Sources of Water

Presented by
Prabhat (97)
Pradeep.S (98) Tutor
Pradeep.R (99)
Asst. Prof. Shukra Raj Paudel
Prafulla (100)
Pramod (101) Department of Civil Engineering
Prasanna (102) IOE, Tribhuvan University
1
After this presentation, we can able to understand about

Able to know about water cycle

Can understand the various types of surface water

Can able to determine the capacity of impounded reservoir

Various types of ground water

Can understand about rainfall harvesting

Able to make best selection of water resources

2
 Sources of
Water
Classification of Sources
of Water
Surface Sources

SubSurface Geological
Condition Ground Sources

Selection Of Water Sources

3
Surface water Sources of Water Ground water

River
Springs
Stream
Wells
Lakes

Ponds Infiltration Gallery

Impounded Reservoir Infiltration Wells

 The Hydrological Cycle
www.class4beds.wordpress.com
5
 Phenomena of Water Cycle
1 Evaporation Conversion of liquid water into gaseous state

2 Condensation Conversion of vapor into liquid

3 Precipitation Any form water that falls on earth surface
4 Infiltration Absorption of water into the soil layer
5 Runoff Flow of precipitated water from high to low
elevation below or above the surface

6 Evapotranspiration Release of water vapor from plants into air

7 Subsurface flow Flow of water below the ground surface

6
Surface Sources

Fig: Stream
Fig: River Fig: Impounded Reservoir

www.meva-international.com
www.natureflip.com
www.en.wikipedia.org
www.cc.gatech.edu
www.lincolnecology.org.nz
Fig: Lake Fig: Pond 7
 River

• A river is a natural channel that carries surface run off from high gradient path
to low gradient path.
• Receives runoff from catchment area or drainage basin.
• Size increases as tributaries increases.

Types of river

Perennial river(water is available

throughtout the year)
Fig: River
Non Perennial river www.slideshare.net
8
Hydraulic Structures Built Across the River:

Fig:Dam-Creating Reservoir

Fig:Barrage-Diverting the flow

www.natureflip.com
Fig:Weir–Accumulate the flow 9
Quality of River/Stream Water

• At Higher Altitudes: Better Quality

• At Lower Altitudes: Poor Quality due to

Fig: Marsyandi River
sediments

• Near Populated Cities: Worst Quality

www.blog.nepaladvisor.com
www.sanjaal.com Fig : Bagmati River 10
 Fig: River Koshi
Fig :River Karnali

www.youtube.com
www.blog.nepaladvisor.com
www.youtube.com
www.blog.nepaladvisor.com
www.sanjaal.com

Fig : River Narayani

11
Stream

• Natural Drainage Channel found in

Mountainous Region

• Smaller Size, Depth and Catchment Area than

River

• Quality of water is good except the first Run

off.

Fig:Stream

www.gravitysmith.com

12
Types of Stream Based on Groundwater Flow:

Fig : Gaining Stream Fig: Losing Stream

www.cals.arizona.edu 13
Lake
A large natural depression that gets filled up
with water is called Lake.
•  Found in mountain and hilly areas
• Quality –Depends upon the catchment
characteristics.
• Quantity –Depends on following factors:
1. Size of Lake
2. Catchment Area
3. Annual Rainfall
4. Porosity of Ground
5. Geological Formations
6. Orientation of GWT Fig : Lake
14
Ponds

Natural/Artificial depression found in plain areas smaller than lake is Pond

 Bad quality of water

Must be properly treated before use

 Not used as water supply source
 
Less quantity of water Fig Section of Pond
www.medicaldaily.com

Can be used for animal bathing and irrigation purposes
15
Impounded Reservoir

 It basin constructed in the valley of a stream or river
 for the purpose of holding stream flow.

  stored water may be used when water supply is
insufficient. E.g. Sundarijal Dam 

 Two functions: i) To impound water for beneficial use
ii) To retard flood

Fig : Impounded Reservoir

16
The location of impounded reservoir depends upon 
 The quality and quantity of water available
 Existence of suitable dam site
 Distance and elevation of reservoir
 Density and distribution of population 
 Geological conditions etc.

The water quality is the same as in streams and rivers.

Fig: Impounded Reservoir www.slideshare.net

17
Site Selection of Impounded Reservoir :

 Narrow river channel but rapidly

widening upstream.

 Quantity of water should be

sufficient

 Important infrastructures should

not get submerged.

 Site location in the elevation to

aid water flow due to gravity

Fig: Narrow river channel

18
 Capacity Determination:
• If in every month :
Inflow > Demand : No need of reservoir.
• If in every month :
Total Inflow < Total Demand :Project not feasible.

