Recap

what’s the Internet?

what’s a protocol?
network edge: hosts, access net, physical media
 Physical media
• bit: propagates between
transmitter/receiver pairs
twisted pair (TP)
• physical link: what lies between
transmitter & receiver • two insulated copper wires
• Category 5: 100 Mbps, 1
• guided media: Gpbs Ethernet
• signals propagate in solid • Category 6: 10Gbps
media: copper, fiber, coax
• unguided media:
• signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio

Introduction 1-2
Physical media: coax, fiber

coaxial cable: fiber optic cable:

• two concentric copper
 glass fiber carrying light
conductors pulses, each pulse a bit
 high-speed operation:
• bidirectional  high-speed point-to-point
• broadband: transmission (e.g., 10’s-100’s
Gpbs transmission rate)
• multiple channels on cable
• HFC
 low error rate:
 repeaters spaced far apart
 immune to electromagnetic
noise

Introduction 1-3
Physical media: radio
• signal carried in electromagnetic radio link types:
 Bluetooth: cable replacement
spectrum
 short distances, limited rates
• no physical “wire”  LAN (e.g., WiFi)
• broadcast, “half-duplex” (sender  11Mbps, 54 Mbps
to receiver)  wide-area (e.g., cellular)
• propagation environment effects:  4G cellular: ~ few Mbps~10Km
• reflection  terrestrial microwave

• obstruction by objects  e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels

 satellite
• interference
 Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or
multiple smaller channels)
 270 msec end-end delay
 geosynchronous versus low
altitude

Introduction 1-4
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-5
The network core
mobile network
national or global ISP
• mesh of interconnected routers
• packet-switching: hosts break application-
layer messages into packets
• network forwards packets from one
local or
router to the next, across links on path regional ISP
from source to destination
home network content
• Packet Switches : Routers, Link-layer provider
network
Switches datacenter
network

enterprise
network

Introduction: 1-6
 Packet-switching: store-and-forward

L bits
per packet
3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

• packet transmission delay: takes L/R seconds to One-hop numerical example:

transmit (push out) L-bit packet into link at R bps  L = 10 Kbits
• store and forward: entire packet must arrive at  R = 100 Mbps
router before it can be transmitted on next link  one-hop transmission delay
• end-end delay = 2L/R (assuming zero = 0.1 msec
propagation delay)
Introduction: 1-7
Packet-switching: queueing
R = 100 Mb/s
A C

D
B R = 1.5 Mb/s
E
queue of packets
waiting for transmission
over output link

For each link, the packet switch has an output buffer that stores packets that the
router is about to send into that link.
Queueing occurs when work arrives faster than it can be serviced:

Introduction: 1-8
Packet-switching: queueing
R = 100 Mb/s
A C

D
B R = 1.5 Mb/s
E
queue of packets
waiting for transmission
over output link

Packet queuing and loss: if arrival rate (in bps) to link exceeds
transmission rate (bps) of link for some period of time:
• packets will queue, waiting to be transmitted on output link
• packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) in router fills up
Introduction: 1-9
 Two key network-core functions

routing algorithm Routing:

 global action:
Forwarding: local forwarding table
header value output link determine source-
• aka “switching” 0100 3
destination paths
0101 2
• local action: move 0111
1001
2
1 taken by packets
arriving packets  routing algorithms
from router’s
1
input link to
appropriate router 3 2
output link 011
1

destination address in arriving

packet’s header
Introduction: 1-10
Alternative to packet switching: circuit switching

end-end resources allocated to,

reserved for “call” between source
and destination
• in diagram, each link has four circuits.
• call gets 2nd circuit in top link and 1st
circuit in right link.
• dedicated resources: no sharing
• circuit-like (guaranteed) performance
• circuit segment idle if not used by call (no
sharing)
 commonly used in traditional telephone networks

Introduction: 1-11
Circuit switching: FDM and TDM
Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM) 4 users

frequency
• optical, electromagnetic frequencies
divided into (narrow) frequency bands

 each call allocated its own band, can

time
transmit at max rate of that narrow
band
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

frequency
 time divided into slots
 each call allocated periodic slot(s),
can transmit at maximum rate of time
(wider) frequency band (only) during
its time slot(s) Introduction: 1-12
Q: How long it takes to send a file of 640,000 bits from Host A to Host B over a
circuit-switched network. Suppose that all links in the network use TDM with
24 slots and have a bit rate of 1.536 Mbps?

1.536Mbps/24 = 64kbps

Delay = L/R = 640000 / 64 kbps = 10 sec