Topic-05

Q.1. Define the terms frequency, frequency spectrum, bandwidth of a signal. 2016,14,
13,11

Frequency describes the number of waves that pass a fixed place in a given amount of time.
So if the time it takes for a wave to pass is is 1/2 second, the frequency is 2 per second. If it
takes 1/100 of an hour, the frequency is 100 per hour.

Frequency spectrum:
The frequency spectrum of an electrical signal is the distribution of the amplitudes and phases
of each frequency component against frequency.
The use of higher frequencies is desirable because of the smaller antenna size, the improved
directional effect of the antennae, and the broader available frequency
Bandwidth is measured as the amount of data that can be transferred from one point to another
within a network in a specific amount of time. Typically, bandwidth is expressed as a bitrate
and measured in bits per second (bps).

Q.2. What is the relationship between a signal spectrum and bandwidth. 2014/ Derive a
relation between data rate and bandwidth. / Describe Shanon capacity formula.2017,16

The answer is in the famous Shannon-Hartley theorem for the capacity of a noisy, band-limited channel:
C = B log2(1+S/N)
where C is the channel capacity in bits/sec, B is the channel bandwidth in Hz, and S/N is the received
signal-to-noise ratio.
This sets an absolute upper limit on the rate at which you can reliably send data; if you send faster, you
will necessarily have errors that you cannot correct without dropping your data rate below the channel
capacity.
Q.3. Differentiate between guided media and unguided media. 2016,15,14, 10

Difference between Guided and Unguided Media

S.No. Guided Media Unguided Media

1. In guided media, the signal energy In unguided media, the signal energy
communicates via wires. communicates through the air.

2. Guided media is generally preferred Unguided media is generally preferred for

when we want to execute direct radio broadcasting in all directions.
communication.

3. The guided media formed the different The unguided media formed the
network topologies. continuous network topologies.

4. Here, the signals are in the state of Here, the signals are in the state of
current and voltage. electromagnetic waves.

5. In the case of guided media, the In the case of unguided media, it is not
transmission capacity can be boosted by feasible to acquire more capacity.
counting more wires.

6. Open Wire, Twisted Pair, Coaxial Cable, Microwave Transmission, Radio

and Optical Fibre are the different kinds Transmission, and Infrared Transmission
of guided media. are the types of unguided media.
Q.4. What is Channel Capacity? Describe Nyquist Sampling theorem. 17,15,13,12,11

Channel Capacity
The channel capacity, C, is defined to be the maximum rate at which information can be
transmitted through a channel.

Statement of Nyquist sampling theorem: A continuous time signal can be represented in its
samples and can be recovered back when sampling frequency fs is greater than or equal to the
twice the highest frequency component of message signal. i. e.

fs≥2fm.
In the sampling process, while converting the analog signal to a discrete version, the chosen
sampling signal is the most important factor. And what are the reasons to get distortions in the
sampling output while conversion of analog to discrete? These types of questions can be
answered by the “Nyquist sampling theorem”.
Nyquist sampling theorem states that the sampling signal frequency should be double the input
signal’s highest frequency component to get distortion less output signal. As per the scientist’s
name, Harry Nyquist this is named as Nyquist sampling theorem.
Fs=2Fm
Sampling Output Waveforms
The sampling process requires two input signals. The first input signal is an analog signal and
another input is sampling pulse or equidistance pulse train signal. And the output which is then
sampled signal comes from the multiplier block. The sampling process output waveforms
areshown below.
Q.06.Describe the relation between data rate bandwidth. 2017,2016

Bandwidth means the maximum amount of data that can be sent from point A to pint B in a
specific period of time. So, basically it means how many bits of information can be transferred
across that time period. For example, a gigabit Ethernet connection has a bandwidth of 1,000
Mbps, or 125 megabytes per second. This means that this network can send 100 Mbps. Data
rate refers to the number of bits per second transferred across a network. For example, a hard
disk drive may have a maximum data transfer rate of 400 to 500 Mbps, while your network
ISP may provide an Internet connection (wired or wireless) with a maximum data rate of only
2 to 3 Mbps.