 Methods of Capacity Determination :

1) Analytical method

2) Mass curve method

19
 Analytical Method

Maximum
Cumulative Surplus

+
Maximum Cumulative
Deficit

-
Total Inflow
Capacity

+
Total Demand

20
Q) The yield of water from the catchment area is given below . Determine analytically
the minimum storage capacity of the impounded reservoir to maintain a constant draft
3
of 4.4 mill m of water per month . Neglect all losses and wastage

Mon Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Inflo 1.5 2.0 2.5 5.0 6.0 8.2 9.0 7.5 5.0 3.5 3.1 2.0
w
( Mil
m3 )

21
Solution :
Here , Water Demand = 4.4 Mm3 /month
Month Inflow Demand Cum Inflow Cum Demand Cum Surplus Cum Deficit

Jan 1.5 4.4 1.5 4.4 2.9

Feb 2.0 4.4 3.5 8.8 5.3
Mar 2.5 4.4 6.0 13.2 7.2
Apr 5.0 4.4 11.0 17.6 6.6
May 6.0 4.4 17.0 22.0 5.0
Jun 8.2 4.4 25.2 26.4 1.2
Jul 9.0 4.4 34.2 30.8 3.4
Aug 7.5 4.4 41.7 35.2 6.5
Sep 5.0 4.4 46.7 39.6 7.1
Oct 3.5 4.4 50.2 44.0 6.2
Nov 3.1 4.4 53.3 48.4 4.9
Dec 2.0 4.4 55.3 52.8 2.5
Total 55.3 52.8

Capacity of impounded reservoir

=Max Cum. Surplus+Max. Cum. Deficit–Total Inflow+Total Demand
= 7.1+7.2-55.3+52.8= 11.8 Mm3 22
23
Subsurface Geological Formation
a) Aquifer : Water bearing permeable layer.
i) Unconfined aquifer
ii) Confined aquifer
b) General Introduction to Aquiclude, Aquifuge and Aquitard

Fig: Artesian Well 24

Aquifer
An aquifer is an underground layer of water bearing permeable rock, rock
fractures or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt) from
which groundwater can be extracted using a water well.

Type of Aquifer

•Confined Aquifer
Those bodies of water that accumulate in the permeable rock and are
enclosed between two impermeable layers.

•Unconfined Aquifer
An unconfined aquifer groundwater level coincides with the surface

and is in direct contact with the soil under saturated zone

•Semi confined Aquifer

The less permeability, but is not waterproof, allowing discharge and 25
 Aquitard
•It is a formation through which only seepage is possible and thus the yield is
significant compared to an aquifer
•Appreciable quantities of water may leak to an aquifer below it
• It is partly permeable. e.g. sandy clay

Aquiclude
•It is porous but not permeable
•Argillaceous rocks like shale and clay are typical examples.

Aquifuge
• It
is neither porous nor permeable.
•There are no interconnected openings and hence it cannot transmit water
• Naturally these are not suitable for ground water occurrence. Massive granites and
quartzite are typical examples.
26
In Summary

Aquifers Having
both porosity and per
meability
Aquicludes Having porosity but no
permeability
Aquitard Having 
porosity but limited
permeability.
Aquifuge Having neither porosity
nor permeability.

Fig : Showing type of Aquifer , Aquiclude ,Aquitard

http://slideplayer.com
27
 Ground Sources www.slideshare.net

 Exists below the ground surface

 The quality is generally good due to natural
filtrating capacity
 Tends to have high mineral contents

Minerals Problems
Iron and Taste Fig: Infiltration gallery
Manganese Odour
Colour

Calcium and Water hard

Magnesium
Iron and Sulphide Rotten egg odour

Fig: Spring 28
Springs
A natural flow of ground water as current or stream of flowing water.

1)Gravity Springs 2)Non gravity springs

• Resulting from non gravitational
• Resulting from gravitational • forces
forces
Types
Types
 Volcanic Springs
 Depression Springs
 Fissure springs
 Contact or Surface Springs
 Artesian Springs

29
 Gravity Springs
• Resulting from gravitational forces

a) Depression springs

 Formed due to overflowing of the water table where the

ground surface intersects water table .

 The flow is variable with the rise or fall of water table 

  In order to meet with such fluctuations, a deep 
trench may be constructed.

  The saturated ground above the elevation of the 
trench bottom will act as a storage reservoir.

Fig www.slideshare.net
:Depression Spring
Prof. Dr. Kansakar2015
30
b. Contact or surface springs

 Created by a permeable water bearing

formation over lying a less permeable or
impermeable formation that intersects
the ground surface.
 Relatively small amount of underground
 storage available above the elevation of
 the overflow crest.

 The flow from them is uncertain and likely to 
cease after a drought.

