Module 1

Introduction
• The word environment is derived from French
world “Environ” means encircle or surround. The
environment can be defined as
• Physical and biotic habitat that surrounds us.
• The conditions or circumstances that surround an
organism or groups of organism, or
• The complex of social or cultural conditions that
affect an individual or community.
• In general ‘Environment’ is the natural world in
which people, animals and plant live.
 Introduction…..
• The subject of environment is inherently inter
disciplinary.
• Environmental issues are affected by all our
activities to varying degrees.
• It is the study of complex relationships that
exists in our surrounding among human,
plants, animals, water, air, soil and other
organisms.
 Introduction…..
• It is the study of how all the components of
nature and human interact.
• It is also the study of interaction of the
biotic (plants, animals and micro-
organisms) components among themselves
and with the abiotic (temperature, rainfall
soil,air, water atmosphere etc).
 Components of Environment and
their interactions
• By considering the relationship between
man and nature, a broader interpretation of
the term ‘environment’ has been provided
by the National Environment Policy Act
(NEPA) of USA.
• According to this the term ‘environment’
includes physical, social, cultural, economic
and aesthetic dimension.
• Traditionally, when people thought about
the environment, they have considered
water (in its various forms and locations),
air, the solid earth and various living
organism.
• Conventional consideration of the
environment has involved the hydrosphere,
the atmosphere, the geosphere and the
biosphere.
 The classification of nature
into different spheres helps to
understand the distribution
and flow of chemicals in the
environment.
Inter connection emphasize
the close dynamic,
inseperable, coupling among
the environmental
components.
If there is change in one
Fig: Components of Environment component, immediately all
other components respond.
The two-way linkage in the
diagram signifies that matter
may flow from one component
to another in both directions
 Atmosphere
• The cover of air that surrounds the earth
surface is known as the atmosphere.
Atmosphere is the protective thick gaseous
layer, surrounding the earth, which sustains
the biological life and Saves it from the
adverse effect of our space.
Without atmosphere there will be no
Wind, Cloud, Rain, Snow, Lightening etc
• The atmosphere extends up to 1600 km from
the earths surface. There are five different
layers with in the atmosphere. Each layer
can be differentiated on the basis of
temperature and each layer has its own
characteristics. The different layers are;
• Troposphere
• Stratosphere
• Mesosphere
• Ionosphere or Thermosphere
• Exosphere
Fig: Layers of Earth’s Atmosphere
 Troposphere
• The most dense layer lies closest to the earth’s
surface and extends to an altitude of 0 to 12 km. In
this layer man lives along with other organisms.
• It is the region of all changes we experience in our
daily life and circulation of air takes place. This layer
contains N2, O2, CO2, water vapour and other trace
gases.
• The temperature decreases with the height (altitude)
and varies between 17deg.C to –56 deg. C.
• The top layer of troposphere is tropopause.
 Stratosphere
• Layer above troposphere that extends upto
50 km is known as stratosphere.
• Air is extended upto stratosphere. The
temperature rises from –56deg to –2deg C.
• Because of the very low temperature, there
are virtually no clouds, dust or water
vapour.
• Here, ozone forms a well-marked ozone
layer.
 Mesosphere
• Next to stratosphere is mesosphere that is
characterized by low atmospheric pressure
and temperature of –2deg. C to –90deg C.
• The mesosphere extends roughly 80-90 km.
This layer is characterized by low
temperature due to low absorption of
ultraviolet radiations by ozone.
 Ionosphere or Thermosphere
• The thermosphere starts just above the
mesosphere and extends upto 700 km.
• The temperatures in this region can
increases as high as 1727deg.C.
• This layer is known as upper atmosphere
 Exosphere
• The upper most layers of atmosphere above
the thermosphere is called exosphere or
outer space.
• It extends upto 1600 km and gives way for
interplanetary space.
• All the layer of atmosphere are important to
the ecological balance of life because
together they form the blanket of air in the
biosphere, which is a part of lithosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere in which
living organisms live together and interact
with each other.
