By: Misganaw T.

(BSc in Nursing)
04/10/2024 1
 LO2:Undertaking data collection
Learning objectives
o At the end of the learning outcome students
will be able to:-
• Describe data and its sources
• Identify type of data
• Apply data collection techniques
• Preparation questionnaires used to collect data

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 Data and its sources
• Data is a collection of discrete values that convey
information, describing quantity, quality, fact, statistics,
other basic units of meaning, or
• Facts or figures, which are numerical or otherwise,
collected with a definite purpose are called data.
• Simply sequences of symbols that may be further
interpreted.
• A datum is an individual value in a collection of data.
• The statistical data may be classified under two categories,
depending upon the sources.
1. Primary data
2. Secondary data
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 Data and its sources cont…
1. Primary data:
• Data measured or collected by the investigator or the user
directly from the source.
• Primary sources are sources that can supply first hand
information for immediate user.
• Are those data which are collected by the investigator
himself for the purpose of a specific inquiry or study.
• Such data are original in character and are mostly
generated by surveys conducted by individuals or research
institutions.
• are more reliable and accurate since the investigator can
extract the correct information by removing doubts, if any,
in the minds of the respondents regarding certain
questions.
• High response rates might be obtained since the answers
to various questions are
04/10/2024 obtained
By: Misganaw on the spot.
T. (BSc in Nursing) 4
 Data and its sources cont…
2. Secondary data
• When an investigator uses data, which have already
been collected by others, such data are called
"Secondary Data".
• Data gathered or compiled from published and
unpublished sources
• These data are primary data for the agency that collected
them, and become secondary for someone else who uses
them for his own purposes.
• are less expensive to collect both in money and time..

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 Data and its sources cont…
 Secondary data must be used with great care, because:

 Could be full of errors due to the fact that the purpose of the
collection of the data by the primary agency may have been
different from the purpose of the user of these secondary
data.
 The size of the sample may have been inadequate, or there
may have been arithmetic errors, hence, it is necessary to
critically investigate the validity of the secondary data.

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 Type of data

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 Type of data cont…
1. Nominal data
• In the study of biostatistics, we encounter many
different types of numerical data.
• One of the simplest types of data is nominal data,
in which the values fallen to unordered categories
or classes.
• Numbers are often used to represent the
categories. In a certain study, for instance, males
might be assigned the value 1 and females the
value 0, Marital status, ethnicity, religion.
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 Type of data cont…
2. Ordinal data
• When the order among categories becomes
important, the observations are referred to as ordinal
data.
• For example injuries may be classified according to
their level of severity, so that 1 represents a fatal
injury, 2 is severe, 3 is moderate, and 4 is minor.
• Here a natural order exists among the groupings: a
smaller number represents a more serious injury.
How ever we are still not concerned with the
magnitude of these numbers.
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 Type of data cont…
3. Discrete data
• For discrete data both ordering and magnitude
are important.
• In this case, the numbers represent actual
measurable quantities or counts rather than
mere labels.
• Examples of discrete data include the number
of car accidents in a given month, the number
of times a woman has given birth.

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 Type of data cont…

4. Continuous data
• Data that represent measurable quantities but are
not restricted to taking on certain specified
values.
• In this case the difference between any two
possible data values can be arbitrarily small.
• Examples of continuous data include time, the
serum cholesterol level of a patient, etc.

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 Data collection techniques
• Data collection is the process of gathering and
measuring information on targeted variables in
an established system, which then enables one
to answer relevant questions and evaluate
outcomes.
• There are four major methods of data collection
a) Observation or measurement
b) Interviews and self-administered questionnaire
c) The use of documentary sources
d) FGD and others
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 Data collection techniques cont…
a) Measurement Or Observation
• a technique that involves systematically selecting, watching and
recoding behaviors of people or other phenomena and aspects of the
setting in which they occur, for the purpose of getting (gaining)
specified information.
• It includes all methods from simple visual observations to the use of
high level machines and measurements, sophisticated equipment or
facilities
• Data collection by measurement can be undertaken is several ways,
• some of these are:
 The direct measurement of a physical characteristic using an
instrument
 The observation of people engaged in an activity; and
 Recording of relevant aspects of their activities
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 Data collection techniques cont…
Advantages:
• Gives relatively more accurate data on
behavior and activities
Disadvantages:
• Investigators or observer’s own biases,
prejudice, desires, and etc.
• Needs more resources and skilled human
power during the use of high level machines.

