving that the ability to learn or recover language depends heavily on biological development
and age.

14. Discuss the evidence of ‘Down Syndrome Cases’ in support of Maturation Theory. Explain
with examples.

Down Syndrome is a genetic disorder often linked with mental retardation and delayed language
development. Lenneberg and colleagues studied children with Down Syndrome to test the
Critical Period Hypothesis. Their three-year study of 54 individuals revealed that language
development in these children continued only up to puberty. After that, progress stopped. For
instance, children below 14 years could make noticeable improvements in vocabulary and
communication. However, older individuals with Down Syndrome showed little or no further
development. This finding supports Maturation Theory, which states that the ability to acquire
language declines after the critical period due to brain maturation and lateralization. The
evidence suggests that even with special conditions like Down Syndrome, age strongly
determines how much language can be learned. In short, Down Syndrome cases illustrate that the
brain’s biological clock limits language learning, reinforcing the idea that successful acquisition
is restricted to early childhood.

15. Discuss the evidence of ‘Second Language Acquisition’ in support of Maturation Theory.
Explain with examples.

Studies on second language learning provide strong evidence for the Critical Period Hypothesis.
Penfield and Roberts (1959) found that children are far better at acquiring a second language
than adults. Young learners often reach native-like fluency, while older learners rarely do. For
example, immigrant children who move to a new country before puberty usually speak the
second language fluently, with accurate grammar and pronunciation. In contrast, adults learning
under similar conditions often retain a foreign accent and face difficulties with grammar.
According to Maturation Theory, this happens because younger learners are still within their
critical period, when the brain is flexible. After puberty, the brain loses plasticity due to
lateralization, making it harder to achieve full mastery. This does not mean adults cannot learn
new languages, but their learning is slower and less complete. Therefore, second language
acquisition research supports the idea that age is a crucial factor in language learning.

16. Discuss the evidence of ‘Cases of Childhood Extreme Deprivation’ in support of Maturation
Theory. Explain with examples.
Cases of extreme deprivation, often involving feral children, provide dramatic evidence for the
Critical Period Hypothesis. One famous case is Isabelle (1930s), who lived in isolation with her
deaf mother until age six. After receiving training, she learned language normally because she
was still within the critical period. Another case is Genie (1970s), who was kept in isolation
without language exposure until age 14. Unlike Isabelle, Genie failed to acquire normal grammar
and could only learn basic vocabulary. Her case suggested that after puberty, language
acquisition becomes nearly impossible. Similarly, the case of E.M., a deaf child isolated from
language until adolescence, also showed severe limitations in learning grammar despite later
training. These examples confirm that if children miss exposure to language during the critical
period, they cannot fully acquire it later. Thus, deprivation studies strongly support Maturation
Theory by proving that age sets strict biological limits on language learning.

17. Discuss the evidence of ‘Deaf children with hearing parents’ in support of Maturation
Theory. Explain with examples.

Deaf children born to hearing parents often face linguistic deprivation because they are not
exposed to sign language early in life. Research shows that these children struggle with language
if they begin learning sign language after puberty. For example, studies found that older deaf
children enrolling in deaf schools could build vocabulary but had poor grammar, similar to
Genie’s case. One case is Chelsea, a deaf woman who only received hearing aids at age 31. She
learned many words but could not develop proper grammar, proving that starting beyond the
critical period limited her language ability. Another case, E.M., a deaf boy from Mexico, also
struggled with tenses despite exposure in adolescence. These findings confirm that language
must be acquired early, when the brain is most sensitive. If missed, later acquisition remains
incomplete. Therefore, deaf children with hearing parents provide strong evidence for the
Critical Period Hypothesis, supporting Maturation Theory.

18. Differentiate between Critical Period Hypothesis and Sensitive Period Hypothesis.

The Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) argues that there is a strict, fixed window for language
learning, usually ending at puberty. If language is not learned during this time, it becomes very
difficult or even impossible. For example, Genie’s case showed that missing the critical period
prevented full language development. In contrast, the Sensitive Period Hypothesis (SPH)
suggests that language can still be learned after childhood, but with reduced efficiency. It does
not see the boundary as absolute. According to SPH, learning is easier during early years but still
possible later, though learners may face challenges with pronunciation or grammar. For instance,
adults can learn second languages successfully, but usually less fluently than children. In short,
CPH views the time limit as strict and final, while SPH allows for gradual decline in ability.
Both agree that early exposure is best, but SPH is more flexible than CPH.
19. Discuss View of Knowledge according to Social Constructivism theory.