 Hydrosphere
• It covers more than 75 percent of the earth’s
surface as oceans (salt water), rivers, sea, lakes,
ponds, streams etc.
• Fresh water is also available in the form of rain,
snow, dew etc. Evaporation of water from oceans
and other water bodies forms cloud and
precipitation, are responsible for worldwide water
supply through hydrological cycles.
• The life on the earth was first originated in water
and water is essential for all living things.
 Lithosphere
• It is the mantle of rocks (inorganic material) that
forms the earth’s crust It consists of soil and the
underlying rocks down up to the depth of 50 km.
• The soil is most significant part of the lithosphere.
Soil consists of minerals, water (ground water)
and it supports crops, wild life and livestock.
• The soil supplies nutrients to plants and is one of
the most important ecological factors called
“edaphic factor.”
 Biosphere
• It is the domain of living organisms and
their interaction with environment i.e.
atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere.
• It occupies the least volume of all spheres
but it is responsible for flow of matter and
energy.
• Biosphere or ecosphere is known as
biochemical system capable of capturing,
converting, storing and utilizing the sun’s
energy.
 ECOLOGY
• Ecology is a field of study concerned with
the relationship between the environment
and living organisms.
• It involves a reciprocal relationship between
an organism and its environment.
• Today environmental science is recognized
as indispensable tool for creating and
maintaining the quality of human life.
 ECOLOGY….
• Consequently, ecology is becoming the
branch of science that is most relevant to
everyday life in nature.
• A proper understanding of the true nature
of human’s interactions with his
surroundings would help plan and design a
sustainable framework for resource
mobilization, utilization and protection.
 Definition of ecology
• The word ecology is derived from two
Greek words, Oikos, meaning ‘house or
home’ and logos means ‘study of’.
Generally ecology is defined as the study of
the relation of organism or group of
organisms to their environment or
surrounding.
• Ecology is the study of structure and function of
the ecosystem (Odum, 1969).
• Ecology (Ockologie) is the study of organism in
relations to their environment (Warming, 1895).
• Ecology is the science of community (Clements,
1916).
• Ecology is the science of all the relations to all
organisms to all their environment (Taylor, 1936).
• Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions
that determine the distributions and abundance of
organisms (Krebs, 1985).
 ECOSYSTEMS
• Ecosystem is the basic functional unit in ecology.
It includes both biotic (plants, animals &
microbes) and non biotic ( physico-chemical)
environment.
• A.G.Tansley (1935) proposed the term ecosystem.
He defined it as the system resulting from the
integration of all the living and non-living factors
of the environment.
• An ecosystem can be defined as the self-sustained
community of plants and animals existing in its
own environment.
• The size and scale of an ecosystem can vary
widely.
• The ecosystem may be a whole forest, a
community of bacteria and algae in a drop of
water, or even the geobiosphere itself. Different
types of ecosystems are often separated by
geographical barrier, like lake or river,
mountains, deserts, oceans etc
• All ecosystems therefore are contained with in the
largest of all ecosystem called the ecosphere,
which contains the whole physical earth, called the
geosphere and all living components called the
biosphere.
 Types of Ecosystems
• Ecosystem can be classified into major types.
Natural ecosystems: These are self-regulatory in
nature and derive their energy from sun without
any major interference by man.
• Natural ecosystems are of two types:
• (a) Terrestrial ecosystems like forest, grassland,
desert, Mountain etc.
• (b) Aquatic ecosystems like river, stream, spring,
lake, pond, sea, ocean, estuary etc.
• Artificial ecosystem: These are not self regulated
and depend on human intervention to meet their
energy requirements.eg paddy fields, croplands etc
 Structure and function of an
ecosystem
• Structure of an ecosystem includes;
• (a) The composition of biological community
including species (plants, animals and
microbes), numbers, biomass, life history, life
cycle and distribution in space, etc
• (b) The quantity, distribution and cycling of
abiotic (non-living) materials, such as macro and
micro nutrients, water, trace elements, etc.
• © The range or gradient of conditions existing
such as temperature, rainfall, light, wind, relative
humidity etc.