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 Data collection techniques cont…
b) Interviews and self-administered questionnaire
• Interviews and self-administered questionnaires are
probably the most commonly used research data
collection techniques.
Interviewing (face-to-face, telephone)
• Face-to-face interview is a social process that
involves the interviewer and respondent.
• It is the process in which the interviewer meets the
respondents, explains the purpose of the study,
forwards a set of questions and records the answers.
• It is widely used in economic and social surveys
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 Data collection techniques cont…
• Advantages of face-to-face interviews
o Have the highest response rate and permit the longest
questionnaires.
o Interviewers control the sequence of questions and
use some probes.
o Respondent is likely to answer all the questions
alone.
o Interviewers also can observe the surroundings and
can use nonverbal communication and visual aids.
o Well-trained interviewers can ask all types of
questions including complex questions.
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 Data collection techniques cont…
• Disadvantage of face to face
o Cost is high- that is , recruiting, training,
travel, supervisor, and personnel costs for
interviewers can be high.
o Interviewer bias is also high in this method.
o The appearance, tone of voice, question
wording, and so forth of the interview may a
affect the respondent

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 Data collection techniques cont…
 Self-administered questionnaire
• These are the most commonly used research data
collection techniques.
• Self-administered questionnaire is simpler and
cheaper
• can be administered to many persons simultaneously
• can be sent by post (unlike interviews)
• But requires a certain level of education and skill on
the part of the respondents
• People of a low socio-economic status are less likely
to respond
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 Data collection techniques cont…
Advantage:
• It is the cheapest and can be conducted by a single
researcher.
• A researcher can send questioners to a wide
geographical area.
• The respondent can complete the questionnaire when it
is convenient and check personnel records if necessary.
• Mail questionnaire offer anonymity and avoid
interviewer bias.
• They are very effective, and response rates may be high
for a target population that is well educated or has a
strong interest in the topic
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 Data collection techniques cont…
Disadvantage
• A low response rate is the biggest problem.
• A researcher cannot control the conditions under
which a mail questionnaire is completed.
• Researcher cannot visually observe the
respondent's reactions to questions, physical
characteristics, or settings.
• Mail questionnaire is not suitable for illiterate
community.

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 Data collection techniques cont…
c) Use of documentary sources:
• Clinical and other personal records, death certificates,
published mortality statistics, census publications, etc.
• Examples include:
1. Official publications of Central Statistical Authority
2. Publication of Ministry of Health and Other Ministries
3. News Papers and Journals.
4. International Publications like Publications by WHO,
World Bank, UNICEF
5. Records of hospitals or any Health Institutions.

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 Data collection techniques cont…
d) Mailed Questionnaire Method
• Under this method, the investigator prepares a
questionnaire containing a number of questions
pertaining to the field of inquiry
• The questions are sent by post to the informants together
with a polite covering letter explaining the detail, the
aims and objectives of collecting the information
• requests the respondents to cooperate by furnishing the
correct replies and returning the questionnaire duly filled
in
• Drawback: response rates tend to be relatively low, and
there may be under representation of less literate subjects
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 Data collection techniques cont…
e) Computer Direct Interviews
• These are interviews in which the Interviewees
enter their own answers directly into a computer.
• They can be used at malls, trade shows, offices,
and so on.
• The Survey System's optional Interviewing
Module and Interview Stations can easily create
computer-direct interviews. Some researchers
set up a Web page survey for this purpose.

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 Data collection techniques cont…
Advantages
• The virtual elimination of data entry and editing costs.
• You will get more accurate answers to sensitive
questions. Recent studies of potential blood donors
have shown respondents were more likely to reveal
HIV-related risk factors to a computer screen than to
either human interviewers or paper questionnaires.
• The elimination of interviewer bias. Different
interviewers can ask questions in different ways,
leading to different results. The computer asks the
questions the same way every time.
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 Data collection techniques cont…
• Ensuring skip patterns are accurately followed. The
Survey System can ensure people are not asked
questions they should skip based on their earlier
answers. These automatic skips are more accurate
than relying on an Interviewer reading a paper
questionnaire.
• Response rates are usually higher. Computer-aided
interviewing is still novel enough that some people
will answer a computer interview when they would
not have completed another kind of interview.
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 Data collection techniques cont…
Disadvantages
• The Interviewees must have access to a
computer or one must be provided for them.
• As with mail surveys, computer direct
interviews may have serious response rate
problems in populations of lower educational
and literacy levels.
• This method may grow in importance as
computer use increases.

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 Data collection techniques cont…
Choosing a Method of Data Collection
• Decision-makers need information that is relevant,
timely, accurate and usable
• The selection of the method of data collection is also
based on practical considerations, such as:
 The need for personnel, skills, equipment, etc. in to what is
available and the urgency with which results are needed.
 The acceptability of the procedures to the subjects – the
absence of inconvenience, unpleasantness, or untoward
 The probability that the method will provide a good
coverage, i.e. will supply the required information about all
or almost all members of the population or sample
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 Data collection techniques cont…
Common problems in collecting data
• Language barrier
• Lack of adequate time
• Inadequately trained and experienced statistician
• Expense
• Biases
• Suspicion
• Cultural norms

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 Questionnaires and its preparation
• Questionnaires are also forms in which set of
questions =is used; Very often they are several
pages and can contain tables, plain questions and
spaces where respondents or people being asked
questions are filling in their in responses.
• The use of questionnaires is the most common
method of obtaining a structured set of data and
is frequently used in surveys and other research
designs.

