READING TO UNDERSTAND

TEXTS
What to do in general?
Read the following paragraphs and specify points
such as:
- The main idea or topic
- The supporting ideas or illustrative examples
- State the conclusion(s) if there is(are) any
- Ask questions to inquiry about the content of the
reading passage
Designers of any stress-bearing structure, from a bracket to
a suspension bridge, must accurately calculate the stresses
they expect the structure to bear. In addition, they must
have a good understanding of the properties of materials.
In the past, miscalculation of stresses and lack of
knowledge of the properties of materials has led to disaster.
Even with today’s testing equipment, errors are sometimes
made in calculating the safe loads a structure can carry.
In order to safeguard structures, designers normally work
within a factor of safety so that materials are kept within
their permitted working stress. Working stress is the
greatest stress to which a part of a structure is ever
subjected. It is calculated by dividing the ultimate strength
of the material by a factor of safety. The former is the
stress at which the material fractures. The latter is the
product of four main factors.
Determine the primary and secondary
topics of the first paragraph
Main topic:

Designers of any stress-bearing structure, from a bracket to

a suspension bridge, must accurately calculate the stresses
they expect the structure to bear. In addition, they must
have a good understanding of the properties of materials. In
the past, miscalculation of stresses and lack of knowledge of the properties of
materials has led to disaster. Even with today’s testing equipment, errors are
sometimes made in calculating the safe loads a structure can carry.
Secondary ideas:

Designers of any stress-bearing structure, from a bracket to a suspension

bridge, must accurately calculate the stresses they expect the structure to bear.
In addition, they must have a good understanding of the properties of materials.
In the past, miscalculation of stresses and lack of
knowledge of the properties of materials has led to disaster.
Even with today’s testing equipment, errors are sometimes
made in calculating the safe loads a structure can carry.
Complementary ideas or arguments:

Designers of any stress-bearing structure, from a

bracket to a suspension bridge, must accurately
calculate the stresses they expect the structure to
bear. In addition, they must have a good
understanding of the properties of materials. In the
past, miscalculation of stresses and lack of
knowledge of the properties of materials has led to
disaster. Even with today’s testing equipment,
errors are sometimes made in calculating the safe
loads a structure can carry.
 One possible mental representation of the
information contained in this paragraph would
the following
 Designers
(design structures that bear stresses)
-They calculate the -They undertand the properties
stresses of materials

Past Miscalculations Lack of understanding

Historical disaster
point of view:
Testing equipment
Present to calculate safe (sometimes) Errors
loads in structures
Determine the primary and secondary
topics of the second paragraph
Designers of any stress-bearing structure, from a bracket to
a suspension bridge, must accurately calculate the stresses
they expect the structure to bear. In addition, they must
have a good understanding of the properties of materials.
In the past, miscalculation of stresses and lack of
knowledge of the properties of materials has led to disaster.
Even with today’s testing equipment, errors are sometimes
made in calculating the safe loads a structure can carry.
In order to safeguard structures, designers normally work
within a factor of safety so that materials are kept within
their permitted working stress. Working stress is the
greatest stress to which a part of a structure is ever
subjected. It is calculated by dividing the ultimate strength
of the material by a factor of safety. The former is the
stress at which the material fractures. The latter is the
product of four main factors.
Designers of any stress-bearing structure, from a bracket to a suspension
bridge, must accurately calculate the stresses they expect the structure to bear.
In addition, they must have a good understanding of the properties of materials.
In the past, miscalculation of stresses and lack of knowledge of the properties
of materials has led to disaster. Even with today’s testing equipment, errors are
sometimes made in calculating the safe loads a structure can carry.
In order to safeguard structures, designers normally work
within a factor of safety so that materials are kept within
their permitted working stress. Working stress is the
greatest stress to which a part of a structure is ever
subjected. It is calculated by dividing the ultimate strength
of the material by a factor of safety. The former is the
stress at which the material fractures. The latter is the
product of four main factors.
One possible mental representation of the
information contained in this paragraph
would the following
 Designers
[To safeguard structures]
They work within a factor of safety in
materials

To keep them under

working stress

Definition and how to calculate it:

Ultimate strength of materials / Factor of safety

Stress at which material fractures Product of four factors

 Now you are in a better position to ask
questions about the text, so read it again
and make those questions
Designers of any stress-bearing structure, from a bracket to
a suspension bridge, must accurately calculate the stresses
they expect the structure to bear. In addition, they must
have a good understanding of the properties of materials.
In the past, miscalculation of stresses and lack of
knowledge of the properties of materials has led to disaster.
Even with today’s testing equipment, errors are sometimes
made in calculating the safe loads a structure can carry.
In order to safeguard structures, designers normally work
within a factor of safety so that materials are kept within
their permitted working stress. Working stress is the
greatest stress to which a part of a structure is ever
subjected. It is calculated by dividing the ultimate strength
of the material by a factor of safety. The former is the
stress at which the material fractures. The latter is the
product of four main factors.
Consider the following questions about the
text and answer them:

- What are designers’ responsibilities?