• Function of an ecosystem includes
• (a) The rate of biological flow of energy i.e.
production and respiration rates of the
community.
• (b) Rate of material or nutrient cycles, and
• © Biological or ecological regulation,
which includes both regulation of organism
by environment and regulation of
environment by organism.
 Natural resources
• Forest resources
• Water resources
• Food resources
• Land resources
• Mineral resources
 Forest resources
• A forest is a highly complex, constantly
changing environment made up of a variety
of living ( wild life, trees, shrubs,
wildflowers, lichens, fungi, microscopic soil
organisms) and non-living ( water, nutrients,
rocks, sunlight, air etc) things.
• Trees are the dominant components of this
complex community.
 Forest resources….
• Forests cover much of the planets land area.
• They are extremely important to humans
and the natural world.
• For humans, they have many aesthetic,
recreational, economic, historical, cultural
and religious values.
• Timber and other products of forests are
important economically both locally and as
exports.
 Forest resources….
• Forests provide employment for those who harvest
the wood or products of the living forest.
• Other non-wood forest products come in the form of
medicinal compounds, dyes and fabrics.
• There are many people who are dependent on
forests for their livelihoods.
• The forest environment provides a perfect
opportunity for ecotourism which includes hiking,
camping, bird watching and other outdoor
adventures or nature study activities.
 Benefits of forests
Provides clean water:
 Trees intercept rain water and slows it down by
aiding soil absorption for gradual release into
streams at a slow and even rate.
 This effectively prevents flooding , filters
toxins and impurities and facilitates water
availability in summer when it is moat needed.
 Trees cleanse ground water as I filters through
their root systems.
 Benefits of forests
Provides home to unique plants and animals:
 Both urban and rural forests are home to a
wealth of wildlife which depends on trees for
survival.
 As forests are the natural home of diverse
species of plants and animals, it becomes
essential to protect our forests for the sake of
them.
 There is possibilities that many herbs of
potential medical treatments, cures and
vaccines may lie undiscovered within the
forests.
 Benefits of forests
Source of economic growth:
• Timber production and other wood based industries still
comprise an important part of economy of many
countries.
• Paper production and other industries such as furniture
making are also important to a nations economy.
• Recreation based tourism provides enormous
employment potential.
• Trees provide fruits, nuts, flowers and many other
products of economic value.
 Benefits of forests
Provides clean air:
• Trees help to cool and refresh the air we breathe. Not
only do they moderate the air temperatures, but through
photo synthesis, their leaves take in carbon dioxide and
release oxygen for us to breath.
• Mature trees reflect our natural heritage.
• Each acre of forest absorbs 31.45 tons of carbon per
year, it also filters out harmful pollutants and provides
us with oxygen.
 Benefits of forests
Provides recreational opportunities:
• The most important forest based
recreational activities are hunting,
camping, hiking, fishing, watching
wildlife, horseback riding and plant
collecting.
 Ecological benefits of forests
• 1. Forests provide the clean air we breathe, help to
maintain the clean water we depend upon and provide
habitat for numerous species of life forms. Also forests
are taking carbon dioxide out of the earth’s atmosphere
to produce wood and leaf matter. This is known as
carbon sequestration. This is important because carbon
dioxide is a leading greenhouse gas that can contribute
to global climate change.
• 2. Mature trees improve our aesthetic environment,
absorb noise, reduce stress and create a peaceful place
to relax or socialize.
 Ecological benefits of forests

• 3. Trees provide positive mental benefits

and healing qualities. Mature trees provide a
sense of “Home” to a neighborhood.
• 4. Trees protect the soil against erosion and
reduce the risk of landslides and avalanches.
• 5. Water from roots is drawn up to the
leaves where it evaporates. The conversion
from water to gas absorbs huge amounts of
heat there by cooling hot air.
 Deforestation
• Deforestation refers to the loss of forest cover, land that is
permanently converted from forest to agricultural land,
golf courses, cattle pastures, homes, lakes or desert.
