Resident Physics Lectures
Radiographic Film
Prof. J.K Tonui, PhD
School of Medicine,
Department of Radiology & Imaging
Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, the student is
expected to:
Understand the need for an image receptor.
State the parts of an x-ray film, and their
functions.
Describe how the radiographic image is
formed in the x-ray,
Define latent image, and sensitivity speck.
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Introduction
X-rays coming from the tube
Carry no useful information for image formation , or
In other words, it is blank.
blank
However,
When these x-ray beam passes thro’ the pt. and
interacting with the body tissues, then
They acquire the information that can be revealed
by that radiographic examination.
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X-ray Images
An X-ray image
Exists in the space between the pt. and the screen,
but
It is invisible, i.e. cannot be seen by our eyes, hence
Needs to be transformed into visible image with little
loss of information as much as possible, and
This is done by using an image receptors (IR), which
Can be either an X-ray film or a digital detector.
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X-ray Images
Common IR in radiography are:
1. Magnetic tape,
2. Digital detector, and
3. Photographic film.
Note that
X-ray films have been in use over many years, but
Current digitization is replacing them, i.e. we are
migrating to DR imaging.
imaging
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X-ray Image Formation
X-ray image
Is formed as a result of
differential absorption (see
Fig.) of x-rays when they pass
thro’ the pt. and interact with
body tissues, and
It is by this mechanism that X-
ray beam acquires information
that is transmitted to IR
system.
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X-ray Image Formation
X-rays
Start as uniform diverging beam with uniform
intensity from the tube (see Fig. in previous slide), but
Get attenuated (by absorption and scattering) on
passing thro’ pt.’s body, and
X-rays that reach the film are called remnant
radiation,
radiation and
Consist of un-deflected and those scattered at small
angles from original trajectories x-rays.
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X-section of a Loaded
Cassette
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X-section of a Loaded
Cassette
From previous slide,
Early x-ray images were taken with film alone, and
This continued till 1960s in mammography, and
The sole remaining clinical application for film without
screens is in dental radiography using intraoral films,
but
X -ray absorption efficiency of such films is relatively
poor (~1–5%), and
All diagnostic x-ray imaging uses Screen-Film systems.
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X-Ray Film
Photographic film
Is a medium used to capture images carried by X-rays
passing thro’ the pt.’s body, i.e. IR device, and
Produces a permanent record of the image, but
Are nowadays being replaced by digital IRs.
However,
Ordinary photographic films are more sensitive to visible or
UV light, and
Is the reason x-ray are converted into visible light in II screen
before using it to expose the film in radiography.
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X-Ray Film
X-ray films
Have similar structure and
characteristics as ordinary
photographic films, but
Its spectral response is different
from that of photographic film,
but operating mechanisms are
the same, and
Its structure is shown in this Fig.
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Film Construction
Has 4-parts
Film base
Adhesive layer
.007”
o attaches emulsion to base
Emulsion layer .0005”
Supercoating
Supercoating
Adhesive
Layers Film Emulsion
Base Layers
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Film Base
The film base provides
Structural support for fragile emulsion and
Correct degree of stiffness for handling purposes.
It is made from either
cellulose acetate or
polyester,
Both of the above materials are transparent to x-rays
and
Are blue-tinted to be sensitive to blue light emitted by
CaWO4 screen (was requested by radiologist to reduce
straining while examining).
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Film Base
The base should
Have low light absorption, and
So as not produce visible pattern Film
Base
(should not react with x-rays).
Be flexible, thick, & strong to enable
o Processing,
o Handling, and
o Viewbox insertion / removal abuse.
Have dimensional stability
o During processing, and
o For archival in varying humidity
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Film Base Materials
Early films used cellulose nitrate (1914)
was highly flammable, and
caused many fires
Raised need for “safe” base
cellulose triacetate used until 1960’s when
it was replaced by
polyester
o .007 inches thick
Base color
Film .007”
o Clear
Base
o Blue dye added
o Requested by radiologists
reduces eye strain
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Radiographic Film Base
Initially x-ray were taken on glass plates, but in 1918,
Cellulose nitrate base film was introduced to replaced glass, because
Of shortage of glass supply from Belgium due to WWI.
However,
Cellulose nitrate used in early x-ray films was highly flammable,
hence
Were fire hazards and
it is claimed that most of the hospital fires were caused by the x-ray
film.
Polyester base replaced Cellulose Triacetate in the 1960’s, and
Are still used today, and
It is semi-rigid and about 150 to 300 µm thick.
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Emulsion
The emulsion
Is the heart of the film, because it is where the image is
formed.
The x-rays or light from the II screens
Interact with emulsion and transfer the information to the film,
which
Reveals radiographic image when film is developed.
Film emulsion
Consists of a very homogeneous mixture of gelatin and
silver halide crystals about 3 to 5 µm thick.
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Emulsion
Since x-rays pass readily through x-ray film,
The emulsion layer is coated on both sides of the film
base, and
This arrangement provides a greater effect upon
exposure to x-rays than would be possible with an
emulsion coated only on one side.
