WELDING OF PIPELINES AND
RELATED FACILITIES
API STANDARD 1104
NINETEENTH EDITION,
SEPTEMBER 1999
11.1 RADIOGRAPHIC TEST METHODS
11.1.1 General
Subsection 11.1 presents the requirements for
producing radiographic images on film or other media
through the use of X-rays or gamma rays.
A detailed procedure for the production of images shall
be established and recorded.
11.1 RADIOGRAPHIC TEST METHODS
11.1.1 General (lanjutan)
Radiographic film produced by the use of this
procedure shall have the density (see 11.1.10). clarity,
and contrast required by this standard.
Images produced by other systems shall have the
requisite sensitivity to define clearly the essential hole
or wire diameter of the proper penetrameter.
Clarity = kejelasan = definisii
11.1.1 General
(lanjutan)
The following criteria shall be used to evaluate images:
a. An acceptable image quality that is free from fog
and from processing irregularities that could mask
the image of actual imperfections.
b. The prescribed penetrameter and the essential hole
or wire diameter.
c. A satisfactory identification system.
d. An acceptable technique and setup.
e. Compatibility with acceptance standards.
11.1.1 General
(lanjutan)
All requirements that refer to the quality of the
resulting images shall apply equally to X-rays and
gamma rays. The use of radiographic inspection and
the frequency of its use shall be at the option of the
company.
11.1.1 General
(lanjutan)
The company and the radiographic contractor should
agree on the radiographic procedure or procedures to be
used prior to the performance of production radiography.
The company shall require the contractor to demonstrate
that the proposed procedures produce acceptable images
and shall require the contractor to use such procedures
for production radiography.
11.1.2 Details of Procedure
11.1.2.1 General
The details of each radiographic procedure shall be
recorded.
A copy of the record shall be furnished to the
company for its records.
The record may be in the form of writing, a sketch, or
both.
As a minimum, each procedure shall include the
applicable details listed in 11.1.2.2 and 11.1.2.3.
11.1.2 Details of Procedure
11.1.2.2 Film Radiography
As a minimum, the procedure for film radiography
shall include the following details:
a. Radiation source---the type of radiation source,
the size of the effective source or focal spot, and
the voltage rating of the X-ray equipment
b. Intensifying screens---the type and placement
of the screens and. if lead is used. their thickness.
11.1.2 Details of Procedure
11.1.2.2 Film Radiography (lanjutan)
c. Film --- the film brand or type or both and the number
of frames in the holder or cassette. For multiple-film
techniques, the way in which the film is to be viewed
shall be specified.
11.1.2.2 Film Radiography
(lanjutan)
d. Exposure geometry---whether single-wall exposure
for single-wall viewing (SWE/SWV), double-wall
exposure for single-wall viewing (DWE/SWV), or
double-wall exposure for double-wall viewing
(DWE/DWV); the distance from the source or focal
spot to the film; the relative positions of the film,
weld, source, penetrameters, and interval or reference
markers; and the number of exposures required for
radiography of a complete weld.
11.1.2.2 Film Radiography
(lanjutan)
e. Exposure conditions---whether milliampere or curie
minutes. the X-ray voltage or the input voltage and
amperage, and the exposure time.
f. Processing---whether automatic or manual; the time
and temperature for development and the time for stop
bath or rinsing, fixing, and washing; and drying details.
g. Materials---the type and thickness range of material
for which the procedure is suitable.
11.1.2.2 Film Radiography
(lanjutan)
h. Penetrameters---for hole type penetrameters: the
type, material, identifying number, and essential hole,
and the shim material and thickness. For wire type
penetrameters: the type material, identifying ASTM set
letter, and essential wire diameter.
i. Heat shields-material--- thickness, and the distance
from the film side of the heat shield to the pipe surface.