Q.07. What are the reasons / Advantages a large block of data break into
smaller blocks and transmit in many frameaas? 2016

Framing is a point-to-point connection between two devices that consists of a wire in which
data is transmitted as a stream of bits.

• Frames are used continuously in the process of time-division multiplexing.

• It facilitates a form to the sender for transmitting a group of valid bits to a
receiver.
• Frames also contain headers that include information such as error-checking
codes.
• A Frame relay, token ring, ethernet, and other types of data link layer methods
have their frame structures.
• Frames allow the data to be divided into multiple recoverable parts that can be
inspected further for corruption.
• It provides a flow control mechanism that manages the frame flow such that the
data congestion does not occur on slow receivers due to fast senders.
• It provides reliable data transfer services between the layers of the peer network.
Q.8. Define: Data Rate, Buad Rate, Cellular Communication, VSAT,
Attenuation. 17,16,15,14,13,12

Data Rate:
The speed at which data is transferred within the computer or between a peripheral device
and the computer, measured in bytes per second. See transfer rate and space/time.

Buad Rate
Both Bit rate and Baud rate are generally used in data communication to measure the speed of
data. Bit rate is the transmission of a number of bits per second. On the other hand, the Baud
rate is defined as the number of signal units per second.

Cellular Communication( Short Note)

Cellular communication is a form of communication technology that enables the use

of mobile phones. A mobile phone is a bidirectional radio that enables simultaneous
transmission and reception. Cellular communication is based on the geographic division of the
communication coverage area into cells, and within cells. Each cell is allocated a given number
of frequencies (or channels) that allow a large number of subscribers to conduct conversations
simultaneously.
The common element of all generations of cellular communication technologies is the use of
defined radiofrequencies (RF), as well as frequency reuse. This enables the provision of a
service to a large number of subscribers while reducing the number of channels (band width).
It also enables the creation of wide communication networks by fully integrating the advanced
capabilities of the mobile phone. The increase in demand and consumption, as well as the
development of different types of services, accelerated the rapid technological development of
advanced cellular communication networks, together with unceasing improvement of the
cellular devices themselves.
VSAT( Short Note)

A very small aperture terminal (VSAT) is a small-sized earth station used in the
transmit/receive of data, voice and video signals over a satellite communication network,
excluding broadcast television. A VSAT consists of two parts: a transceiver placed outdoors in
direct line of sight to the satellite, and a device that is placed indoors to interface the transceiver
with the end user’s communications device, such as a PC. The transceiver receives or sends a
signal to a satellite transponder in the sky. The satellite sends and receives signals from a
ground station computer that acts as a hub for the system.
Each end user is interconnected with the hub station via the satellite, forming a star topology.
The hub controls the entire operation of the network. For one end user to communicate with
another, each transmission must first go to the hub station, which then retransmits it via the
satellite to the other end user’s VSAT. VSAT data throughput speeds have increased
significantly throughout the years and now can provide multimegabit service in downstream
and upstream. Antenna/dish sizes usually range from 1.2 meters to approximately 3 meters in
diameter.
Attenuation:
Attenuation is a general term that refers to any reduction in the strength of a signal. Attenuation
occurs with any type of signal, whether digital or analog. Sometimes called loss, attenuation is
a natural consequence of signal transmission over long distances.
In conventional and fiber optic cables, attenuation is specified in terms of the number of
decibels per foot, 1,000 feet, kilometer, or mile. The less the attenuation per unit distance, the
more efficient the cable.

Q.09. What is transmission impairment? Explain the types of transmission impairments.

2017,15,14,13,12

Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection causes
signal impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same
as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is received.
The three different causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

Attenuation:

Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a
medium, it loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. That is why
a wire carrying electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the electrical energy
in the signal is converted to heat. To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify
the signal. The following figure shows the effect of attenuation and amplification.
Distortion:
Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape. Distortion can occur in a composite
signal made of different frequencies. Each signal component has its own propagation speed
(see the next section) through a medium and, therefore, its own delay in arriving at the final
destination. Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is not exactly the
same as the period duration. In other words, signal components at the receiver have phases
different from what they had at the sender. The shape of the composite signal is therefore not
the same. The following figure shows the effect of distortion on a composite signal.