According to Social Constructivism, knowledge is not individually built but co-constructed

through interaction. Lev Vygotsky emphasized that learning always begins in a social context
before becoming part of individual understanding. For example, children first learn concepts by
communicating with adults and peers, then internalize them. Language and culture are essential
in shaping how people perceive reality. For instance, a person does not just see a round object
with two hands; they recognize it as a clock because of shared cultural knowledge. Thus,
knowledge is socially constructed through language, cultural tools, and group practices. Unlike
Piaget, who stressed individual cognitive development, Vygotsky argued that human thinking
cannot be separated from the community and culture in which it develops. In short, Social
Constructivism sees knowledge as socially and culturally shared, not just individually
discovered.

20. Discuss View of Learning according to Social Constructivism theory.

Social Constructivism views learning as a collaborative process rather than an individual effort.
Vygotsky introduced the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which explains
how learners can achieve more with the help of teachers or peers than they can alone. The actual
level of development represents what a learner can do independently, while the potential level
represents what they can do with guidance. For example, a child may not be able to solve a math
problem alone but can succeed with a teacher’s help. Over time, this guidance helps the learner
internalize the skill. Learning, therefore, happens first at the social level (interaction with others)
and later at the individual level (internal understanding). In short, Social Constructivism
emphasizes that real learning depends on collaboration, dialogue, and guidance within a
supportive community.

21. Discuss View of Motivation according to Social Constructivism theory.

In Social Constructivism, motivation is seen as both intrinsic and extrinsic. On one hand,
learners are internally motivated by their own curiosity and desire to understand. On the other
hand, because learning is a social activity, external motivation also plays an important role.
Rewards, recognition, and encouragement from peers and teachers can inspire learners. For
example, in a group project, students may feel motivated not only to learn for themselves but
also to contribute to the success of their team. Vygotsky emphasized that motivation grows
stronger when learners are actively engaged in meaningful social interactions. Unlike
Behaviorism, which sees motivation mainly as response to rewards or punishments, Social
Constructivism highlights that learners are driven by both personal goals and social belonging.
Thus, motivation arises from a combination of inner drive and social influences.
22. Discuss Implications for learning of Social Constructivism theory.

Social Constructivism has important implications for education. It emphasizes collaborative

learning, where students work together in groups, sharing ideas and solving problems
collectively. Teachers act not as dictators of knowledge but as guides and facilitators, structuring
discussions and supporting learners within their Zone of Proximal Development. For example, in
group investigations, students research a topic together and present findings to the class. This
process encourages teamwork, peer support, and deeper understanding. The theory also values
discussion, questioning, and interaction as essential teaching methods. Teachers are encouraged
to connect new information with students’ cultural and social experiences, making learning
meaningful. Motivation is enhanced when learners feel part of a community rather than working
in isolation. In short, Social Constructivism suggests that the classroom should be an active,
cooperative space where students build knowledge together under teacher guidance.

Broad Question 1

Explain the idea of Universal Grammar (UG) and Language Acquisition Device (LAD) in Innate
Theory. Elaborate on the evidences in support of Universal Grammar. Discuss the
counterarguments and criticisms on Innate Theory.

Introduction

The Innate Theory of language acquisition, proposed by Noam Chomsky in 1959, challenged the
Behaviorist view of language as a mere habit. Chomsky argued that children are not passive
learners but are biologically programmed to acquire language. According to him, humans are
born with an inbuilt mechanism called the Language Acquisition Device (LAD), which contains
a set of grammatical rules known as Universal Grammar (UG). This theory suggests that
language learning is natural, quick, and possible for every human child.

Universal Grammar and LAD

The LAD is an internal mechanism that allows children to identify patterns in the language they
hear. It helps them form grammatical rules without formal teaching. Within the LAD lies
Universal Grammar (UG), which refers to the basic principles and structures common to all
languages. For example, every language has nouns, verbs, and rules for forming questions. While
languages differ in surface forms, their deep structures follow shared patterns. This explains why
children across cultures learn language in similar stages, such as babbling, one-word speech, and
two-word combinations.

