Image intensifier
FLUOROSCOPY
• Thomas A. Edison
invented the
fluoroscope in
1896
• Its function is to
provide real time
dynamic viewing
of anatomic
structure.
• Spot film: a small static image on a
small format image
receptor.
• E.g.. Cineradiography, video imaging,
digitalfluoroscopy, angiography,
neuroradiology…
Conventional Fluoroscopy
• X-ray tube
• X-ray table
• Fluoroscopic screen
Dark adaptation
Cones:
• Center part of the
retina
• Photopic vision
Rods:
• Placed periphery of
the retina
• Scotopic vision
Physician/Radiographer may sit in the dark room or
wear red goggle for 30mins before procedure
Image Intensifier
X ray photoelectro TV
Light
photon n Camer
photon
a
Input window
• Convex shape;
approximately 1
mm in thickness.
• Made of aluminum
(Z = 13)
• Gives better
mechanical
strength under
atmospheric
pressure
Input phosphor
• Initially used silver
activated zinc-cadmium
sulfide (ZnCdS)
• current phosphor is
cesium iodide (CsI)
• The CsI crystals are
grown as tiny needles
perpendicular to the
substrate.
• Better image quality-
vertical orientation
ofcrystals, greater
packing density,
effective atomic number.
Photocathode
• Photoemissive
metal combination
of antimony and
cesium compound.
• Respond to
stimulation of input
phosphor light by
the emission of
electron
Electrostratic focusing lens
• The lens is made up of
series of positively
charged electrode.
•It focus the electron
beam as it flows from
photocathode towards
the output phospher.
• point inversion –
electron focusing inverts
and reverse the image
because all the electron
pass through a common
focal point on their way to
output phospher.
Accelerating anode
• Anode is located neck of
image intensifier
• Anode is a circular plate
with a hole in the
middle through which
electrons pass to the
output phosphor
• Function is to accelerate
electron emitted from
photocathode towards
output screen.
Output phosphor
• made of silver-activated
zinc-cadmium sulfide.
• Thickness reduced to
maintain resolution.
• Diameter ranges from
half to one inch.
• The number of light
photon is increased
approximately 50 folds.
• Aluminum is plated onto
the screen to prevent
retrograde of light.
Brightness gain
• Two methods are used to evaluate
Brightness gain = intensifier luminance
Patterson B-2 luminance
cd/m²
Conversion factor:
mR/sec
Brightness gain = Minification gain X Flux gain
Minification gain
• Minification gain = di 2
d0
di = diameter of input screen
d0 = diameter of output screen
• Brightness can be increased indefinitely by
minification by decreasing output screen size.
• Excess minification produces small images; which
on magnification reduces resolution.
• Most x ray image intensifier have an input
screen from 5’’ to 9’’ in diameter and output
screen approximately of 1’’.
Input screen = 6’’
Input screen = 9’‘
Output screen = 2’’
Output screen = 1’’
Minification gain =9
Minification gain = 81
(6² ÷ 2² ) = 9
Flux gain
• Increases brightness
of fluoroscopic
image by a factor of
approximately 50.
• For each light
photon from the
input screen ; 50
light photons are
emitted by output
screen.
Multiple field image intensifier
• Higher the voltage on
electrostatic lenses
more the electron
beam focused
• Electron focal point
moves further from
output.
• Field of view is
reduced
• Image appears
magnified
Artifacts
• Lag
• Vignetting
• Veiling glare
• Pincushion distortion
• S distortion.
Lag
• persistence of luminescence after x-
ray stimulation has been terminated.
• Lag degrades the resolution of the
dynamic image.
• Older image intensifier lag times-
30–40 msec.
Current image intensifier lag time-
approx. 1 msec.
Vignetting
• A fall-off in brightness at the
periphery of an image
• caused by the unequal
collection of light at the
center of the image
intensifier compared with
the light at its periphery.
• center of an image
intensifier has better
resolution, increased
brightness, and less
distortion.
Veiling Glare:-
• Scattering of light and the
defocusing of photoelectrons
within the image intensifier
are called veiling glare
• degrades object contrast at
the output phosphor of the
image intensifier.
• X-ray, electron, and light
scatter all contribute to
veiling glare.
Pincushion Distortion:-
•It is a geometric, nonlinear
magnification across the image.
•magnification difference at the
periphery of the image results
from the projection of the x-ray
beam onto a curved input
surface.
• The distortion is easily
visualized by imaging a
rectangular grid with the
fluoroscope.
S Distortion:-
• External electromagnetic
sources affect electron paths at
the perimeter of the image
intensifier more so than those
nearer the center; causing the
image to distort with an S shape
• Larger image intensifiers are
more sensitive to the
electromagnetic fields
• Highly conductive metal shield
Reference:
•Christensen’s
•Bushong
•Google
Thank you
Have a nice
day…
