Introduction to Mobile Computing

Subject: MCC
Department: Computer Engineering
Semester: 6
Course Code: CSC603
Assistant Professor.Ms. Parul Jain
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
• The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all
types of EM radiation. Radiation is energy that travels and
spreads out as it goes – the visible light that comes from a
lamp in your house and the radio waves that come from a
radio station are two types of electromagnetic radiation.
• The other types of EM radiation that make up the
electromagnetic spectrum are microwaves, infrared
light, ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma-rays.
• Radio transmission can take place using many
different frequency bands.
• Figure below gives a rough overview of the
frequency spectrum that can be used for data
transmission.
 Antenna
• Antennas use appropriate conductors, such as wires or coaxial
cables, from or to which electromagnetic waves are sent or
received to and from the space. The isotropic radiator works as an
antenna in theory.
• The radiation pattern has symmetry in all directions, which is a
Two-Dimensional (2D) cross section of the real 3D radiator, as
shown in Figure below:
• Two collinear conductors of equal length form the dipole
and a small feeding gap separates the conductors.
• Marconi antenna is another name of this kind of
antenna, which can be efficiently used if the length of
the dipole is reduced by half, i.e., lamda/4.
• Omnidirectional pattern of simple antennas is less suitable in case
an antenna is positioned between two buildings. To meet challenges
of such kinds, we use directional antennas that could transmit and
receive signals to and from specific directions, as Figure below.
• The radiation pattern of a directional antenna is shown with a
cross-sectional, 2D view of all planes; the main lobe of the
directional antenna, as seen in the figure, is directed toward the X-
axis.
• We can combine a number of directional antennas in a single pole;
the combined configuration is known as sectorized antenna, which
consists of a specific number of sectors (three, six, etc.) formed by
dividing a cell. This creation of sectors enables reuse of the
frequency.
• The cross-sectional 2D view of radiation patterns exhibited by
sectorized antennas is as shown below.
 Multiplexing
• Multiplexing is a method that can be used to combine multiple
analog or digital signals into one signal over a shared medium.
The main aim of using this method is to share a scarce
resource.
• Multiplexing is a technique that allows multiple simultaneous
analogs or digital signal transmission across a single data link.
• The main motive behind the development of Multiplexing is to
provide simple and easy communication, proper resource
sharing and its utilization. This is the best way to utilize and
share a limited resource equally among multiple devices.
• For wireless communication, multiplexing can be carried out in
four dimensions: space, time, frequency, and code.
• Frequency division multiplexing or FDM is inherently an analog
technology. As the name specifies, in Frequency Division Multiplexing,
the frequency dimension spectrum is split into smaller frequency bands. It
combines several smaller distinct frequency ranges signals into one
medium and sends them over a single medium. In FDM, the signals are
electrical signals.
• FDM's most common applications are a traditional radio or television
broadcasting, mobile or satellite stations, or cable television.
• For example: In cable TV, you can see that only one cable is reached to
the customer's locality, but the service provider can send multiple
television channels or signals simultaneously over that cable to all
customers without any interference. The customers have to tune to the
appropriate frequency (channel) to access the required signal.
• In FDM, several frequency bands can work simultaneously without any
time constraint.
• The Time Division Multiplexing or TDM is a digital or analog
technology (in rare cases) that uses time, instead of space or
frequency, to separate the different data streams. It is used for
a specific amount of time in which the whole spectrum is used.
• The Time frames of the same intervals are divided so that you
can access the entire frequency spectrum at that time frame.
• Here a channel is given the whole bandwidth for a certain
amount of time i.e., all senders use the same frequency but at
different points in time.
• To avoid this type of interference, precise synchronization
between different senders is necessary. This is clearly a
disadvantage, as all senders need precise clocks or,
alternatively, a way has to be found to distribute a
synchronization signal to all senders.