11.1.2.3 Other Imaging Media
As a minimum, the procedure for radiography using
imaging media other than film shall include the following
details:
a. Radiation source---the type of radiation source, the
size of the effective source or focal spot, and the
voltage rating of the X-ray equipment.
b. The image collection system used.
c. The image processing system used.
d. The image viewing system used.
e. The image storage system used.
11.1.2.3 Other Imaging Media
(lanjutan)
f. Exposure geometry---whether SWE/SWV, DWE/SWV,
or DWE/DWV; whether in motion or still imaging; the
scanningspeed for in motion imaging the distance from
the source or focal spot to the imager surface: the
relative positions of the imager surface, weld, source,
penetrameters. and the intervals or reference markers;
the amount of geometric magnification; the total
magnification used for viewing: and the number of
images required for radiography of a complete weld.
11.1.2.3 Other Imaging Media
(lanjutan)
g. Exposure conditions---whether milliampere or curie
minutes, the X-ray voltage or the input voltage and
amperage, and when applicable, the exposure time.
h. Materiais---the type and thickness range of material for
which the procedure is suitable.
11.1.2.3 Other Imaging Media
(lanjutan)
g. Pcnetrameters---for hole type penetrameters: the type,
material, identifying number. and essential hole, and
the shim material and thickness. For wire type
penetrameters: the type,material, identifying ASTM set
letter, and essential wire diameter.
h. Heat shields---material. thickness, and the distance
from the imaging side of the heat shield to the pipe
surface.
11.1.3 Exposure Geometry
11.1.3.1 Film Radiography
When a radiographic source is centered in the pipe for
exposing a butt weld, one exposure is adequate for the
radiographic inspection of the complete weld
(SWE/SWV).
When the radiographic source is outside but not more
than ½ inch (13 mm) from the weld surface, at least
three exposures separated by 120° shall be made for the
radiographic inspection of a complete weld
(DWE/SWV).
11.1.3.1 Film Radiography
(lanjutan)
When the radiographic source is outside and more
than ½ inch (13 mm) from the weld surface, at least
four exposures separated by 90o shall be made for the
radiographic inspection of a complete weld
(DWE/SWV).
When the diameter of the piping containing the weld is
3.500 in. (88.9 mm) or less, a DWE/DWV procedure
may be used.
11.1.3.1 Film Radiography
(lanjutan)
When this procedure is used and the radiation beam is
offset so that the source-side and film-side portions of
the weld do not overlap in the areas of the radiograph
being evaluated. at least two exposures separated by 90°
shall be made for the radiographic inspection of a
complete weld.
11.1.3.1 Film Radiography
(lanjutan)
When the source-side and film-side portions of the
weld are superimposed, at least three exposures
separated by 60o shall be made for the radiographic
inspection of a complete weld.
When smaller diameter, thicker wall pipe is
radiographed, additional exposures should be made to
minimize the distortion of imperfection images at the
ends of the radiographs.
11.1.3.1 Film Radiography
(lanjutan)
The minimum distance between the source or focal
spot and the source side of the object being
radiographed shall be determined by the following
formula (using constant units of measurement):
D = St/k
11.1.3.1 Film Radiography
(lanjutan)
Where
D = minimum distance, in inches, between the
source or focal spot and the source side of the object
being radiographed
S = size, in inches, of the effective source or
focal spot.
t = thickness of the weld, in inches, including
reinforcement, plus the distance between the film
side of the weld and the film.
k = geometric unsharpness factor.
11.1.3.1 Film Radiography
(lanjutan)
When t is determined for SWE/SWV and DWE/SWV
procedures, the thickness of the single wall and its weld
reinforcement shall be used. When t is determined for
DWE/DWV procedures, the outside diameter of the
weld (that is, the outside diameter of the pjpe plus twice
the average height of the weld crown) shall be used.
Normally, k is 0.02 in. (0.5 mm) for material with a
thickness of less than or equal to 2.000 in. (50.8 mm).