• The FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) defines
tropical deforestation as “change of forest with depletion
of tree crown cover more than 90 percent.”
• Depletion of forest tree crown cover less than 90 percent
is considered forest degradation.
• Logging most often falls under the category of forest
degradation and thus is not included in deforestation
statistics
• Therefore forest degradation rates are considerably higher
than deforestation rates.
 Causes of deforestation

• Agriculture
• Commercial logging
• The cash crop economy
• Mining and dams
 Effects of deforestation
• Fewer trees results an insecure future for forest
workers.
• Heavy rainfall and high sunlight quickly damage
the topsoil in clearing of the tropical rainforests.
In such circumstances, the forest will take much
longer to regenerate and the land will not be
suitable for agriculture use for quite some time.
• Where forests are replanted, their replacement
can mean a loss of quality.
• Loss of future markets for ecotourism. The value
of a forest is often higher when it is left
standing than it could be when it is harvested.
 Effects of deforestation
• Some indigenous peoples’ way of life and survival are
threatened by the loss of forests.
• Often, the stakeholders associated with forest areas are
not always consulted before clear cutting occurs. This
has sometimes led violent confrontation and fueled bitter
rivalries between area residents, the forest sectors and
environmentalists.
• Deforestation can cause the climate to become extreme
in nature. The occurrence and strength of floods and
droughts affecting the economy.
• Forests store large amount of carbon. Deforestation
leads to release of carbon when trees are cut or burnt
which results in greenhouse effect.
 Effects of deforestation
• The stress of environmental change may make some species more
susceptible to the effects of insects, pollution, disease and fire.
• Rising sea levels caused by global warming have the potential to
threaten the locations of many major cities, much fertile agricultural
land, purity of fresh water supplies.
• The clearing of forest land results in increased erosion and land
slides.
• Soils from areas of reduced forest cover can fill reservoirs created
by dams. Thus a dams’ ability and future capacity to generate
hydroelectricity and provide irrigation would be significantly
reduced.
• Forest plays a crucial role in the management of fisheries. Logging
has directly and indirectly damaged grounds, blocked river
channels, raised water temperatures and caused water levels in
streams to fluctuate dangerously. Therefore, the removal of trees
can reduce the viability of fish stocks in their watershed and
downstream environments.
Environmental effects of deforestation

• Destruction of biodiversity
• Desiccation of previously moist forest soil
• Moist humid region changes to desert
• No recycling of water
• Less carbon dioxide and nitrogen
exchange
• Soil erosion
 Solutions to the problems of deforestation
• 1. Reduce the consumption of forest and related products.
• 2. Avoid harmful products by consumer boycotts, such as
tropical rainforest wood, old-growth wood from the tropical
rainforest.
• 3. Boycott products of companies involved in deforestation.
• 4. Compel government and industry to make changes in the
forest policies.
• 5. Individuals may communicate their uncertainty about the
future of the world’s forests to politicians, corporate
executives and non-governmental organizations through
personal communication or in groups using petitions and
rallies.
• 6. Environmental conservation may be given importance in
school curricula.
 Water resources….
• Water is made up of two basic elements, i.e. hydrogen and
oxygen, H2O being the chemical formula for water,
representing that each molecule of this compound contains
two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
Billions of H2O molecules
combine loosely together, to form
liquid water.
This liquid water may freeze to
form snow and ice.
It may evaporate to an invisible
vapour (gas) in which form, it
circulates between the biotic and
abiotic world, as well as between
different segments of the abiotic
component.
 Water Resources….
• Next air water is the important constituent
of life support system.
• Water is most important natural resources
in all-economic activities ranging from
agriculture to industry.
• We depend on water for irrigation, domestic
needs, shipping and disposal of waste.
• These days, there is severe stress on water
resources due to the exponential increase in
human population.
 Water Resources….
• Availability of water plays key role in the
evolution of earth’s ecosystem, moderating
climate and diluting pollutants.
• Water is essential for all physiological
activities of plants, animals and
microorganisms.