 Suchsprings can also be developed by the 
cconstruction of a cutoff trench or a cutoff wall.
www.kgs.ku.edu
Fig : Contact Spring
 c. Artesian Spring

 They result from release of water

under pressure from confined aquifers
either at an outcrop of the aquifer or through
an opening in the confining bed
 The amount of water available in an artesian
spring may be large if the catchment area is large 

 The flow may be slightly increased by removal of 
obstructions from the mouth of the spring

Fig : Artesian spring

32
Non gravity springs
• Resulting from non gravitational forces

 Volcanic Spring 
 Associated with volcanic rocks 

 Fissure spring 
 Results from fractures extending to the great depths in the earth’s crust 

 These are also called hot springs 

  Contain high minerals as well as sulphur also

Uses
o Not for Domestic purposes
o Some may be useful for the cure of skin diseases
33
Wells
A well is a hole or shaft , usually vertical extended in the ground for bringing ground water
to the surface.
It can be classified into

1) Open Well or Dug Well 2)Tube Well

 Comparatively large diameter  Comparatively small diameter

 low yields and are not very deep  Very deep

 The diameter usually vary from 1 to 10  Depth ranges from 30 to 600

meters. meters

 The depth ranges from 2 to 20 meters.

34
1)Open Wells/Dug Wells

o These are constructed by digging hence also 
called dug wells.

o The walls may be of brick, stone masonry
or precast rings.

o Thickness of wall varies from 0.5 to 0.75 m depending
 upon the depth of the well.

It is also further classified as following two types
Fig: Open Well
https://www.cgstudio.com
i. Shallow Open Well a. Gravity well

ii. Deep Open Well b. Pressure well

35
36
Shallow Open Wells Deep Open Wells

Rest on top water bearing strata Rest on impervious strata

Draw and Supplies from surrounding material Draw and Supplies from permeable formation
lying below impervious strata

Yield is less and uncertain due to variation in Yield is more and uniform as there is no
groundwater table fluctuations in water level

Used as a source for individual household Used for small community

Contain large amount of suspended particles and May contain dissolved minerals
bacterial contamination

37
a) Gravity wells
o The water flows under gravity into the well and rises to the height saturated
material surrounding it
b) Pressure wells/Artesian wells
o Artesian wells coincide with the confined aquifer .
o The water is provided to the surface without any sort of assistance when there is
enough pressure in the aquifer.

Fig: Artesian Well 38

2) Tube Wells

- It is a long pipe sunk into the ground intercepting one or more water
bearing stratum.

The diameter are more or less as compared to the open well.

Shallow Wells : Max 30m
Deep Wells : Max 600m

These tube wells may be classified as:

i) Strainer type tube well

ii) Cavity type tube well
iii) Slotted type tube well

Fig : Tube Well

39
Cavity type of tube well
- Borehole is dug until it finds the previous layer of
water.

- Pumping is done and sandy water is withdrawn

- Cavity formation occurs at the sandy layer and

thus water enters the sand pore at critical velocity
but less than in the cavity

- Thus after some time clear water is obtained

40
Strainer Type of tube well
- If not stated tube well means Strainer
type.

- The Strainer pipes and blinds pipes are

alternately placed.

- Strainer consist of Fine wire mesh

wrapped round a perforated pipe.

- Size of opening of wire mesh =D60, D70

of surrounding soil.

Fig: Strainer Type Tube Well

41
 Slotted type tube well

Derives water from aquifer using education pipe and casing

www.slideshare.net 42
Infiltration Gallery

- Structure built to intercept and collect the

groundwater flowing into river or lake

-Horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel ,
usually rectangular (arched also) 
in cross section

-Also known as Horizontal Well

-It is generally located near a perennial
recharge source such as the bank or
under bed of a river and 3 to 10 meters 
below the ground

-The quantity and quality depends 
upon the location and area of coverage. Fig :Infiltration Gallery
43
Infiltration Wells
- Shallow wells constructed in series along
the bank of river to collect the water
seeping through the bank.

- Constructed of brick Masonry

- For purpose of inspection, manhole is
provided in the top cover of the well.

- Water has to pass through sandbed 
and gets purified to some extent.

- Water flow from infiltration well to jack

well by gravity

44
Selection of Water Sources
a. Location
  It should be near to the consumer’s area or town as far as possible. 
  Location may be at higher elevation 
 
b. Quantity of Water
  Meet the demand for that design period in the wet and dry seasons also.
  If possible, there should be sufficient supply for future extension of project.

c. Quality of Water
 The water should be safe and free from pathogenic bacteria, germs and pollution.

d. Cost
 Gravity system of flow is generally cheaper than pumping.
 Lesser the impurities, lesser the treatment and cost is reduced.
45
Thank you
For Watching

46