DEFINATION

• Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processesbehaviour icludes all our expressed and unexpressed actions verbal and non

verbal expressions

• Mental processesses refers to all our thinking ,feelingns and recalls

• the scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those affecting behaviour in a given context.
CT
• To undersdand all this psychologists use more precise methods to get acurate infprmation

• In greek psychology: psche-soul and logus –study,mind

• Science which aims to give us a better undersdanding and control of the behaviour of an organisim as a whole ( william mcdouggall)
SCIENCE
• abody of systimatized knowledge that is observed,gathered and measured

• it has general laws and principalesto predict events as cauraely as possible

• Anthropology: study of human beings of different cultures

• Sociology:Study of socienty and how they ineract on a daily basis

• Behaviour: refers to all attributes of humans that can be displayed ,feled or observed.this includes our thinking actions speaking and

emotional activities like feelings

• Science is a general way of understanding the natural world. Its three fundamental features are systematic empiricism, empirical questions,
and public knowledge.
• Psychology is a science because it takes the scientific approach to understanding human behavior.
• Pseudoscience refers to beliefs and activities that are claimed to be scientific but lack one or more of the three features of science. It is
important to distinguish the scientific approach to understanding human behavior from the many pseudoscientific approaches
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
PSYCHOLOGY
CT
• Psychology as a separate area of study, split from philosophy about 100 years ago

• Successes in the experimental studies gave the impetus to study the mind and behaviour scientifically

• Wellhem a germany was the first philosopher to open a labaratory for the study of psychology

• 1832-1920 he became the first person to measure human bwhaviour acuratly

• He is the father of psychology

CT

Started in the 1800 under philosophy

Was a branch of the domain of philosophy until the 1860s, when it developed as an independent scientific discipline in Germany.

• various schools of psychology have dominated the scene at different points in time, from structuralism and functionalism, to Freud’s

psychodynamic theory, behaviorism, humanism, and the cognitive revolution

• modern psychology, researchers and practitioners consider some of these historical approaches but also approach the study of mind

and behavior through a variety of lenses, including biological, cognitive, developmental, social, and health perspectives.
FOUNDATION OF PSYCHOLOGY

• psychologists comprehend and study human nature and its disorders

• help people with psychological disorders.

• This subject lays a foundation for understandings and further study in psychology

• learn how psychologists go about conceptualising and studying human nature, and how the brain works to produce thoughts, emotions and complex behaviour.

•
psychologists approach the diagnosis and treatment of the conditions associated with the mind- anxiety and mood disorders .
CT

- How they classify mental disorders

- The essential diagnostic approach

The basic processes involved in experiencing and then coping with stress, and what happens when our coping strategies fail
GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
1.TO DESCRIBE: accurately too decribe an issue ,behaviour or a problem

This helps psychologist to get more acurate understanding of human and animal behaviours and thoughts

We use case studies,reseach surveys tests and observations to gain this knowledge

2.TO EXPLAIN:

Explaining behaviour and this provides answeres to questions as to why peoplebehave in certain ways.

How certain factors influence personality and mental health

We use experiments in so doing theorise have been developed.eg pavlov classical conditioning and bowllby attachment theory
GOALS CT

3.TO PREDICT: making prediction about how human and animal think and act
• Helps in predicting future events:when howand why observed behaviour may occur-patterns of behaviour

• Gaining better undersdanding of our behaviour/actions

• Gives us the ability to change or control behaviour

GOALS CT
4.TO CHANGE /CONTROL : Psychologist aim to influence, or change behaviour to make positive constructive meaningful and lasting changes in peoples lives

• Influence behaviour for better

• NB always ask this questions: what happened ( describe events)

• Why did they do that ( explaining)

• What would happen now( predicting)

• What can they do next to rach a different outcome( changing/controling)

GOALS CT
• Therefore always go in to the details of all your actions before making a conclusion

• Usefulnes : we learn the behaviour tht we exhibit- ian pavlove theory

• Conclusion

• In psychology we study brain, human and animal behavior, and what makes us “tick.”

• These goals were designed to aim and improve lives, bringing about positive changes by replacing negative thoughts.

• To change youre life, embrace the steps and see what you can accomplish! Keep in mind that it is often a challenge to change learned behavior, so

consider getting support from a trained professional.

• With the right guidance and motivation, you can meet your goals and achieve your dreams, whether you dream of becoming more physically or

emotionally fit, repairing damaged relationships, or simply being happier. Regardless of what you hope for, believe that you can make the change! Take

the first step today.

SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
• Structuralism
• Gestalt psychology
• Functionalism
• Behaviourism
• psychoanalisis
STRUCTURALISM

• Was started by welhem students who wanted to find the element

that make up the mind
• First major school school of thought in psychology
• Study the consciousness and structure of the mind which was
responsible for such actions
• This was through introspection to brakedown mental processes
• He anlysed the three basic elements of the mind( senatiosn,feelings,
and immages
• He provided systematic analysis of the mind
FUNCTIONALISM

• Brain child of william james ( 1842-1927) father of American

psychologist
• Advocated for the functioning of the mind as an inmportant aspect
• The mind will always help the person to adjust to the environment
• Emphasised on individual differences
• Functionalism has to a larger extend influence education
• They were influenced by darwin theory of evolotion(all species of
organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small,
inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete,
survive, and reproduce).
BEHAVIOUR-acquired thro,conditioning

• Its associated with waston, pavlov and skinner

• Defined psychology as the science of behaviour of organism
• Focussed on observable behaviour through checking
• Rejected inner force of the mind
• Emphasised on behaviour being as a results of conditioning and
learning
• Objective obsevation in studying human behaviour
• Environment and external stimuli shapes behaviour
• Therefore you can make anything out of an infant
GELSTALT PSYCHOLOGY9( Gestalt is a German word that roughly means "configuration," or the way things are
put together to form a whole object

• Was established by three german psychologist

• looks at the human mind and behavior as a whole
• our minds tend to perceive objects as part of a greater whole and as
elements of more complex systems
• They opposed the idea that the mind is made up of elements
• Persue the idea of studying the mind as a whole
• Belief whole is better that total sum of parts
• Individual percieve things as a whole and not in parts( elements)
• They opposed the view of other psychologigist
PSYCHOANALYSIS

• Founded by sigmund freud (1856-1939)

• Belief in motivation arising from unconscious mind

• He focussed mainly on sexual fullfilment through stages of life described as psychosexual development

• Sexual satisfuction was derieved / centered on different parts of the body at differents stages in life

• Looked at the mind being in three parts

• ID( primitive form of self gives orders –lets doit now,EGO(maybe we can wait or do it in a different way –deals with resality

• Ensures the demands of ID are dealt with in a better way and socially acceptable

• AND SUPEREGO( deals with morals- not right thing to do it now)

STAGES
• Oral stage-sexual gratification at the mouth-0 to 1 yr
• Anal stage 1-3 yrs-bowel and bladder control( helps in satifying the
libido) The major conflict at this stage is toilet training
• Phalic stage.3-6 yrs. The primary focus of the libido is on the genitals.
• children also begin to discover the differences between males and
females.​
• Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for
the mother’s affections
• Latent period 6-puberty
• Sexual feelings are inactive
• Children develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and
adults outside of the family.
• Genital stage-puberty-death
• the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex.
This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a
person's life.
• If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual
should now be well-balanced, warm, and caring
HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY

• Developed by maslow,carl rogers and rollo may

• Gives value to human being-Focuses on human beings rather than
supernatural or divine insight.
• This system stresses that human beings are inherently good, and that
basic needs are vital to human behaviors
• Behaviour is controlled by our own free will and not by unconsciousor
evironment
• Each human being can reach his greatest potential and self actualisation
• people have free will and are motivated to acheive their potential and
self-actualize.
Basic Assumptions

• Humanistic psychology begins with the existential assumption that people have free
will:
• Personal agency is the humanistic term for the exercise of free will.
• Â Personal agency refers to the choices we make in life, the paths we go down and
their consequences.
• People are basically good, and have an innate need to make themselves and the
world better:
• The humanistic approach emphasizes the personal worth of the individual, the
centrality of human values, and the creative, active nature of human beings.
• The approach is optimistic and focuses on the noble human capacity to overcome
hardship, pain and despair.
• personality is studied from the point of view of the individual
• People are motivated to self-actualize:
• Self-actualization concerns psychological growth, fulfillment and
satisfaction in life.
• Both Rogers and Maslow regarded personal growth and fulfillment in
life as a basic human motive. This means that each person, in different
ways, seeks to grow psychologically and continuously enhance
themselves.
• Humanism rejects scientific methodology:
• Rogers and Maslow placed little value on scientific psychology,
especially the use of the psychology laboratory to investigate both
human and animal behavior.
• The way to really understand other people is to sit down and talk with
them, share their experiences and be open to their feelings.
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
• studies mental processes including how people think, perceive,
remember, and learn.
• how a person comprehends and stores information
• This branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including
neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics.
• Associated with Jean Piaget
• Piaget suggests that children move through four different stages of
mental development..
• focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but
also on understanding the nature of intelligence
CT
• Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning
process, acting much like little scientists as they perform experiments,
make observations, and learn about the world.
• interact with the world around them, they continually add new
knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held
ideas to accommodate new information.
STAGES: The Sensorimotor Stage

