X-ray Intensifying
Screens
Prof. J.K Tonui, PhD
School of Medicine,
Department of Radiology & Imaging
Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, the student is expected to:
Explain the purpose of image intensifying (II) screens.
Define luminescence, phosphoresce and fluorescence.
Describe the construction and operation of II screens.
Describe efficiencies of II screen.
State advantages of using II screen.
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Introduction
Radiological image formed by x-ray photons
Cannot be seen by human eye, hence
Needs to be converted into visible form thro’:
1. Non-screen film system - using x-rays directly;
2. Screen-films system -converting x-ray first into
visible light and using them for film exposure, and
3. Fluoroscopy/Monitor systems – view of image
directly on a screen.
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Direct Exposure of Film by X-
rays
Sensitivity
Of radiographic film to direct x-ray exposure is very
poor or low (≈1% is absorbed by the film), and
If x-rays are used to expose the film directly, then
requires a lot of radiation and prohibitively long time
for most examinations, and
Hence, for this reason, x-rays are rarely used to expose
films directly, but instead they are first converted into
light which are then used to expose the film.
film
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Conversion of X-rays into
Light
The efficiency of film exposure by x-rays
Is usually increased by converting the x-rays
first into visible light, and
Then, using this visible light to expose the
film just like in the ordinary photography, and
The device that is used to convert x-rays into
visible light is called image intensifying (II)
screen.
screen
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Conversion of X-rays into
Light
The II screen
Degrades high x-rays energy into low energy visible
light but then increases number of photons,
photons hence
It intensify or multiply the effect that x-rays has on
the radiographic film, and
Therefore, increases efficiency of x-rays captured
by the film because radiographic film is more
sensitive to light than x-rays.
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Conversion of X-rays into
Light
The screen-film system consists of 3-
components:
Intensifying screens;
Film, and
Cassette.
The color emitted II screens:
Blue for older screens, and
Green in newer screens.
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Advantages of Screens
II screens
Decreases amount of radiation received by the pt. and personnel,
because
o Fewer x-rays are used but multiplied by the screen when converted to light
and
o Hence, the screens are always used for routine practices.
Enables faster exposures to be made:
o Fast exposures are necessary to reduce “motion artifact”
artifact in
radiography;
o Just like when you take a photograph of a person running you need a
fast exposure or the picture will be blurred.
Increase contrast.
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Advantages of Screens
Additional benefits of screens are:
Reduce output of the x-ray required,
which
In turn ease the need for powerful
generators, high heat capacity tubes and
the costs.
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Luminescence
Luminescence
Is process of light emission by a substance when stimulated by
EM radiation.
There are two types of luminescence:
Fluorescence:
Fluorescence
o Luminescence produced instantaneously after stimulation (<10 -8 s);
o e.g. X-rays, fluorescence is used in x rays intensifying screens
Phosphorescence:
Phosphorescence
o Luminescence produced with a delay after stimulation (>10 -8 s) e.g.
luminous watch dials.
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Screen Composition
II screens
Are made from materials that emit visible light when they are
stimulated or struck by x-rays and
These materials are called phosphor materials.
Some phosphors
Are more efficient in converting x-rays to light than other, and
More efficient phosphors are known as “faster screens”, because
They need less x-rays to produce a properly exposed radiograph, and
Slower screens need more x-rays to make a proper radiograph .
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Intensifying Screens: General
Principles
Convert x-rays to light, where
x=-ray
Many light photons created per x-ray photon Photon
absorbed in screen, because Screen
Light photons have much less energy
Light
Light from screen exposes film:
Film much more sensitive to light than to x-
rays,
Screens substantially reduce patient dose,
o by a factor of 100’s
Screen use virtually universal.
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Fluorescence in Radiology
Fluorescence
Is light emitted by phosphor crystals,
which are inorganic salts.
Older phosphor materials includes:
Calcium tungstate (CaWO4)
o original phosphor material used in
radiology, and emits blue light,
Zinc cadmium sulfide, (ZnCdS).
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Calcium Tungstate
Fig. shows the spectra of:
CaWO4 fluorescence,
Response of eye to light of
different colours () and
Sensitivity of x-ray film
Notice from Fig. that
The film is sensitive to most
light emitted by screen, but
Not sensitive to red light
hence it can be used in dark
room without affecting film.
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Newer Phosphors
Image tubes used • Film-screens
in fluoroscopy use systems use
cesium iodide, CsI barium strontium
sulfate
yttrium
rare earths
» gadolinium
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» lanthanum
Construction of Intensifying
screen
Consists of four layer
protective layer
phosphor
reflecting layer
base
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Screen Construction
plastic protective coat
phosphor layer
reflecting layer
One
base support layer screen
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Screen Construction
Protective Layer
applied over phosphor
made of plastic
approximately .7 - .8 mils thick
Functions
o prevents static electricity
o provides physical protection
o provides surface suitable for cleaning
Phosphor Layer
contains phosphor crystals
approximately 1 - 4 mils thick
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Screen Construction
Reflecting Coat
reflects light emitted toward back of
screen
o phosphors emit light in all directions
not all screens have reflecting coating
o Reduces resolution
made of white substance (titanium
dioxide)
o 1 mil thick
Base Layer
Mechanical support
cardboard or polyester plastic
o approximately 7 - 10 mils thick
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Screen Features
Advantages over direct film exp.
drastically decreased patient dose (X 100’s)
shorter exposure times
Configuration
cassette sandwiches
film between 2 screens
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Radiographic Cassette
Cassette
Is a light tight container for film, and
Holds film in tight contact with Cassette
Screens
screens over entire surface, since Film
o gaps drastically increase image
unsharpness.
