Resident Physics Lectures
Radiography
Geometry
Prof. J.K Tonui, PhD
School of Medicine,
Department of Radiology & Imaging
Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, the student is expected
to:
Extend geometry of shadow formation by light to x-ray
image formation.
Define the terms SID, SOD, IOD and their affects on X-ray
image formation.
Understand how distortions are produced in x-ray images,
and how to reduce through geometrical considerations.
Understand 5-geometrical considerations that produces
detailed and sharp radiographs.
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Introduction
There two methods of image acquisition in
radiography:
Projection imaging,
o A single image is created for a 3D body, which
o Is a “shadow” of body section in a particular direction
(integration thro’ the body in the direction of x-ray beam).
Tomography imaging,
o A series of images are generated, one from each slice of a 3D
object in a particular direction (axial, coronal, sagittal).
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Projection Imaging
Convectional radiography
Is a transmission imaging
procedure, where
X-rays emerge from the x-ray tube
placed on one side of the pt.'s body
and passes thro’ it as shown in this
Fig. and
Are detected on the other side of
the pt. by the screen-film detector.
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Projection Radiography
Fig.
Shows complete
components of
the x-ray
imaging system
for the projection
radiography.
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Projection Radiography
Projection imaging
Produces a 2-D image of pt.’s 3-D
anatomy, and
Hence, tissue information spanning the
direction of x-ray beam are lumped
together on the radiograph, for instance
A single chest radiograph superposes
the images (shadows) of tissues (lungs,
spine, ribs, and the heart) located on
the path of x-ray beam and requires
careful interpretation.
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Tomography Radiography
In tomography procedures,
Image of each slice is obtained by taking
projection images along different directions {(a)
axial, (b) coronal, (c) sagittal}, and
Then, images are reconstructed from projections
(back projection, or Radon transform).
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Projection Radiography
Typical projection
Typical arrangement for radiograph
projection imaging
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Geometry of Projection
Radiography
The primary effect of projection radiography
Is to record an image of a 3D object (the pt.) in 2D, and
As mentioned before, results in superposition of the
anatomy along each ray, which
Leads to a number of effects that need to be considered
in:
o Design of equipment,
o Production of the images and
o Interpretation.
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Geometric Principles
An x-ray image
Is a shadow picture of an object placed in the path of x-ray
beam; i.e. between the tube anode and the film or other IR,
and
Appearance of image recorded is influenced by relative
positions of the object and film as well as the direction of the
beam, and
Hence, radiologists need to be familiar with the basic principles
of shadow formation , to aid them in interpretation of
radiographs.
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Comparison of x-rays and
Light
Since x-rays are EM waves like light,
They form shadows in a similar way as light form
shadows, but
The analogy between light and x-rays shadow formation
is not perfect since
o All objects are transparent to x-rays to some extend, and
o Scattering presents greater problems in radiography
than in optics, but
The good news is that the same geometrical laws of
shadow formation apply to both light and x-rays.
x-rays
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Shadow Formation
Fig. A beside shows
Light beam from a point source, L
falling on a white card board or screen,
C, but
With an opaque object, O interposed
between the light source and the card,
where
A shadow, I of the object is formed on I
the surface of the card board as shown.
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Shadow Formation
Notice from Fig. in previous slide that
Shadow cast is naturally enlarged because
the object is not in contact with the card, and
The degree of enlargement varies according to
the relative distances of the object from the:
o Card or image called object-image distance, (OID)
and
o Light source call source-object distance, (SOD).
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Shadow Formation
Image magnification, M gives the law governing the
size of the shadow is given by:
SI DI
M
where SO DO
SO is the size of the object,
SI is the size of the shadow (x-ray image),
DO the distance from source-to-object (SOD), and
DI is the distance from source-to-image (SID).
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Image Magnification
Magnification of the image
Occurs because the beam diverges from focal
spot to the image plane as shown in this Fig.
Notice from magnification
Eqn., that M
Is largest when the
object is close to the focal
spot,
Decreases with distance
from the focal spot, and
Approaches a value of 1
as 810,
RIB the811
object approaches
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the image plane.
Shadow Formation
Degree of sharpness of a
shadow depends on:
Size of light source, and
Position of object between
light source and the card
(image), i.e.
o whether nearer to or farther
from one or the other as
illustrated by these images.
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Shadow Formation
For extended light source (not
point source )
The shadows cast are not
perfectly sharp , but
o Form a penumbra ( B to D)
Each point in the source of light
casts its own shadow of the
object, and
Each of these overlapping
shadows is slightly displaced from
the others
o Producing a blurred image.