• Ages: Birth to 2 Years

• Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
• The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
• Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping,
looking, and listening
• Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (
object permanence)
• They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
• They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around
them
The Preoperational Stage

• Ages: 2 to 7 Years: Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

• Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and
pictures to represent objects.
• Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things
from the perspective of others.
• While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still
tend to think about things in very concrete terms.
The Concrete Operational Stage

Ages: 7 to 11 Years : Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes-

• During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
• They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of
liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
• Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
• Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to
a general principle
The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Up: Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

• At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly
and reason about hypothetical problems
• Abstract thought emerges
• Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social,
and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
• Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to
specific information
• At this point, people become capable of seeing multiple potential
solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world
around them.
CONTEMPORARY APPROACHES
major contemporary approaches to psychology include:
• behavioral
• cognitive
• Psychodynamic
• evolutionary
• biological
• Humanistic
• sociocultural/contextual)
BEHAVIOURAL
• both humans and animals are viewed as organisms that are
influenced by their social or environmental living conditions
• The behaviourist perspective is centred around the concept of how
environmental factors also known as “stimuli” affect our observable
behaviour
• People learn from their actions/consequences of their behaviour
• positive reinforcement ,negative reinforcement/carrot and stick etc
PSYCHODYNAMICS
• The psychodynamic theory is a psychological theory Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939) and his later followers applied to explain the origins of
human behavior
• an approach to psychology that emphasizes systematic study of the
psychological forces that underlie human behavior, feelings, and
emotions and how they might relate to early experience
• includes all the theories in psychology that see human functioning
based upon the interaction of drives and forces within the person,
particularly unconscious, and between the different structures of the
personality
EVOLUTIONARY
• Evolutionary psychologists seek to explain people's emotions,
thoughts, and responses based on Charles Darwin's Theory of
Evolution
• Evolutionary approach uses evolutionary ideas such as adaptation,
reproduction, and natural selection as the basis for explaining specific
human behaviors.
• is focused on how evolution has shaped the mind and
behavior.adaptation
• Adaptation plays a key role in development
CT
• our ancestors confronted problems and developed ways of solving
them, some had certain innate instincts and intelligence that gave
them the ability to figure out and apply the most successful solutions.
• passed down these behavioral traits to future generations, resulting in
a population of offspring that then had these adaptive behaviors.
• This traits are inherited.
• Culture reinforce this traits.
PRINCIPLES

• Your brain is a physical system that instructs you to behave in a manner

appropriate and adaptive to your environment.
• The neural circuitry of your brain helps you solve problems in an appropriate
manner. The specific ways that the neural circuitry is constructed were directed
by natural selection, over the course of generations.
• Most our psychological behaviour are subconsciously determined and are
largely unaware of the underlying process involved
• Neural circuits in the brain are specialized to solve different adaptive problems.
For example, the circuitry involved in vision is not the same as for vomiting.
• Your mind is based on adaptive changes that originated in the Pleistocene era.
STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY
• Several methosd are used :
i) Introspection Method:
• This is also known as self-observation method. Introspection means
‘to look within’.
• It is not possible to understand the inner feelings and experiences of
other persons. But the individual himself can observe and report.
• Self reporting can not be verified
• Cannot be used on children and mentally ill patients
2. Observation Method:
useful in the areas where experiments cannot be conducted. In this
method the observer will observe and collect the data. Eg vital signs
Usefull in studying children unconscious clients etc
Used in natural /original setting
Usually client nis unaware of this study
• Experimental Method:
• This is the most objective way of studying the behaviour.
• experiments are conducted in the laboratories under controlled
conditions.
• usually the effect of independent variable on the dependent variable
is studied.
• Experiments are conducted under controlled conditions in order to
control the effect of these extraneous variables.
• Its verifiable
CT
Under the following steps:
• dentification of the problem
• b. Formulation of hypothesis
• c. Designing the experiment
• d. Testing the hypothesis by experiment
• e. Analysis of results
• f. Interpretation of results
4.Clinical /Case History