- What examples of stress-bearing
structures are there?
- What have the main problems been with
respect to the properties of materials?
- What is the difference between “working
stress” and “safe loads”?
Read the following texts and proceed in
a similar way
Corrosion
Corrosion attacks all kinds of engineering
materials. It reduces the life of a material and,
therefore, it increases the cost of a structure. A
steel bridge must be repainted regularly so that it
may be protected from rust. Consequently, various
metals have been developed to resist corrosion.
Among them are the stainless steels, which
contain a percentage of chromium, thus making
them corrosion-resistant. However, no material
can be completely corrosion-resistant. Even
stainless steels will corrode.
Corrosion attacks all kinds of engineering
materials. It reduces the life of a material and,
therefore, it increases the cost of a structure.
[E.g.]A steel bridge must be repainted regularly so
that it may be protected from rust. Consequently,
various metals have been developed to resist
corrosion. [E.g.]Among them are the stainless
steels, which contain a percentage of chromium,
thus making them corrosion-resistant. However, no
material can be completely corrosion-resistant.
Even stainless steels will corrode.
Corrosion attacks all kinds of engineering materials. It reduces the life of a material and, therefore, it
increases the cost of a structure. [E.g.]A steel bridge must be repainted regularly so that it may be
protected from rust. Consequently, various metals have been developed to resist corrosion.
[E.g.]Among them are the stainless steels, which contain a percentage of chromium, thus making
them corrosion-resistant. However, no material can be completely corrosion-resistant. Even stainless
steels will corrode.

Main topic, supporting ideas, and conclusions drawn.

-“Corrosion” is characterized: “it attacks...,

reduces..., and increases...”
- An example to illustrate its effects.
- A consequence is obtained to reduce those
effects, and an example is given to make
those effects less effective.
- An observation is made to the conclusion
obtained.
One possible mental representation of this
information.
 “Corrosion”

Effects on engineering materials

Illustrative example of its effects

Developments to resist corrosion

An observation is made to the conclusion obtained

Main topic: Effects of corrosion on engineering
materials

Supporting ideas:
- Example of corrosion effects.
- Developments attained to reduce the effects of
corrosion. Examples.
- Final observation to the conclusion obtained.
(It’s always there)-CORROSION

Definition-- Examples
[Bridges, most metals, ships]
Consequences

Development of various metals

Stainless steel [Composition] [Uses]

(By Mauricio Rodríguez C., 2010)

Consider the following questions about the text and
answer them:
- What is stated about the main topic?
- Which is the supporting example to prove those
statements?
- What has been concluded after considering those
statements?
- Provide an example to illustrate such a conclusion.
- State whether the conclusion is an absolute
conclusion or not, and why?
ENGINEERING RESEARCH
Engineering research has a different character to
scientific research. Firstly, it often deals with areas
where the basic physics and/or chemistry are well
understood, though the problems are too complex to
solve exactly. Therefore, the purpose of engineering
research is to find approximations to the problem that
can be solved. Secondly, it employs many semi-
empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific
research. In general, it can be stated that a scientist
builds in order to learn, but an engineer learns in order
to build.
Option 1
Main topic: Comparison between engineering research
and scientific research.
Supporting ideas:
- Basic sciences involved in engineering research and
what it concludes from them.
- Types of methods used by engineering research and
difference with respect to scientific research.
Conclusion:
The objective of a scientist differs from that of an
engineering.
Option 2
MAIN TOPIC:
Comparison between engineering research in relation to
scientific research from the point of view of its
different character.
COMPLEMENTARY OR SUPPORTING IDEAS:
1. When dealing with problems from physics and/or
chemistry, it (engineering research) aims at
finding possible solutions to them.
2. The semi-empirical methods it uses which are
unknown to pure scientific research.
CONCLUSION:
The objectives of both the scientist and the engineer.
One possible mental representation of
the information.
Engineering research versus scientific research

1. Basic sciences in engineering research

Conclusion: approximations to problems

2. Use of semi-empirical methods unknown to

scientific research.