Evidence Supporting UG

1. Poverty of the Stimulus: Children learn complex grammar despite limited input. Parents rarely
correct grammar, yet children develop accurate structures.

2. Creativity of Language: Children often produce sentences they have never heard before, such
as “I goed there,” showing they apply internal rules, not just imitation.

3. Critical Period Hypothesis: Eric Lenneberg argued that language must be acquired before
puberty, supporting the idea of biological programming.

4. Language Universals: Across cultures, languages share common features such as word
categories and structural rules, proving the existence of UG.

5. Species Specificity: Only humans can acquire complex language, which highlights the
uniqueness of UG.

Counterarguments and Criticisms

Despite its influence, the Innate Theory faces strong criticisms:

Lack of Clarity: Scholars disagree on what exactly UG contains. Some argue it has hundreds of
principles, while others suggest it may be as simple as a single operation.

Overemphasis on Biology: Critics claim the theory ignores the role of social interaction,
environment, and culture in language learning.

Cross-Linguistic Diversity: Linguists like Evans and Levinson argue that languages differ so
widely that it is hard to claim universal grammar rules.

Empirical Challenges: Some children fail to learn grammar even with exposure, suggesting that
environment and quality of input are also crucial.

Alternative Theories: Social Constructivism and Cognitive theories highlight learning through
communication, culture, and usage rather than innate devices.

Conclusion

The concepts of LAD and UG revolutionized our understanding of language acquisition by

proving that children are not passive imitators but active learners with inborn abilities. The
theory explains why children learn language so quickly and why all humans share the ability to
communicate. However, its weaknesses—such as lack of agreement on UG’s content and neglect
of environmental factors—have drawn criticism. Despite debates, Chomsky’s Innate Theory
remains one of the most influential explanations, laying the foundation for modern linguistics
and psycholinguistics.

Broad Question 2
What are the Theoretical Assumptions behind Maturation Theory? Elaborate on the evidences in
support of and against Critical Period Hypothesis.

Introduction

The Maturation Theory, proposed by Eric Lenneberg in 1967, explains language acquisition as a
biological process tied to human growth. Building on Chomsky’s Innate Theory, Lenneberg
emphasized that language learning depends on the brain’s maturation. Central to this theory is
the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH), which argues that humans can acquire language fully only
within a limited time frame—childhood to puberty. After this period, the ability declines
drastically. This idea remains one of the most debated topics in linguistics and psychology.

Theoretical Assumptions of Maturation Theory

1. Language as a Biological Function: Language development is similar to other natural abilities,

such as walking.

2. Critical Period for Learning: There is a specific time span—roughly from early childhood to
puberty—when the brain is most capable of acquiring language.

3. Brain Lateralization: Initially, both hemispheres of the brain can handle language. Around age
two, lateralization begins, and by puberty, the left hemisphere becomes dominant for language.
After this, the right hemisphere cannot fully take over, limiting new language learning.
4. Loss of Plasticity: As the brain matures, it loses flexibility, making language acquisition more
difficult in adulthood.

Evidence Supporting CPH

1. Childhood Aphasia: Children with brain damage often recover language abilities, while adults
rarely do. This shows that the young brain is flexible during the critical period.

2. Down Syndrome Cases: Lenneberg’s study of 54 children showed that language progress
stopped after puberty, supporting the time-bound nature of learning.

3. Second Language Acquisition: Research shows that children exposed to a second language
before puberty achieve near-native fluency, while adults often struggle with accent and grammar.

4. Extreme Deprivation Cases: The case of Isabelle, who learned language after isolation at age
six, shows recovery within the critical period. In contrast, Genie, isolated until 14, never fully
acquired grammar, proving limits beyond puberty.

5. Deaf Children with Hearing Parents: Those deprived of sign language early often fail to
master grammar later, even if they acquire vocabulary, showing that timing is crucial.

Counterarguments and Criticisms

Despite strong evidence, CPH has weaknesses:

Unclear Age Boundaries: Researchers disagree on when the critical period begins and ends.
Some suggest as early as age five, while others propose it extends beyond puberty.