• commonly used in hospitals and also in educational settings

• The information includes the past history of the disease, treatment
taken already, changes if any like-improvement, present condition,
probable causes, signs and symptoms,
Survey Method:
• This is used to gather the information from large number of people.
• Questionnaires, checklists, rating scales, inventories are used to
collect the required information.
• used to gather information about political opinion, customers’
preferences, medical conditions etc.
CT
Testing Method:
• Different tests are developed by psychologists to study various
aspects of behaviour. The attitudes, interests, abilities, intelligence,
adjustments and personality test can be done
Role of psychology in health
• They play a major role in the promotion of healthy behavior,
preventing diseases and improving patients’ quality of life.
• plays a major role in understanding the concept of health and illness.
• Counselling practitioners help people as individuals and groups, to
improve their well-being, alleviate their distress, resolve their crises,
and increase their ability to solve problems and make decisions.
• They assist individuals and groups in areas related to personal
wellbeing, interpersonal relationships, work, recreation, health, and
crisis management
CT
• To provide important diagnostic interventions, and preventive
services for the psychological problems in primary health care, illness
prevention, and behavioral health promotion.
• Psychology helps health care workers in assessment of
patients/clients during consultation and communication with relatives
• enhance health promotion and disease prevention and address health
disparities.
• Reliance on integrated, interprofessional health care teams, which
include psychologists, enables our evolving health care system to
address the physical, psychological and social aspects of health.
CT
• Psychologists are able to identify adjustment difficulties; provide
effective psychological interventions for depression, anxiety, and post-
traumatic stress symptoms; and promote effective problem-solving
for child cancer patients and their families in treatment and during
survivorship.
HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
• In the context of the physical development of children, growth refers to
the increase in the size of a child, and development refers to the
process by which the child develops his or her psychomotor skills
• The period of human growth from birth to adolescence is commonly
divided into the following stages:
I. Infancy: From birth to weaning.
II. Childhood: From weaning to the end of brain growth.
III. Juvenile: From the end of childhood to adolescence.
IV. Adolescence: From the start of growth spurt at puberty until sexual
maturity
THEORISE OF DEVELOPMENT
Erickson psychological theory:
• Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud’s controversial psychosexual theory and modified it
into an eight-stage psychosocial theory of development.
• During each of Erikson’s eight development stages, two conflicting ideas must be resolved successfully in order for a
person to become a confident, contributing member of society.
• Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.
• The stages that make up his theory are as follows:
1. Trust v mistrust-HOPE
2. Autonomy v shame and doubt-WILL
3. Initiative v guilty-PURPOSE
4. Industry v inferiority-COMPETENCY
5. Identity vs confusion-FIDELITY
6. Intimacy vs isolation-LOVE
7. Generativity vs stagnation-CARE
8. Integrity vs despair-WISDOM
Stage 1 trust vs mistrust
• 0-1 YEARS
• From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be
trusted.
• occurs when adults meet a child’s basic needs for survival
• The baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place if all his needs
are made
• If needs are not made the they learn to mistrust the world and people
Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
1-3 years

• Toddlers learn and control their environment

• they learn that they can control their actions and act on their
environment to get results.
• show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such
as food, toys, and clothing.
• A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame
and doubt by working to establish independence.
• if denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin
to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and
feelings of shame.
Initiative vs. Guilt-3-6

• preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt.

• By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others.
• Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents
allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child’s
choice.
• Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative
misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may develop feelings
of guilt.
Industry vs. Inferiority
6-12 years
• Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how
they measure up.
• they either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their
schoolwork,or feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that
they don’t measure up.
• if children do not learn to get along with others or have negative
experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might
develop into adolescence and adulthood.
Identity vs. Role Confusion 12-18

• an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents

struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to
do with my life?
• Try many selfies to see which fits
• Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of
identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the
face of problems
• Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role will likely struggle to
“find” themselves as adults.
Intimacy vs isolation
• People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned
with intimacy vs. isolation.
• if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may
have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with
others
• Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can
develop successful intimate relationships
• Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence
may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.
Generative vs stagnation
• 40-60 middle adulthood
• Generativity involves finding your life’s work and contributing to the
development of others through activities such as volunteering,
mentoring, and raising children.
• adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through
childbirth and caring for others
• engage in meaningful and productive work which contributes positively
to society
• Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation and feel
as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way
Integrity vs. Despair
60 plus to daeth
• He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel
either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure.
• People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of
integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets.
• However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if
their life has been wasted.
• They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression,
and despair.