Chapter-1

PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
 CONCRETE
• The word ‘concrete’ comes from the Latin word concretus (meaning
compact or condensed), the perfect passive participle of concrescere,
from con (together) and crescere (to grow). This name was chosen
perhaps due to the fact that this material grows together, due to the
process of hydration, from a visco-elastic, moldable liquid into a hard,
rigid, solid rock-like substance.
• The Romans first invented what is today known as hydraulic cement-
based concrete or simply concrete. They built numerous concrete
structures, including the 43.3 m diameter concrete dome, the Pantheon,
in Rome, which is now over 2000 years old but is still in use and
remains the world’s largest non-reinforced concrete dome
CONCRETE
• Concrete is a mixture of Cement, Sand (Fine aggregates), Coarse
aggregates water in required proportions. The Mixture when placed in
forms and allowed to cure becomes hard like stone.
MATERIALS FOR CONCRETE:
• CEMENT
• FINE AGGREGATES
• COARSE AGGREGATES
• WATER
• ADMIXTURE
 CEMENT
• A cement is a binder, a substance used for construction that sets,
hardens, and adheres to other materials to bind them together. Cement is
seldom used on its own, but rather to bind sand and gravel (aggregate)
together. Cement mixed with fine aggregate produces mortar for
masonry, or with sand and gravel, produces concrete. Cement is the most
widely used material in existence and is only behind water as the planet's
most-consumed resource
Tests on Cements
• Tests are performed in accordance with and IS 4031 : 1988 to assess the
following:
• Chemical composition — analysis to determine the composition of
various oxides (of calcium, silica, aluminium, iron, magnesium and
sulphur) present in the cement and to ensure that impurities are within the
prescribed limits;
• Fineness — a measure of the size of the cement particles, in terms of
specific surface (i.e., surface area per unit mass); † ;
• Normal consistency — determination of the quantity of water to be mixed
to produce ‘standard paste’
• INITIAL AND FINAL SETTING TIMES — measures of the rate of solidification
of standard cement paste (using a ‘Vicat needle’);
‘Initial setting time’ indicates the time when the paste becomes unworkable (to be
not less than 30-45 min usually for OPC)
‘Final setting time’ refers to the time to reach a state of complete solidification (to
be not greater than 375-600 min for OPC);
• SOUNDNESS — a quality which indicates that the cement paste, once it has set,
does not undergo appreciable change in volume
(causing concrete to crack)
• STRENGTH — measured in terms of the stress at failure of hardened cement-sand
mortar specimens subject to compression and tension tests,
at the age of 28 days after water curing.
CHEMICAL composition of various oxides to ensure that impurities are within the
COMPOSITION prescribed limits;
(IS 269 : 1976 )
FINENESS a measure of the size of the cement increased fineness enhances the rate of
particles hydration, and hence, also strength
development
Normal determination of the quantity of water to
consistency be mixed to produce ‘standard paste
INITIAL AND measures of the rate of solidification of Initial setting time’ indicates the time when
FINAL SETTING standard cement paste (using a ‘Vicat the paste becomes unworkable (to be not less
TIMES needle’); than 30-45 min usually for OPC)
(By Vicat Final setting time’ refers to the time to reach
Appratus) a state of complete solidification (to be not
greater than 375-600 min for OPC);

SOUNDNESS a quality which indicates that the cement

(By Le-chatelier paste, once it has set, does not undergo
and Autoclave ) appreciable change in volume
STRENGTH measured in terms of the stress at failure of cement sand mortar (ratio of cement to sand
hardened cement-sand mortar specimens is 1:3) cube of size 70.6mm as per IS4031
subject to compression and tension tests part-6.
 TESTS OF CEMENT
• Tests carried out for cement are for chemical and physical requirements
• Indian Standards for testing cement are IS 4031 (different parts) and IS
4032. Most of these tests are conducted at a laboratory.
• Fineness of Cement: Blain Air Permeability Test (Which is Indirect
measure of Surface area of Cement Particles) most cements have a
minimum limit on fineness in range (225-250 m2/kg).
• Soundness of Cement: Determined by Le-chatelier and Autoclave
(IS4031-part3).
• Consistency of Cement: Measured by Vicat apparatus (IS4031-part4)
• Initial and Final Setting Time of Cement: Using Vicat Apparatus.
Test on cement Description Apparatus
(IS 4031)
Chemical analysis to determine the composition of various
composition oxides (of calcium, silica, aluminium, iron,
magnesium and sulphur) present in the cement and
to ensure that impurities are within the prescribed
limits;
Fineness a measure of the size of the cement particles, in Blain Air Permeability Test (Which is
terms of specific surface (i.e., surface area per unitIndirect measure of Surface area of
mass); Cement Particles) most cements have a
minimum limit on fineness in range
(225-250 m2/kg).
consistency determination of the quantity of water to be mixed to Measured by Vicat apparatus (IS4031-
produce ‘standard paste’ part4)
Soundness a quality which indicates that the cement paste, once Le-chatelier and Autoclave (IS4031-
it has set, does not undergo appreciable change in part3).
volume
(causing concrete to crack)
Initial and Final Setting measures of the rate of solidification Vicat needle
Time of Cement of standard cement paste