• The Code Division Multiplexing or CDM allots a
unique code to every channel so that each of these
channels can use the same spectrum simultaneously
at the same time.
• All channels use the same frequency at the same
time for transmission. Separation is now achieved by
assigning each channel its own ‘code’.
• The main advantage of CDM for wireless
transmission is that it gives good protection against
interference and tapping.
• Different codes have to be assigned, but code space
is huge compared to the frequency space. Assigning
individual codes to each sender does not usually
cause problems.
 Spread Spectrum
• In this technique, the frequency of the transmitted signal, i.e.,
an electrical signal, electromagnetic signal, or acoustic signal,
is deliberately varied and generates a much greater bandwidth
than the signal would have if its frequency were not varied.
• In other words, "Spread Spectrum is a technique in which the
transmitted signals of specific frequencies are varied slightly to
obtain greater bandwidth as compared to initial bandwidth."
• Now, spread spectrum technology is widely used in radio
signals transmission because it can easily reduce noise and
other signal issues.
• Spread spectrum signals are distributed over a wide range of
frequencies and then collected and received back to the
receiver. On the other hand, wide-band signals are noise-like
and challenging to detect.
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
(DSSS)
• The Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) is a
spread-spectrum modulation technique primarily used
to reduce overall signal interference in
telecommunication.
• The Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum modulation
makes the transmitted signal wider in bandwidth than
the information bandwidth.
• In DSSS, the message bits are modulated by a bit
sequencing process known as a spreading sequence.
This spreading-sequence bit is known as a chip. It has a
much shorter duration (larger bandwidth) than the
original message bits.
• In Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum or DSSS
technique, the data that needs to be transmitted is split
into smaller blocks.
• After that, each data block is attached with a high data
rate bit sequence and is transmitted from the sender
end to the receiver end.
• Data blocks are recombined again to generate the
original data at the receiver's end, which was sent by
the sender, with the help of the data rate bit sequence.
• If somehow data is lost, then data blocks can also be
recovered with those data rate bits.
• The main advantage of splitting the data into smaller
blocks is that it reduces the noise and unintentional
inference.
 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)
• The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS allows us
to utilize bandwidth properly and maximum. In this technique,
the whole available bandwidth is divided into many channels
and spread between channels, arranged continuously.
• The frequency slots are selected randomly, and frequency
signals are transmitted according to their occupancy.
• The transmitters and receivers keep on hopping on channels
available for a particular amount of time in milliseconds.
• So, you can see that it implements the frequency division
multiplexing and time-division multiplexing simultaneously in
FHSS.
• The Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum or FHSS can also be
classified into two types:
• Slow Hopping: In slow hopping, multiple bits are transmitted on a
specific frequency or same frequency.
• Fast Hopping: In fast hopping, individual bits are split and then
transmitted on different frequencies.
 Co-Channel Interference
• Cellular systems are based on the Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) technique that
involves distribution of different frequencies over different geographical locations, which
are clusters of small cells. Clusters and cells are assigned individual frequencies--the
distribution of frequencies is done at the cluster level.
• If, in an area, a network signal is modified or disrupted between a receiver and a
transmitter for a given frequency channel, the phenomenon that occurs is known as
interference. Co-channel interference is an interference that results from frequency
overlapping between two transmitters that are using the same frequency channel.
• An important point about FDM is that it provides the scope for frequency reuse.
• In case frequencies are allocated without properly analysing the traffic, assessing the
environment, and planning, the network is likely to face the problem of interference. Cells
separated by a distance from another use definite radio frequencies, which an combined
in a set that is allocated to each individual cluster.
• A cluster assigns separate frequency channel for each cell in a cluster but reused
frequencies may cause interference in case of an overlap of boundaries of two cells
using the same frequency channel. Interference of this type is known as co-channel
interference.
• Causes of Co-Channel Interference
• The main reasons include
1. Poor planning for frequency distribution
2. Frequency overlap
3. Adverse conditions of weather, etc.