Noise:

Noise is another cause of impairment. Several types of noise, such as thermal noise, induced
noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise, may corrupt the signal. Thermal noise is the random motion
of electrons in a wire which creates an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter.
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances.

These devices act as a sending antenna, and the transmission medium acts as the receiving
antenna. Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other. One wire acts as a sending antenna
and the other as the receiving antenna. Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a
very short time) that comes from power lines, lightning, and so on. The following figure shows
the effect of noise on a signal.

Q.10. What is SONET? Describe the propagation of light through optical fiber. 2016,11

SONET stands for Synchronous Optical Network. SONET is a communication protocol,

developed by Bellcore – that is used to transmit a large amount of data over relatively large
distances using optical fibre. With SONET, multiple digital data streams are transferred at
the same time over the optical fibre.

Key Points:
• Developed by Bellcore
• Used in North America
• Standardized by ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
• Similar to SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) which is used in Europe and
Japan. a

Why SONET is called Synchronous Network?

A single clock (Primary Reference Clock, PRC) handles the timing of transmission of signals
& equipments across the entire network.

SONET Network Elements:

1. STS ( Synchronous Transport Signal) Multiplexer:

• Performs multiplexing of signals
• Converts electrical signal to optical signal
 •
2. STS ( Synchronous Transport Signal) Demultiplexer:
• Performs demultiplexing of signals
• Converts optical signal to electrical signal

3. Regenerator:
It is a repeater, that takes an optical signal and regenerates (increases the
strength) it.

4. Add/Drop Multiplexer:
It allows to add signals coming from different sources into a given path or
remove a signal.

Why SONET is used?

SONET is used to convert an electrical signal into an optical signal so that it can travel longer
distances.

The propagation of light through optical fiber:

We know that the optical fibers are an extremely thin and long strand of very fine quality glass
or quartz coated within a thin layer of material of refractive index less than the refractive index
of the strand. It works on the principle of TIR (total internal reflection).

In optical fibers, propagation of light takes place due to total internal reflection. When light
falls one end of the optical fiber; it gets refracted into the fiber. The refracted ray of light falls
on the interface separating the fiber and coating an angle which is greater than the critical angle.
Thus the TIR can take place. The light travels the entire length of the fiber and arrives at other
ends of the fiber without any loss in its intensity even if the fiber is rounded and curved.
Here the thin fiber of optical fiber is called core. The coating or surrounding layer of optical
fiber is known as cladding. The refractive index of the typical core of the fiber is 1.458 and that
of cladding 1.440. The sleeve containing a bundle of optical fibers is called a light pipe.

Additional information: Here the phenomenon of TIR is defined as when a ray of light
travelling from denser to a rarer medium is sent back to the same denser medium if it strikes
the interface of the rare and denser medium at an angle greater than the critical angle. It has
two necessary conditions:

i) The light must travel from denser to rarer.

ii) The angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.

Note: There are two limitations that an optical fiber has. The first one is the actual loss of light
as it travels through the fiber and the other one is a maximum limit of the bandwidth of the
signals that can be carried.

Q.11. Write down the Advantages of optical fiber over twisted pair and coaxial calbe.
2014,16

The advantages of optical fibre over twisted pair cable and coaxial cable are given
below:

• Wide frequency band and large transmission capacity

• The transmission loss is low, and the fiber transmission loss does not need to
introduce an equalizer, or worry about the temperature.

• Light weight, small diameter and easy installation.

• Anti-interference ability, the optical fiber is using light to conduct the signal will not
be disturbed by the electromagnetic field.

• High fidelity

• Stable transmission, long service life, and small probability of release failure

• Costs are gradually decreasing