Initial Setting Time Initial setting time’ indicates the time when the Vicat needle (Dia
paste becomes unworkable (to be not less than 1.13mm Approx.)
30-45 min usually for OPC)

Final Setting Time ‘Final setting time’ refers to the time to reach a Vicat needle
state of complete solidification (to be not greater
than 375-600 min for OPC)

STRENGTH measured in terms of the stress at failure of UTM and Standard

hardened cement-sand mortar specimens subject Test Specimens
to compression and tension tests,
at the age of 28 days after water curing.
Physical Properties of Cement
Chemical Composition of Cement
Aggregates
• Aggregates used in concrete should comply with the requirement of IS
383:2016.
• Aggregates are commonly classified into Fine and Coarse Aggregates.
Fine aggregates generally consist of natural sand or crushed stone with
particle size smaller than about 5 mm (materials passing through 4.75
mm IS sieve).
• The Fine and Coarse Aggregates occupy about 60–75 per cent of the
concrete volume (70–85% by mass) and hence strongly influence the
properties of fresh as well as hardened concrete, its mixture
proportions, and the economy.
• Coarse aggregates consist of one or a combination of gravels or
crushed stone with particle size larger than 5 mm (usually between 10
mm and 40 mm). Aggregates can also be classified in two more ways.
Depending on the source, they could be either naturally occurring
(gravel, pebbles, sand, etc.) or synthetically manufactured (bloated clay
aggregates, sintered fly ash aggregate, etc.)
• The coarse aggregates form the main matrix of the concrete and hence
provide strength to the concrete, whereas the fi ne aggregates form the
filler matrix and hence reduce the porosity of concrete.
• Aggregates must be clean, hard, strong, and durable; they should be free
from coatings of clay, absorbed chemicals, and other fine materials that
could affect the hydration and bond of the cement paste.
• Aggregates are usually washed to remove impurities and graded at the site
or plant. Grading or particle size distribution of aggregates is a major factor
determining the workability, segregation, bleeding, placing, and finishing
characteristics of concrete.
• The grading of fine aggregates has been found to influence the properties of
green (fresh) concrete more than those of coarse aggregates. The grading
requirements recommended by the Indian and US standards for fi ne
aggregates is given in Table 1.9.
• Various testing methods for aggregates to concrete are described in IS 2386-
Parts 1 to 8:1963
 WATER
• Water plays an important role in the workability, strength, and durability
of concrete. Too much water reduces the concrete strength, whereas too
little will make the concrete unworkable.
• The water used for mixing and curing should be clean and free from
injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, salts, sugars, or organic
materials, which may affect the concrete or steel.
• As per Clause 5.4 of IS 456, potable water is considered satisfactory for
mixing as well as curing concrete; otherwise, the water to be used should
be tested as per IS 3025-Parts 1 to 32 (1984)
ADMIXTURES
• Admixtures are artificial or natural materials added to the concrete
besides cement, water and aggregate to improve certain property of
concrete during casting or setting or service stage.
• To improve the properties of the concrete required. It can be divided in
2 groups that is:
• Chemical
• Mineral
Normal admixture dosage is about 2–5 per cent by mass of cement
 Chemical Admixture & Mineral Admixture
• Chemical admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that
are added to the concrete immediately before or during mixing in order to
improve the properties of concrete. They should comply with the
requirements of IS 9103:1999.
• Mineral admixtures are inorganic materials that also have pozzolanic
properties. These very fine-grained materials are added to the concrete
mix to improve the properties of concrete (mineral admixtures) or as a
replacement for Portland cement (blended cements)
e.g.: Silica fume, GGBS, Fly-ash, Rise husk ash
 Functions of Admixtures
Admixtures are added to modify concrete properties. Major functions and
advantages of using admixtures are detailed below.
• To improve workability of fresh concrete
• To improve durability by entrainment of air
• To reduce the water required
• To accelerate setting & hardening & thus to produce high early strength
• To aid curing
• To impart water repellent / water proofing property
• To cause dispersion of the cement particles when mixed with water
• To retard setting
Types of Chemical Admixture used