11.1.3.1 Film Radiography
(lanjutan)
The final acceptance of the exposure geometry shall be
based on the ability to see the prescribed penetrameter
image and the essential hole or wire diameter.
11.1.3.2 Other Imaging Media
The final acceptance of the exposure geometry shall be
based on the ability to see the prescribed penetrameter
image and the essential hole or wire diameter. For in-
motion imaging, the exposure geometry shall be
evaluated at the maximum scanning speed to be used
during the radiographic inspection of the complete weld.
11.1.4 Type of Penetrameters
Penetrameters shall conform to the requirements of
either ASTM E 1025 or Figure 21 for hole type
penetrameters or ASTM E 747 for wire type
penetrameters.
The company shall determine the set of requirements
to be used.
Penetrameters shall be made of material that is
radiographically similar to the material being welded.
Figure 21
11.1.5 Selection of Penetrameters
11.1.5.1 Hole Type Penetrameters
The maximum thickness of the hole type penetrameters
to be used, based on the thickness of the pipe wall or
the weld, and its identifying number, are shown in
Table 5 for ASTM E 1025 penetrameters and in Table 6
for Figure 21 penetrameters.
Table Peny
11.1.5.1 Hole Type Penetrameters
(lanjutan)
If the choice of penetrameters is based on weld
thickness, shims of material that are radiographically
similar to that of the pipe and equivalent in thickness to
the average weld buildup shall be placed under the
penetrameter.
If the choice of penetrameter is based on pipe wall
thickness, shims need not be used.
Table Peny
11.1.5.1 Hole Type Penetrameters
(lanjutan)
At the radiographic contractor's option, penetrameters
thinner than those specified above may be used,
provided the required radiographic sensitivity is
obtained.
The radiographic images of the hole type penetrameter's
outline, identifying numbers, and essential hole shall all
appear clearly.
11.1.5.1 Hole Type Penetrameters
(lanjutan)
The essential holes for both ASTM E 1025 and Figure
21 penetrameters shall be the 2T hole.
For Figure 21 penetrameters, the 2T hole need not be
less than 1/16 in. ( 1.6 mm) in diameter.
11.1.5.2 Wire Type Penetrameters
The essential wire diameter to be used, based on the
thickness of the weld, is shown in Table 7 for ASTM
E 747 wire penetrameters.
At the radiographic contractor's option, smaller
wire diameter penetrameters than those specified
above may be used, provided the required
radiographic sensitivity is obtained.
11.1.5.2 Wire Type Penetrameters
The radiographic images of the wire type
penetrameter's identifying style number and ASTM
set letter shall appear clearly.
The image of the essential wire diameter shall appear
clearly across the entire area of interest.
11.1.6 Placement of Penetrameters
11.1.6.1 Film
Except as provided in item c, below, penetrameters shall
be placed in contact with the piping.
11.1.6.1 Film
a. Hole type penetrameters
When a complete weld is radiographed in a single
exposure using a source inside the piping, at least four
penetrameters placed parallel to the weld and spaced
approximately equally around the circumference shall
be used.
For the DWE/DWV procedure, one penetrameter
shall be placed on the source side of the pipe and
adjacent to the weld so that its image is not
superimposed onto the weld image.
a. Hole type penetrameters
(lanjutan)
For the DWE/SWV or SWE/SWV procedures
requiring multiple exposures for complete inspection
of the weld, and where the length of film to be
interpreted is greater than 5 in. ( 130 mm), two
penetrameters placed parallel to the weld and located
on the film side shall be used. One shall be within 1 in.
(25 mm) of the end of the film length to be interpreted
and the other shall be at the center of the film.
a. Hole type penetrameters
(lanjutan)
When the film length to be interpreted is 5 in. (130
mm) or less, one penetrameter shall be placed on the
film side, parallel to the weld and located at the center
of the length to be interpreted.