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Shadow Formation
Note that
The shadow formation may also differ
depending on the angle that the object
makes with the incident light rays, and
This effect make the image shape to deviate
from the true shape of the object, which
Is called distortion.
distortion
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Effect of changing the size of the
Source on Image formation
The conditions required to produce
the sharpest, and truest shadow
of the object are:
Source of light should be small
o i.e. point source (small focal spot)
should be used ideally.
o Compare Fig. A and C.
Source of light should be as far
from the object as practical.
o Compare Fig. B and C.
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Effect of changing the relative
positions of source, object, and card.
The conditions required to
produce sharpest and truest
shadow of the object are:
Film should be as close to the object
as possible (Compare Fig. B and D).
Light rays should be directed arly
to film (compare Fig. A and E).
Planes of object and film should be
parallel (compare Figure A and F).
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Radiographic Shadows
Principles of shadow formation
Are applied in radiography in order to ensure
satisfactory sharpness and minimize
distortion in the radiographic image, but
A certain degree of distortion will still exist
(naturally) in every radiograph, because
Some parts will always be farther from the film
than others.
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Shadow Formation
Note that
Images of those
parts of pt. body
far away from the
film are magnified
more than those
ones closer to
film,
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Radiographic Shadows
The shape of image
Should always be similar to that of an object
ideally, i.e. there should be no distortion of
shape;
For example, a circular object should be
produced as a circular shadow, but
It is possible that spatial (position) feature can
be distorted, as illustrated in the next slides.
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Geometrical Distortion - shape
Notice in this Fig.
That two circular objects
can be rendered as either:
o Two circles (Fig. A) or
o Overlapping circles or
figure-eight shape Fig.
B).
Depending on direction of
rays.
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Geometrical Distortion -
shape
Fig.
Shows a tilted object
projected at a range
of angles, which
Illustrate that
increasing degree of
foreshortening as
the angle increases.
Effect of angulations on projected
length of an angled object
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Geometrical Distortion -
position
Note that
All objects are magnified by an
amount related to OID, where
The further away from OID, the
larger the object appears, and
In Fig., all objects A, B and C
are same size,
size but they appear
progressively larger due to
Effect of depth of objects on
differences in position. their projected sizes
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Shadow Distortion
Distortion cannot be eliminated completely but
By the use of appropriate source-film distance
(SID), and
It can be minimized until a point which the
radiographic image is not objectionable, but
Considerable training and experience is required for
Radiographer to correctly choose the geometrical
variables to image a given section of interest.
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Application to Radiography
Application of geometric principles of shadow
formation to radiography leads to five general
rules to be considered:
1. Focal spot (source where x-rays are produced);
2. Source-Body distance (SOD);
3. Source-Film distance (SID);
4. Film, and
5. Central Ray.
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Focal Spot
X-ray tube focal spot
Is where x-rays are produced, and
Its size should be as small (should be a point source
ideally) as allowed by other considerations (e.g.
heat loading), because
A large size focal spot,
o Is able to withstand large loads (heat production), but
o Cannot delineate as much details as a small-focus tube
i.e. poor resolution.
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Focal Spot
When a large focal spot is used, then
The heat loading of the tube is optimized but
compromises image resolution, and
Image resolution (details) is improved by
using a long source-film distance (SID), but
It is advantageous to use smallest focal spot
permissible for exposures required.
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Source-Body Distance
Distance between anode (source) and body (SOD)
Should always be as great as is practical, and
Long SODs should always be used in imaging of thick
body parts, in order to
Minimize unsharpness of body structures farthest
from the film.
At long SODs also,
Radiographic definition/shapness is improved and
The image is more nearly the actual size of the object.
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Source-Film Distance
When source-film distance (SID)
Is decreased from a large value to a small value,
Distortion of the image is observed to increase, and
Is particularly evident at the edges of the body
where the distortion is greatest.
Thus,
The SID should be kept as large as it is permissible.
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Object-Film Distance (OID)
The film
Should be placed as close as possible to body part
being imaged, but
In practice, film (in its cassette) is placed in contact
with the body.
As OID is increased from zero (i.e. contact),
The image becomes larger, i.e. magnified, but
The definition or sharpness begins to degrade.
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Central Ray
The central ray
Should be as nearly -lar to the film as much as
possible to preserve spatial relations, and
The central ray is used for positioning and
Is produced from a lamp (visible light).
As far as the shape of the body will allow,
The plane of maximum interest (i.e. section of body
being imaged) should be parallel to the plane of the
film.
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Central Ray production
Generally Focal Spot
Filter
X-ray beam
include
filter & Light beam
light
Lamp
Mirror
X-ray & light
beams
CR
Shutters (only
1 set shown)
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Central Ray production
Central ray directed to the midpoint of the
grid
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