General conclusion: The objective of a

scientist differs from that of an engineering.
Consider the following questions about the text
and answer them:
- What is compared in the paragraph?
- What arguments are given to support each one
of the terms of the comparison?
- Which is the specific conclusion and the
general conclusion stated in the paragraph?
- Which individual words are used to explain the
comparison in simple terms?
PYROMETALLURGICAL PROCESSES
Pyrometallurgical processes are both the oldest and most
frequently used methods of metal extraction and purification. The
commonest metals treated in this way include copper, nickel,
lead, and cobalt, with the processes used being a combination of
roasting, smelting, converting, fire refining, electrolytic refining,
and chemical refining.
Roasting, the first process, is used to change the metallic
compounds into forms more easily treated by the operations to
follow and also to remove some easily volatile impurities in the
gas stream. Smelting and converting melt the metallic
compounds and form new compounds in the liquid state, which
can be separated into layers of heavy metallic values and lighter
slag from the waste rock. The metallic values, now with the
greater part of the initial impurities removed, are further purified
by fire, electrolytic, or chemical refining processes.
Main topic: What is understood by pyrometallurgical
processes.
Supporting ideas:
- Types of metals treated by them and processes
involved.
- What each one of the processes does:
Roasting changes metallic compounds, and removes
volatile impurities.
Smelting and converting melt metallic compounds, and
forms new compounds.
Fire, electrolytic, or chemical refining processes purify
metallic values.
Consider the following questions about the text
and answer them:

- What are pyrometallurgical processes?

- Which metals are treated by pyrometallurgical
processes?
- What processes are involved in pyrometallurgical
processes?
- Which are the two main actions of roasting?
- Which processes melt the metallic compounds and
form new compounds?
- Which processes purify metallic values?
TOWARDS THE FUTURE TECHNOLOGY
Since the dawn of primitive metallurgy, thousands of
years ago, up to the early XXI century, copper mining
has been constantly incorporating new technologies.
This process does not stop: it is a key to the future.
Incorporation of technology into copper mining makes
possible greater efficiency of the production processes
as well as exploiting deposits where metal extraction is
difficult, either because of low concentrations or
because it is associated to other chemical elements from
which it is hard to separate it.
Technology is also important to develop increasingly
cleaner productive processes aiming at a more
sustainable mining. Additionally, it may allow
developing technology-based businesses.
Codelco´s policy in this regard seeks to position this
Corporation "in the first level of use of the technology
available in the market". It also points to activities of
research and innovation "in a systematic and permanent
way where the market does not offer integral solutions".
MAIN TOPIC: Incorporation of technology in copper
mining.
SUPPORTING IDEAS: The incorporation of
technology implies the following advantages or
implications:
a. Efficiency in the production process.
b. Exploitation of metal deposits of difficult extraction
c. Development of increasingly cleaner productive
processes.
d. Development of technology-based businesses.
Codelco’s policy as a result of incorporating
technology in the copper mining process.
QUESTIONS:
1. Since when has copper mining incorporated new
technologies?
2. What is the importance of incorporating new
technologies?
3. What benefit has the introduction of technology
produced in the production processes?
4. Why is metal extraction difficult?
5. Which are the two advantages that technology has
produced?
6. What are Codelco´s objectives in incorporating
technology?
TAILINGS
Tailings consist of ground rock and process effluents
that are generated in a mine processing plant.
Mechanical and chemical processes are used to extract
the desired product from the run of the mine ore and
produce a waste stream known as tailings. This process
of product extraction is never 100% efficient, nor is it
possible to reclaim all reusable and expended
processing reagents and chemicals. The unrecoverable
and uneconomic metals, minerals, chemicals, organics
and process water are discharged, normally as slurry, to
a final storage area commonly known as a Tailings
Management Facility (TMF) or Tailings Storage
Facility (TSF).
MAIN TOPIC:
Nature of tailings in a mine processing plant.

SECONDARY IDEAS:
- Origin of tailings and processes used in its production.
- Limitations of the extraction process
- What to do with the resulting unrecoverable and
uneconomic materials (TMF or TSF)
CONCENTRATION OF ORE
When an ore has a low percentage of the desired metal, a method of
physical concentration must be used before the extraction process
begins. In one such method, the ore is crushed and placed in a
machine where, by shaking, the heavier particles containing the
metal are separated from the lighter rock particles by gravity.
Another method is the flotation process, used commonly for copper
sulfide ores. In certain cases (as when gold, silver, or occasionally
copper occur “free,” i.e., uncombined chemically in sand or rock),
mechanical or ore dressing methods alone are sufficient to obtain
relatively pure metal. Waste material is washed away or separated by
screening and gravity; the concentrated ore is then treated by various
chemical processes.
MAIN TOPIC:
- Methods used when extracting ore to obtain metals.

COMPLEMENTARY IDEAS:
1. The method of physical concentration in extracting ores
and condition to apply this method.
- Phases in the application of this method.
2. The method of flotation process.
3. The mechanical or ore dressing method.
4. What is done with the waste material and the
concentrated ore.
 If interested, send your suggestions to
[email protected] to check them
and make observations if necessary.