Sensitive Period Hypothesis: Many scholars now argue for a “sensitive period,” where language
learning is easier during childhood but still possible later, though less efficient.

Adult Success Cases: Studies (e.g., Birdsong, 1992) show that adults can achieve near-native
competence, especially in second language learning, challenging the strictness of CPH.

Other Influences: Factors such as motivation, exposure, and social environment also affect
learning, which CPH tends to overlook.

Case Study Limitations: Feral children like Genie may have suffered from abuse or brain
damage, not just late exposure, which complicates conclusions.

Conclusion

Maturation Theory and the Critical Period Hypothesis provide a biological explanation for why
children learn languages so quickly and why adults face difficulties. Evidence from brain studies,
language disorders, and deprivation cases strongly supports the theory. However,
counterarguments highlight its rigid boundaries and neglect of environmental and social factors.
A balanced view suggests that while childhood is the most favorable time for language learning,
motivated adults can also succeed. Thus, the theory remains influential but requires refinement
through modern research.
Broad Question 3

What are the Theoretical Assumptions behind Behaviorist Theory? Explain different types of
Behavioral Learning. Discuss the drawbacks of the theory.

Introduction

The Behaviorist Theory of language learning, developed in the early 20th century by
psychologists such as John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner, views language as a learned behavior
rather than an innate ability. Rooted in the principles of stimulus–response psychology, the
theory dominated educational practice for decades. It emphasizes the role of the environment,
habit formation, and reinforcement in shaping how humans acquire and use language. Although
later challenged by Chomsky’s Innate Theory, Behaviorism remains important for understanding
certain aspects of learning.

Theoretical Assumptions of Behaviorist Theory

1. Language as Habit Formation: Language is acquired like any other habit—through repetition
and practice.

2. Learning through Experience: Children learn language by interacting with their environment,
not through innate abilities.

3. External Process: Language acquisition is an observable change in behavior caused by

external stimuli, not mental processes.
4. Imitation and Reinforcement: Children imitate adult speech, and correct responses are
reinforced through rewards or approval.

5. Human Specificity: Only humans can acquire complex language, learned as separate habits
rather than as an integrated system.

Types of Behavioral Learning

1. Classical Conditioning

Discovered by Ivan Pavlov, this type of learning occurs when a neutral stimulus is repeatedly
paired with a natural stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiment, dogs learned to salivate at the sound of a
bell when it was associated with food. Applied to language, children may learn to connect words
with objects or actions through repeated association.

2. Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning

Developed by B. F. Skinner, this model focuses on voluntary behaviors shaped by consequences.

If a child says a word correctly and receives praise (positive reinforcement), the behavior is
repeated. If mistakes bring no reward or correction (negative reinforcement), the child avoids
repeating them. Punishments also discourage undesirable behaviors. Skinner’s famous “Skinner
Box” experiments with animals demonstrated how reinforcement and punishment guide learning.

Drawbacks of Behaviorist Theory

Despite its contributions, Behaviorism has significant limitations:

Ignores Innate Abilities: The theory fails to account for children’s natural ability to acquire
language without explicit teaching.

Overemphasis on Imitation: Children are not passive imitators; they often produce new, creative
sentences they have never heard before.

Mechanical Nature: It treats language learning as a rigid stimulus–response process, ignoring the
complexity of communication.

Fails to Explain Novel Sentences: Children understand and generate sentences beyond their
input, something Behaviorism cannot explain.

Limited Problem-Solving Skills: In situations without clear stimuli, the theory cannot explain
how learners respond.

Underestimates Speed of Learning: Children acquire grammar much faster than simple habit
formation predicts.

Conclusion

The Behaviorist Theory provided a systematic explanation of learning and strongly influenced
early teaching practices, such as the Audio-Lingual Method. By highlighting reinforcement and
environmental input, it offered practical methods for child-rearing and classroom instruction.
However, its neglect of creativity, innate factors, and cognitive processes limits its explanatory
power. Later theories, especially Chomsky’s Innate Theory, corrected these gaps. Even so,
Behaviorist principles like repetition, reinforcement, and habit-building continue to be valuable
tools in education, especially for beginners and simpler learning tasks.