Non-mammo cassettes use 2-
screens:
one above film, and
one below film.
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Radiographic Cassette
Two screens are used because
Cassette
They produce more light, and
Screens
Hence, less radiation required Film
to achieve a given optical
density, but
Requires double emulsions film
o one above one below
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Double-Emulsion Film
Advantages
Double emulsion films
Easier to manufacture
Emulsion shrinks when it dries, and having two
emulsions minimizes curling
screens
Photographic advantage
double emulsion film
faster (efficient) system
o two screens used, and
o each emulsion optimally captures light produced by
“its” screen
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Bad Film-Screen Contact
The film and screen
should be in tight contact
The contact is tested
by imaging wire screen
mesh placed on top of
cassette
poor contact areas appear
blurred or fuzzy, dark
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Radiographic Cassettes
Screens require regularly cleaning
dust, dirt, paper, hair, blood etc prevent screen light
from reaching film
o Causes white dots on image
Mammography cassettes can trap air between film
& screen when closed
results in poor contact
must allow time for air to bleed off
o ~ 10 minutes
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Resolving Power
Resolving power is defined as
Maximum number of line pairs (line & space) per millimeter
that can be resolved or differentiated by screen-film system
o a line pair measure a line and space
o line & space have equal width
o Each line and space are both ¼ mm wide
o Hence each line pair is ½ mm wide
Typical values
Film
o ~100 line pairs per mm
Film / screen systems
o ~ 10 line pairs per mm maximum
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Imaging Process
Photon
Light
must be Screen Light
must
absorbed must emit must
expose
by a light reach film
film
screen
Each step above has an associated efficiency
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Intrinsic Screen Efficiency
Intrinsic (inherent) efficiency
Gives % conversion of x-rays energy in to
light energy, and
Typical values are 5% for calcium tungstate,
and up to 20% for newer phosphors such as
rare earth, but
Can be as high as 45% for direct digital DR
systems
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Screen Efficiency
Screen efficiency
Describes ability of light emitted by phosphor
to escape screen and expose film, and
Typically half of light emitted by screen does
not reach film
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Intensification Factor
Intensification factor , IF of a screen is defined as:
exposure required without screen
IF
expsoure required with screen
For calcium tungstate
IF increases with kVp and
Thicker body parts cause increase filtering & raises
effective kVp.
Small number of x-ray photons interact directly with
film, and
Produces negligible film darkening contribution.
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Fraction of Beam Absorbed By
Screen Pair
Par Speed 20%
Calcium
Tungstate
High Speed 40% Thicker screen,
Calcium poorer resolution
Tungstate
Rare Earth 60%
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Absorption Comparison
Atomic Number of W in CaWO4
Is higher than those of rare earth, hence more PE
interaction.
K-Edge
Absorption
tungsten: 69.5 keV
Yttrium: 17 keV
Barium: 37 keV
Lanthanum: 39 keV
Gadolinium: 50 keV
Lower K-edge greatly increases
absorption in diagnostic energy range Photon Energy
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Screen Speed depends on
Phosphor layer thickness
thicker screen
o faster
o poorer detail because of light spread or
diffusion or light produced further from film
Size of phosphor crystals
use smaller crystal size
Presence or absence of light-absorbing dye
dye reduced lateral light diffusion
o better resolution
o poorer efficiency (lower speed)
phosphor efficiency
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Ways to Increase Screen
Speed
Screen speed in increased by:
Increase thickness of phosphor layer;
Change to different phosphor material with
higher absorption efficiency
o More absorption for given thickness
o More light per absorption
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Thicker Phosphor
Thicker phosphor increases absorption
Increases speed
Reduces patient exposure
Diffusion of light causes unsharpness
light travels further from point of origin in
screen to film
Screen
Film
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2 Screens & Double-
Emulsion Film
Why use 2 thin emulsions rather than 1 thicker one?
light produced closer to emulsion
o less light spread
X-Ray X-Ray
36
Crossover
light from one screen exposes opposite
emulsion
X-Ray
Top
Screen Top
Emulsion
Film
Bottom Bottom
Screen Emulsion
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Crossover
X-Ray
Result to poorer resolution
light travels further,
spreads more
caused by incomplete
absorption of light by
adjacent emulsion
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Rare Earth Screens
Rare earth screens
Became commercially available since 1973, and
Have much higher conversion efficiency than Calcium
Tungstate, 20% vs. 5%, and
Hence, produces about 4 times as many light photons
per x-ray ray photon absorbed, and
Examples are terbium-activated gadolinium oxysulfide,
and thulium-activated lanthanum oxybromide
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Emission Spectrum
Screen’s light spectrum must match
film’s color sensitivity
optimize speed by matching film
response to screen light
Calcium Tungstate
Somewhat continuous blue spectrum
o (430 nm wavelength)
Gd2O2S:Tb
narrower green spectrum
o (544 nm wavelength)
most but not all rare earth screens
emit predominantly green light
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Rare Earth Speed
Rare earth speed
Vary as a function of kV, and
Is greatest at about 80 kV, and
o slight fall-off at higher kV’s
o significant fall-off at lower kV’s (< 70)
Phototimers must compensate
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Screen Maintenance
Screens should be kept clean because
As dust and films accumulate on the screen there is a reduction in
performance.
Screens and should be cleaned
with a commercially available screen cleaner and lint free cloth.
Cassettes should never be left open when not in use
because this allows dust and film to accumulate more quickly.
Screens also wear out with age which
leads to a loss in resolution and decreased speed.
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