When a repaired weld is radiographed, at least one
penetrameter shall be placed adjacent to each repaired
area.
b. Wire type penetrameters
The number and location of wire type penetrameters
shall be the same as described for the hole type
penetrameters except that the wires shall be placed
across the weld and perpendicular to the weld length.
c. Heat shields
Penetrameters may be placed on a heat shield rather
than in contact with the pipe, provided that the
acceptability of such penetrameter placement is
demonstrated prior to production testing.
11.1.6.2 Other Imaging Media
For imaging media other than film, penetrameter
placement shall be the same as that required by 1
1.1.6.1.
Penetrameters may be placed above the surface of the
pipe or held in position between the surface of the pipe
and the imager by a fixture attached to the imager or
scanning device.
11.1.6.2 Other Imaging Media
(lanjutan)
Acceptability of such penetrameter placement shall be
qualified prior to production radiography using
penetrameters placed in contact with the pipe
simultaneously with and adjacent to those placed or
positioned by a fixture above the surface of the pipe.
11.1.7 Production Radiography
Only Level II or III radiographers shall interpret the
radiographic images of production welds.
Radiographers shall report to the company all defects
observed in the image unless the company requires that
all imperfections observed be reported.
11.1.7 Production Radiography
(lanjutan)
The radiographer shall indicate whether the weld meets
the requirements of Section 9.
The company shall determine the final disposition of
the weld.
11.1.8 Identification of Images
Images shall be clearly identified by the use of lead
numbers, lead letters, markers, or other
identification so that the proper weld and any
imperfections in it can be quickly and accurately
located.
The company may specify the identification
procedure to be used.
11.1.8 Identification of Images
(lanjutan)
Whenever more than one image is used to inspect a
weld, identification markers shall appear on each
image, and adjacent images shall overlap.
The last reference marker on each end of the image
shall appear on the appropriate adjacent images in a
way that establishes that no part of the weld has
been omitted.
11.1.9 Storage of Film and Other Imaging
Media
11.1.9.1 Film
All unexposed films shall be stored in a clean, dry place
where the conditions will not detrimentally affect the
emulsion.
If any question arises about the condition of the
unexposed film, sheets from the front and back of each
package or a length of film equal to the circumference of
each original roll shall be processed in the normal
manner without exposure to light or radiation.
11.1.9 Storage of Film ……
11.1.9.1 Film (lanjutan)
If the processed film shows fog, the entire box or roll
from which the test film was removed shall be
discarded, unless additional tests prove that the
remaining film in the box or roll is free from pre-
exposure fog exceeding 0.30 H&D transmitted density
for transparent-based film or 0.05 H&D reflected density
for opaque-based film.
Note: H&D refers to the Hurter-Driffield method of defining
quantitative blackening of the film.
11.1.9.2 Other Imaging Media
Imaging media other than film shall be stored in strict
accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
11.1.10 Film Density
11.1.10.1 Film Density
Except for small localized areas caused by irregular
weld configurations, the transmitted H&D density in the
area of interest of transparent-based film shall not be less
than 1.8 nor greater than 4.0.
The reflected H&D density for opaque-based film shall
not be less than 0.5 nor greater than 1.5.
11.1.10.1 Film Density
(lanjutan)
Transmitted H&D densities through small localized
areas may exceed these limits; however, minimum
densities shall not be less than 1.5 and maximum
densities shall not exceed 4.2; reflected H&D density
shall not be less than 0.25 and shall not exceed 1.8.
11.1.1.1 Film Viewing Equipment
The viewing equipment (illuminator) shall be of the
variable high-intensity type and shall be capable of
viewing film densities within the range specified in
11.1.10.1.
It shall be equipped to prevent light, coming from
around the outer edge of the radiograph or through
low density portions of the radiograph, from
interfering with interpretations.
11.1.1.2 Film Viewing Facilities
Viewing facilities shall provide subdued background
lighting of an intensity that will not cause troublesome
reflections, shadows, or glare on the radiograph.