• Accelerator
• Water reducing Admixture
• Super plasticizer
• Air Entraining
• Retarding
• Corrosion Inhibitors
• Alkali-Aggregate Reaction Inhibiting
• Shrinkage Reducing
PROPERTIES OF FRESH AND HARDENED CONCRETE

• Workability of concrete: Workability may be defined as the property of

the freshly mixed concrete that determines the ease and homogeneity
with which it can be mixed, placed, compacted, and finished.
• Workability is usually measured by slump cone test in the laboratory and
in the field.
• A slump of about 50-100mm is used for normal RCC work.
Slump Cone Apparatus
Compressive Strength
• Compressive strength at a specified age, usually 28 days, measured on
standard cube or cylinder specimens, has traditionally been used as the
criterion for the acceptance of concrete. It is very important for the
designer because concrete properties such as stress–strain relationship,
modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, shear strength, and bond strength
are expressed in terms of the uniaxial compressive strength.
Cube and Cylinder Tests
• In India, the UK, and several European countries, the characteristic
compressive strength of concrete (denoted by fck) is determined by
testing to failure 28-day-old concrete cube specimens of size 150 mm
× 150 mm × 150 mm, as per IS 516:1959.

• In the USA, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, the compressive

strength of concrete (denoted by fc ) is determined by testing to failure
28- day-old concrete cylinder specimens of size 150 mm diameter and
300 mm long.
Tensile Strength
• Concrete is very week in tension, and direct tensile strength is only
about 8–11 per cent of compressive strength for concretes of grade
M25.
• The tensile strength of concrete is generally not taken into account in
the design of concrete elements
• Direct tensile strength is difficult to determine. The split (Cylinder) test
on 150mm X 300mm cylinders as per IS516 or third point flexural
loading test on 150mm x150mm x700mm concrete beams as per IS516.
• The splitting tensile test is easier to perform and give more reliable
results than other tension tests. Though splitting strength may give 5-12
percent higher value than direct tensile strength.
•  The third point flexural loading test tends to overestimate the tensile
strength of concrete.
• The theoretical maximum flexural tensile stress occurring in the
extreme fiber of RC beam which cause cracking is referred to as
modulus of rupture fcr clause 6.2.2 of IS456 gives the modulus of
rupture or flexural tensile strength as
fcr=0.7
 Shear Strength
•  Pure shear is a rare occurrence; usually a combination of flexural and
shear stresses exists, resulting in a diagonal tension failure. The design
shear strength of concrete is given in Table 19 of IS 456 as a function of
percentage flexural reinforcement. The maximum shear stress in concrete
with shear reinforcement is restricted in Clause 40.2.3 to the following
value:
Tc,max = 0.63
Bond strength
• The common assumption in RC that plane sections remain plane after
bending will be valid only if there is perfect bond between concrete
and steel reinforcement.
• Bond strength depends on the shear stress at the interface between the
reinforcing bar and the concrete and on the geometry of the
reinforcing bar. Clause 26.2.1.1 of IS 456 provides a table for design
bond stress and is approximately represented by

tbd = 0.16(fck)2/3
Modulus of Elasticity of Concrete
• Concrete is not an elastic material, that is, it will not recover its original
shape on unloading. In addition, it is non linear and exhibit a non linear
stress strain curve.
• Hence elastic constants such as modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s ratio
are not strictly applicable.
• However, they are used in the analysis and design of concrete structures,
assuming elastic behaviour.
• The modulus of elasticity of concrete is a key factor for estimating the
deformation of buildings and members
Modulus of Elasticity
•  The secant modulus which is the slope of the line drawn from the
origin to the point on the stress-stress curve corresponding to 40% of
failure stress is found to present the average value of Ec under service
load condition.

• Clause 6.2.3.1 of IS456 suggests the short term modulus of elasticity

of concrete may be taken as

Ec= 5000
Durability
• Durability is defined as the capability of concrete to resist weathering
action, chemical attack and abrasion while maintaining its
desired engineering properties. It normally refers to the duration or
life span of trouble-free performance.