The adhesive layer
Is used to glue the emulsion on the film base, hence
Ensures that the emulsion stays firmly attached to base.
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Emulsion
Most films use two emulsions
And each emulsion <= 0.5 mil thick 1 mil =0.001’ = 0.0254
o thicker emulsion = less light penetration mm
Gelatin
Is a suspension medium;
o Used to keep silver halide grains dispersed and
prevents them (grains) from clumping;
o Allows also penetration of processing solutions
without compromising strength or permanence, and
o Is made from cattle bones (mostly from India and
Emulsion
Argentina!) Layers
o Reasons: Abundance
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Gelatin
Gelatin
Is a necessary and important constituent of the x-
ray film emulsion, and
It is an ideal suspension medium for the silver
bromide crystals for three main reasons:
1. It provides an even suspension for the crystals;
2. It has the ability to swell, shrink, and harden and
3. It increases the sensitivity of the silver bromide
crystals.
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Gelatin
The gelatin
Is clear so it transmits the light to the silver halide
crystals, and
Is also porous so that the processing chemicals
can penetrate to the silver halide crystals.
The primary function of the gelatin
Is to provide a support medium for the silver
halide crystals by holding them in place.
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Supercoating
Thin supercoating or protective layer
Is applied on top of the emulsion in order to cover it.
Functions:
Protects emulsion from mechanical damage, and
Makes film smooth & slick for use with processors.
Supercoating
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Silver Halide
Silver halide
Is the light sensitive material in the emulsion,
and
Consists of 90 - 99% silver bromide, and 1 - 10%
silver iodide
o AgI is used to increase sensitivity (doping).
Small crystals (grains)
Are precipitated and emulsified (combined) in
gelatin
crystal has lattice structure
o Ag+ / Br- / I-
and silver nitrate added
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Silver Halide
Precipitation
Determines crystal/grain size, structural perfection &
concentration, and
Typical size: 1 - 1.5 microns
1 grain averages 1 - 10 million silver ions
Chemical sensitization of crystal
Is done by adding sulfur-containing compound to emulsion
Silver sulfide formed
o Usually located on crystal surface, and
o Is called sensitivity speck,
speck which
o Traps electrons to begin formation of latent image centers.
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Silver Halide - sensitivity
speck
The sensitivity speck
(see Fig.)
Is a place on the crystal
where silver reduction
takes place for exposed
crystals, and
It becomes the location of
the latent image center.
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Silver Halide - sensitivity
speck
A single x-ray or light photon
Creates an electron that is trapped for a short time (1s)
in the sensitivity speck, and
If no other photons are absorbed by this grain, then the
electron will escape from the grain, but
If a few more electrons are released in same grain within
this time, then
The electrons stabilize each other (thro’ repulsion) at the
sensitivity speck and a latent image (i.e. a quasi-
permanent precursor to an optical image) is established.
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The Latent Image
The latent image
Is formed upon exposure, and
Is an invisible image that cannot be seen
until the film is chemically processed or
developed, and
After proper chemical processing, a visible
image is formed, which is called manifest
image.
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The Latent Image
The interaction between photons and silver halide
crystals
Is referred to as the photographic effect, where
Mobile silver ions are attracted to electrons
liberated by light photons, forming a speck of silver
metal on the surface, and
o Since metallic silver is black in color, then
o The spots on the film where they are formed appear
black in developed films.
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Latent Image
Sensitized silver-iodo-bromide
Absorbs x-ray (direct) or light (screen) photon energy
which initiates the formation of atomic silver in a pattern,
where
Photon energy absorbed gives an electron in the bromine
ion enough energy to escape, and
The freed electron is attracted to sensitivity speck, which
Is called latent image center.
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Visible Image on Film
The electron lost by Br ion (Br-),
Produces a Br atom, and
Then leaves the crystal and mixes with gelatin in the
emulsion.
The electron released
Goes to a sensitivity speck and get fixed there and
In turn gives the sensitivity speck a negative charge, which
Then attract mobile silver ion (Ag +), and combine to
Ag e Ag
produce silver atom:
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Latent Image Centers
Note that
Ag atoms formed at sensitivity specks are invisible, but
Can be seen with an electron microscope, and
On processing, are made visible, and
Presence of more Ag atoms at latent image center has
greater probability that the grain will be developed, and
Some centers may contain 100’s of silver atoms.
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Producing the Latent Image
With reference to Fig.
A. Radiation interaction
releases electrons.
B. Electrons migrate to
the sensitivity speck.
C. At the sensitivity
speck, Ag atom is
formed by attracting an
interstitial silver ion.
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Producing the Latent Image
With reference to Fig.
D. The process is repeated many times
resulting in the build up of Ag atoms.
E. The remaining silver halide is
converted to silver during
processing.
F. The resulting silver grain is formed.
Silver halide
That is not irradiated remain
inactive.
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Light vs. Dark Areas on Film
Dark spots in the film
Are silver halide crystals that have been exposed
to photons, where
They turn to black metallic silver after processing.
Light areas on the film
Are where there is no crystals exposed and
The silver halide is washed away during
processing.
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