Fluoroscopic
Imaging Systems
Basic principles
M R Talukder
Department of Applied Physics
and Electronic Engineering
University of Rajshahi
OBJECTIVE
S
Differentiate fluoroscopic
examinations from static
diagnostic radiographic
examinations
Describe a typical basic
fluoroscopic image chain
Explain difference between
fluoroscopic operation and a
diagnostic x-ray tube
Safety Principles
INTRODUCTION
Since Thomas A. Edison invented the
fluoroscope in 1896, it has served as a
valuable tool in the practice of radiology
It also a radiologic technique like X-ray
A fluoroscope is used to visually examine
the body or an organ
An image intensifier is used to intensify
improve image quality
Direct visualization is obtained by which
cardiac catheterization, thin needle
biopsies of tumors, and localization of
foreign bodies.
APPLICATIONS
A radiologic technique in which a
fluoroscope is used to visually examine
the body or an organ. (A fluoroscope
utilizes an X-ray tube and fluorescent
screen, with the area to be viewed placed
between the screen and the tube.) This
immediate imaging, when coupled with an
image intensifier, is invaluable in
situations such as cardiac catheterization,
thin needle biopsies of tumors, and
localization of foreign bodies.
The principal advantage of image-
intensified fluoroscopy over earlier types
of fluoroscopy is increased image
IMAGE INTENSIFIER
The image-intensifier tube is a
complex electronic device that
receives the image-forming x-ray beam
and converts it into a visible-light
image of high intensity. The tube
components are contained within a
glass or metal envelope that provides
structural support but more
importantly maintains a vacuum. When
installed, the tube is mounted inside a
metal container to protect it from
rough handling and breakage.
IMAGE INTENSIFIER
IMAGE INTENSIFIER
X-rays that exit the patient and are incident on
the image-intensifier tube are transmitted
through the glass envelope and interact with
the input phosphor, which is cesium iodide
(CsI). When an x-ray interacts with the input
phosphor, its energy is converted into visible
light; this is similar to the effect of
radiographic intensifying screens.
The CsI crystals are grown as tiny needles and
are tightly packed in a layer of approximately
300 μm Each crystal is approximately 5 μm in
diameter. This results in microlight pipes with
little dispersion and improved spatial
IMAGE INTENSIFIER
TUBE
The image-intensifier
tube is approximately 50
cm long. A potential
difference of about
25,000 V is maintained
across the tube between
photocathode and anode
so that electrons
produced by
photoemission will be
accelerated to the anode
Photocathode
Photocathode
The next active element of the image-
intensifier tube is the photocathode, which is
bonded directly to the input phosphor with a
thin, transparent adhesive layer. The
photocathode is a thin metal layer usually
composed of cesium and antimony compounds
that respond to stimulation of input phosphor
light by the emission of electrons.
The photocathode emits electrons when
illuminated by the input phosphor. This process
is known as photoemission. The term is
similar to thermionic emission, which refers
to electron emission that follows heat
stimulation. Photoemission is electron emission
that follows light stimulation.
PHOTOCATHODE:
MECHANISMS
HV
power
supply
ANODE
The anode is a circular plate with a hole in the middle
through which electrons pass to the output phosphor,
which is just the other side of the anode and is usually made
of zinc cadmium sulfide. The output phosphor is the site
where electrons interact and produce light.
For the image pattern to be accurate, the electron path from
the photocathode to the output phosphor must be precise.
The engineering aspects of maintaining proper electron
travel are called electron optics because the pattern of
electrons emitted from the large cathode end of the image-
intensifier tube must be reduced to the small output
phosphor.
The devices responsible for this control, called
electrostatic focusing lenses, are located along the
length of the image-intensifier tube. The electrons arrive at
the output phosphor with high kinetic energy and contain
BRIGTNESS GAIN (B.G.)
B.G. = Minification gain x Flux
gain
MOST INTENSIFIERS: 5,000 –
The increased illumination of the image is due to the
20,000
multiplication of light photons at the output phosphor
compared with x-rays at the input phosphor and the image
minification from input phosphor to output phosphor. The
ability of the image intensifier to increase the illumination
level of the image is called its brightness gain. The
brightness gain is simply the product of the minification
gain and the flux gain.
The interaction of these high-energy electrons with the
output phosphor produces a considerable amount of light.
Each photoelectron that arrives at the output phosphor
produces 50 to 75 times as many light photons as were
necessary to create it. This ratio of the number of light
photons at the output phosphor to the number of x-rays at
FLUX GAIN
# OF PHOTONS AT THE OUTPUT PHOSPHOR
# OF PHOTONS AT THE INPUT PHOSPHOR
The interaction of these high-energy electrons with the
output phosphor produces a considerable amount of
light. Each photoelectron that arrives at the output
phosphor produces 50 to 75 times as many light photons
as were necessary to create it. This ratio of the number
of light photons at the output phosphor to the number of
x-rays at the input phosphor is the flux gain.
The minification gain is the ratio of the square of the
diameter of the input phosphor to the square of the
diameter of the output phosphor. Output phosphor size is
fairly standard at 2.5 or 5 cm. Input phosphor size varies
from 10 to 35 cm and is used to identify image-intensifier
tubes.
MINIFICATION GAIN
SQUARE OF THE INPUT PHOSPHOR DIAMETER
SQUARE OF THE OUTPUT PHOSPHOR DIAMETER
Brightness gain is now defined as the ratio of the
illumination intensity at the output phosphor,
measured in candela per meter squared (cd/m2)
to the radiation intensity incident on the input
phosphor, measured in milliroentgens per second
(mR/s). This quantity is called the conversion
factor and is approximately 0.01 times the
brightness gain. The conversion factor is the
proper quantity for expressing image
intensification. Image intensifiers have
conversion factors of 50 to 300. These