• Otherwise, the task of repairing and rehabilitating concrete that has

been damaged (for want of proper design and quality of construction)
can prove to be difficult and expensive
• If concrete is to serve the purpose for which it is designed during its
intended lifetime, it has to be durable. Unfortunately, many reinforced
concrete structures built in the past (particularly, the not-too-distant past)
in adverse environments have shown signs of increased structural
distress, mainly due to chemical attack, causing deterioration of concrete
and corrosion of reinforcing steel.
• Loss of durability results in a reduced life of the structure. In an attempt
to give increased importance to durability considerations, the recent
revision of the Code has strengthened the provisions pertaining to
durability, by shifting the guidelines from the Appendix (of the earlier
Code) to the main body of the Code (Cl. 8), and by enhancing their scope
and impact. These changes are in line with other national codes, such as
BS 8100 and ACI 318.
FACTORS AFFECTING
WORKABILITY
WATER CONTENT
Workability of concrete increases with increase in water content.
Higher the water content per cubic meter of concrete, the higher
will be the fluidity of concrete, which is one of the important
factors affecting workability.
Adding excess of water to concrete also has some disadvantages –
i. Strength of concrete may reduced.
ii. Increased quantity of water may cause bleeding in concrete.
iii. Cement slurry also escapes through the joints of formwork
AGGREGATE SHAPE AND SIZE
Size –
• The bigger the size of the aggregate, less is the surface area
and hence less amount of water is required for wetting the
surface and less paste is required for lubricating the surface to
reduce internal friction.
• Hence, smaller aggregate are less workable compared to
larger size aggregate.
Shape -Angular, flaky and elongated aggregate reduces the workability.
• Round/sub rounded aggregate have the following advantage-
I. For a given volume/weight, it has less surface and void, so excess paste is
available to give better lubricating effect.
II. Due to rounded shape it has less friction resistance.
Because of these reasons rounded aggregate show a high workability as
compared to angular, flaky or elongated aggregate.

Angular Round
ADMIXTURE

• The most important factor which affect the workability of concrete is

admixture.
• Plasticizers and superplasticizers greatly improve the workability.
• Air entraining agents are also used to increase the workability.
• Air entraining agents create a large number of very small bubbles. These
bubbles get distributed thoroughly the mass of concrete and acts as a roller
and increase workability.
• Pozzolanic materials are also used to improve workability are also used.
SURFACE TEXTURE OF AGGREGATE
• The influence of surface texture on workability is due to fact that rough
aggregate has more surface area than smooth aggregate of same volume.
• Rough textured aggregate will show poor workability and smooth/glassy
textured aggregate will give better workability.
• Less friction resistance offered by smooth aggregates also contribute to
higher workability.
GRADING OF
AGGREGATE

• Grading of aggregate has max influence on workability.