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 Preliminary decisions in questionnaire design

o There are nine steps involved in the development of a

questionnaire:
 Decide the information required.
 Define the target respondents.
 Choose the method(s) of reaching your target
respondents.
 Decide on question content.
 Develop the question wording.
 Put questions into a meaningful order and format.
 Check the length of the questionnaire.
 Pre-test the questionnaire.
 Develop the final survey form.
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 How we can select study variables?
• Discuss the problem with friends or colleagues
• Literature review
• Consult authorities(experts)
• Discuss the problem with focus groups in the
population
• e.g. key informants like edir and religious
leaders
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 Types of questions
 There are two types of questions

1. Open ended(free-response)

2. Close ended(restricted choice)

 Open ended

• Permit free responses that should be recorded in the

respondent’s own words. It is used in

- Facts with which the researcher is not very familiar

• Opinions, attitudes, and suggestions of informants, or Sensitive
issues
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 Types……
• Advantages- it stimulates free thoughts of
respondent
• Helpful to obtain information on sensitive issues
• Disadvantages- there may problem of recalling
answers
• It is not suitable for mailed question
• Answers are difficult to code for statistical analysis
• The problem of poor hand writing

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 Types……
Closed questions
• Offer a list of possible options or answers from
which the respondents must choose.
• Offer a list of options that are exhaustive and
mutually exclusive, and
• Keep the number of options as few as possible.
 Advantage- suitable for many forms of
statistical analysis
• Not difficult to code
 Disadvantage- limits a variety of details
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 Types……
Partially open ended question
Advantage- provides alternatives if certain option
are over looked
 it identifies missing categories for future use
Disadvantage- respondent may ignore other options
e.g. if the house hold lost any of its members due to
death in the last 12 months what was the cause
of death.
1.Malaria
2. famine/hunger
3. car accident
4.others specify
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 Types……
The selection of a method is based on practical
considerations such as:
 The need for resources
 The acceptability of the procedures to the
subjects
 The probability that the method will provide a
good coverage

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 Types……
How to choose an accurate and practicable
method
• from review of previous methodological studies
or experiences in other studies
• Through testing proposed methods on a small
scale approach i.e. pre-test or pilot study to
determine clarity of questions, the length of
the time that an interview will take, how
acceptable and convenient the proposed
method .
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 Question Phrasing
o Need to decide how “what is to be asked” should be phrased
o Alternative question formats are shown below
o Each format has its advantages and disadvantages

Open ended Simple

dichotomy
Question
type
Multiple
choice
Closed ended

Determinant Check-list
choice

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 How to administer the questionnaire
 There are several ways of administering questionnaires.

 They may be self administered or read out by

interviewers.

 Self administered questionnaires may be sent by post,

email, or electronically online.

 Interview administered questionnaires may be by

telephone or face to face.

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 Question order
 Once you’ve got your list of questions, you need to
think about the order in which they appear.
 Here are some general principles:
o Put the most important items in first half of questionnaire
o Don’t start with awkward or embarrassing questions
o Start with easy and non-threatening questions
o Go from the general to the particular
o Go from factual to abstract questions
o Go from closed to open questions.

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 General principles when writing questions
a) Use familiar and appropriate language
b) Avoid abbreviations, double negatives
e.g. instead of asking respondents whether they agree
with the negative statement, “Smoking in public
places should not be permitted”, use the positive
“Smoking in public places should be abolished”., etc.
c) Avoid two or more elements to be collected through
one question
o What was the name of the drug prescribed its
dosage and how many times a day?
d) Pre-code the responses to facilitate data processing

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 General principles when writing questions
e) Avoid embarrassing and painful questions

f) Watch out for ambiguous wording

g) Avoid language that suggests a response

h) Start with simpler questions (sensitive questions may be best left until
nearer the end – it may be possible to use indirect questioning by
referring to a third person before asking the respondent directly)

i) Ask the same question to all respondents

j) Provide other, or don’t know options where appropriate

k) Provide the unit of measurement for continuous variables

(years, months, kgs, etc)
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 General principles when writing questions
l) For open ended questions, provide sufficient
space for the response
m) Arrange questions in logical sequence
n) Group questions by topic, and place a few
sentences of transition between topics
o) Provide complete training for interviewers
p) Pretest the questionnaire on 20-50 respondents in
actual field situation
q) Check all filled questionnaire at field level
r) Include “thank you” after the last question

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