11.1.1 Image Processing
When requested by the company, film or other
imaging media shall be processed, handled, and stored
so that the images are interpretable for at least 3 years
after they are produced.
11.1.2 Image Processing Area
The image processing area and all accessories shall be
kept clean at all times.
11.1.1 Radiation Protection
The radiographer shall be responsible for the
protection and monitoring of every person working
with or near radiation sources. The protection and
monitoring shall comply with applicable federal,
state, and local regulations.
Figure 21 - Standard Penetrameter
Notes Figure 21
1. T = thickness of penetrameter; Diameter A = 2T; Diameter B
=T; Diameter C = 4T
2. No hole need be less than 1/16 in. (1.6 mm) in diameter.
3. The holes shall be round and drilled perpendicular to the
surface. The edges shall be free from burrs but shall not be
chamfered.
4. Each penetrameter shall carry a lead identification number.
5. The tolerances for penetrameter thickness and hole diameter
shall be ± 10 percent or one-half the thickness increment
between penetrameter sizes, whichever is smaller.
Kembali ke slide 14
Table 5 - Thickness of Pipe Versus Thickness of
ASTM E 1025 Penetrameter
P ipe Wa ll or We ld Thickne s s Ma ximum P e ne tra me te r Thickne s s
Ide ntifying Numbe r
Inche s Millime tre s Inche s Millime tre s
0 - 0.250 0 - 6.4 0.0125 0.32 12
> 0.250 - 0.375 > 6.4 - 9.5 0.0150 0.38 15
> 0.375 - 0.500 > 9.5 - 12.7 0.0175 0.44 17
> 0.500 - 0.750 > 12.7 - 19.1 0.0200 0.51 20
> 0.750 - 1.000 > 19.1 - 25.4 0.0250 0.64 25
> 1.000 - 2.000 > 25.4 - 50.8 0.0300 0.76 30
Table 6 - Thickness of Pipe Versus Thickness of
Penetrametera
P ipe Wa ll or We ld Thickne s s Ma ximum P e ne tra me te r Thickne s s
Ide ntifying Numbe r
Inche s Millime tre s Inche s Millime tre s
0 - 0.250 0 - 6.4 0.0050 0.13 5
> 0.250 - 0.375 > 6.4 - 9.5 0.0075 0.19 7
> 0.375 - 0.500 > 9.5 - 12.7 0.0100 0.25 10
> 0.500 - 0.625 > 12.7 - 15.9 0.0125 0.32 12
> 0.625 - 0.750 > 15.9 - 19.1 0.0150 0.38 15
> 0.750 - 0.875 > 19.1 - 22.2 0.0175 0.44 17
> 0.875 - 1.000 > 22.2 - 25.4 0.0200 0.51 20
> 1.000 - 1.250 > 25.4 - 31.8 0.0250 0.64 25
> 1.250 - 1.500 > 31.8 - 38.1 0.0300 0.76 30
> 1.500 - 2.000 > 38.1 -50.8 0.0350 0.89 35
a
See Figure 21
Table 7 - Thickness of Pipe Versus Diameter of
ASTM E 747 Wire Penetrameter
P ipe Wa ll or We ld Thickne s s Es s e ntia l Wire Dia me te r
AS TM S e t Le tte r
Inche s Millime tre s Inche s Millime tre s
0 - 0.250 0 - 6.4 0.008 0.20 A
> 0.250 - 0.375 > 6.4 - 9.5 0.010 0.25 A or B
> 0.375 - 0.500 > 9.5 - 12.7 9,013 0.33 B
> 0.500 - 0.750 > 12.7 - 19.1 0.016 0.41 B
> 0.750 - 1.000 > 19.1 - 25.4 0.020 0.51 B
> 1.000 - 2.000 > 25.4 - 50.8 0.025 0.64 B
Kembali ke slide 15