• The better the grading less amount of void in it. When total void are
less, excess paste is available to give better lubricating effect.
• With excess amount of paste the mixture becomes cohesive and
fatty which prevents segregation of particle and least amount of
compacting effort is required.
 Factors Affecting
Strength of Concrete
Concrete strength is affected by many factors, such as
quality of raw materials
water/cement ratio
coarse/fine aggregate ratio
age of concrete, compaction of concrete
temperature
relative humidity
curing of concrete.
Quality of Raw Materials
• Cement: Provided the cement conforms with the appropriate standard
and it has been stored correctly (i.e. in dry conditions), it should be
suitable for use in concrete.
• Aggregates: Quality of aggregates, its size, shape, texture, strength etc
determines the strength of concrete. The presence of salts (chlorides and
sulphates), silt and clay also reduces the strength of concrete.
• Water: frequently the quality of the water is covered by a clause stating
“..the water should be fit for drinking..”. This criterion though is not
absolute and reference should be made to respective codes for testing of
water for construction purpose.
Water / Cement Ratio
The relation between water cement ratio and strength of concrete is shown
in the plot as shown below:
The higher the water/cement ratio, the greater the initial spacing between
the cement grains and the greater the volume of residual voids not filled by
hydration products.
Coarse / fine aggregate ratio
• If the proportion of fines is increased in relation to the coarse aggregate,
the overall aggregate surface area will increase.
• If the surface area of the aggregate has increased, the water demand will
also increase.
• Assuming the water demand has increased, the water cement ratio will
increase.
• Since the water cement ratio has increased, the compressive strength will
decrease.
Aggregate / Cement Ratio
• If the volume remains the same and the proportion of cement in relation
to that of sand is increased the surface area of the solid will increase.
• If the surface area of the solids has increased, the water demand will
stay the same for the constant workability.
• Assuming an increase in cement content for no increase in water
demand, the water cement ratio will decrease.
• If the water cement ratio reduces, the strength of the concrete will
increase.
Compaction of concrete
• Any entrapped air resulting from inadequate compaction of the plastic
concrete will lead to a reduction in strength. If there was 10% trapped
air in the concrete, the strength will fall down in the range of 30 to
40%.
Temperature
• The rate of hydration reaction is temperature
dependent. If the temperature increases the reaction
also increases. This means that the concrete kept at
higher temperature will gain strength more quickly
than a similar concrete kept at a lower temperature.
• However, the final strength of the concrete kept at the
higher temperature will be lower. This is because the
physical form of the hardened cement paste is less
well structured and more porous when hydration
proceeds at faster rate.
• This is an important point to remember because
temperature has a similar but more pronounced
detrimental effect on permeability of the concrete.
Relative humidity
• If the concrete is allowed to dry out, the hydration reaction will stop.
The hydration reaction cannot proceed without moisture. The three
curves shows the strength development of similar concretes exposed to
different conditions.
Influence of Size of Specimen
• The difference in compressive strength of different sizes of specimens may be
due to several factors such as St Venant’s effect, size effect, or lateral restraint
effect due to the testing machine’s platen (Pillai and Menon 2003).
• In addition, the preparation of the end conditions (cappings) of the concrete
cylinder can signifi cantly affect the measured compressive strength. When the
height/diameter ratio of cylinders is less than 2.0, IS 516:1959, suggests a
correction factor as shown in Fig. 1.18. Standard cubes with height/width ratio
of 1.0 have been found to have higher compressive strength than standard
cylinders with height/diameter ratio of 2.0.
• The ratio of standard cylinder strength and standard cube strength is about 0.8–
0.95; higher ratio is applicable for HSC. Similarly 100 mm × 200 mm cylinders
exhibit 2–10 per cent higher strengths than 150 mm × 300 mm cylinders; the
difference is less for higher strength concrete (Graybeal and Davis 2008).
Correction Factor vs Height/Diameter ratio
Factors Affecting Durability
of Concrete
Cement Content Abrasion
Aggregate Quality Carbonation
Water Quality Wetting and Drying
Concrete Compaction Cycles
Curing Period Freezing and Thawing
Permeability Alkali-Aggregate
Reaction
Moisture
Sulfate Attack
Temperature
Cement Content
• Quantity of cement used in concrete mix will also be a factor affecting
durability of concrete.
• If cement content used is lower than the required, then water cement
ratio becomes reduced and workability also reduced.
• Adding more water to this mix results in formation capillary voids which
will make concrete as permeable material.
• If excess cement content is used, problems like drying shrinkage, alkali-
silica reaction may occur which finally effects the durability of concrete.
Aggregate Quality
• Use of good quality aggregates in concrete mix will surely increase the
durability of hardened concrete.
• The shape of aggregate particles should be smooth and round. Flaky
and elongated aggregates effects the workability of fresh concrete.
• For better bond development between ingredients rough textured
angular aggregates are recommended but they require more cement
content.
• Aggregate should be well graded to achieve dense concrete mix.
• Aggregates should be tested for its moisture content before using.
Excess moisture in aggregate may lead to highly workable mix.
Water Quality
• Quality of water used in concrete mixing also effects the durability of
concrete. In general, potable water is recommended for making
concrete.
• pH of water used shall be in the range of 6 to 8.
• Water should be clean and free from oils, acids, alkalies, salts, sugar,
organic materials etc.
• Presence of these impurities will lead to corrosion of steel or
deterioration of concrete by different chemical reactions
Concrete Compaction

• While placing concrete, it is important to compact the placed concrete

without segregation.
• Improperly compacted concrete contain number of air voids in it
which reduces the concrete strength and durability.
Carbonation
• When moist concrete is exposed to atmosphere, carbon dioxide
present in atmosphere reacts with concrete and reduces pH of
concrete.
• When pH of concrete reaches below 10, reinforcement present in the
concrete starts corroding.
• Corrosion of reinforcement causes cracks in concrete and deterioration
takes place
Alkali Aggregate Reaction
• Alkali-aggregate reaction or alkali-silica reaction, takes place between
alkali content of cement and silica content of aggregates is also a major
factor effecting durability of concrete.
• Due to this reaction, Concrete expansion occurs which finally lead to
severe cracking and concrete gets deteriorated.
• Use of cement with less alkali content, Non-reactive aggregates,
pozzolanic materials like fly ash or slag cement, Lithium-based
admixture in concrete will help to overcome this problem.
Sulfate Attack
• When concrete structures are attacked by sulfates like sodium
sulfate, magnesium sulfate etc. concrete disintegration happens.
• This reaction is due to the chemical reaction between hydrated
cement products and sulfate solutions.
• Sulfate attack generally happens when water used for concrete
mix contains high sulfate content, Due to unwashed aggregates,
when soil around the concrete structure contains sulfates in it etc.
• This can be prevented by using sulfate resisting cement, by
adding slag cement, by decreasing permeability etc.