• Water is essential for the photosynthesis of
green plants, which produces food energy
used by various living systems in all trophic
levels.
 Water Resources….
• Water is distributed in nature, in different forms,
such as rainwater, spring water, river water and
atmospheric moisture.
• Cloud, fog, mint and water vapors determine the
atmospheric humidity.
• Rain, snow, dew and hail come to earth as
precipitation.
• Atmospheric water and temperature directly
influence the global ecology, hydrological cycle,
weather and global climate, and fauna and flora.
 World’s water resources
• Water on the earth occurs in three forms
viz., liquid, solid and vapour (gaseous).
 World’s water resources….
• The world’s total quantity of water is
estimated to be about 1.36 X 108 million
hectare meters (M ha-m).
• About 97.2% of this water is contained in
the oceans as salt water
 World’s water resources….
• About 2.8% is available as fresh water on the earth.
• Out of the 2.8% of fresh water, around 2.2 % is
available as surface water and the rest (i.e. 0.6%) is
available as ground water.
 World’s water resources….
• Out of the 2.2% of available fresh water, around
2.15% is in glaciers and icecaps.
• Out of the remaining 0.05% of fresh water,
0.01% is available in lakes and streams and the
remaining 0.04% is in other forms.
 World’s water resources….
• In the 0.6% of stored ground water, only
about 0.25% can be extracted economically
with the available drilling technology and
the remaining is at greater depth of the
earth’s crust.
• Whatever the smallest quantity (0.01%)
is precious and it has to be preserved for
the present use and for the future
generation.
• Agriculture sector is the major user of fresh
water. Nearly 80% of the fresh water is
used for the agricultural purposes.
• The remaining 20% is used for power
generation, domestic and industrial uses.
• The major factors that affect the water crisis
are inefficient irrigation, pollution of
surface and ground water sources and the
growing world population.
• Water on the earth is in cycling through the
hydrological cycle.
• The utilization of water on the earth mainly
depends on the movement of water.
• On the earth surface, in some places water
may be available in excess than the normal.
• Some places may experience shortage or
drought or flood, however, the total
available quantity remain the same.
 Hydrological cycle….
• The Hydrological cycle involves the
movement of water in our environment.
• Water is the most important resource of our
earth, which has made life possible on this
planet.
Hydrological cycle
Hydrological cycle
 Hydrological cycle….
• Hydrological cycle is the continuous
transfer of water in the nature. The three
important phases of the hydrological cycle
are:
• Evaporation and evapotranspiration
• Precipitation
• Runoff.
 Hydrological cycle….
• Evaporation from the surface of oceans, lakes, ponds,
reservoirs etc.,
• Evapotranspiration from the surface vegetations (plants)
take place.
• The water vapour moves upwards and forms clouds.
• Clouds condense and fall back to oceans and earth in the
form of precipitation of different forms like rain, snow,
mist, hail, sleet etc.
• A part of this precipitation may evaporate back to
atmosphere during precipitation itself.
• A part of this precipitation flows over the ground surface
called runoff and a part infiltrates in the soil and joins the
ground water table.
 Water requirement for human
activities
Water is required for the following
• Domestic purposes
• Recreation (swimming, boating)
• Irrigating crops.
• Industrial processes
• Aquaculture
• Protection of aquatic ecosystems
• Wildlife habitats
• Scientific study and education
Domestic purposes(Drinking)
Domestic purposes (Bathing)
Domestic purposes (Bathing)
Domestic purposes (Washing
clothes)
Irrigation
Lawn sprinkling
Aquaculture
Wildlife habitats
Wildlife habitats
Navigation
Recreation
Scientific education
 Food resources
• Every animal living on Earth, staring from the tiniest
microorganism to the largest mammal including
Humans need food for their metabolic functioning
and tissue development (body building).
• The herbivorous animals eat plants while the
carnivorous animals eat the herbivores or the smaller
carnivores.
• As far as humans are concerned the vegetarians eat
plant foods and/or the protein rich dairy foods like
ghee, cheese etc., produced by the animals.
• The non-vegetarians besides consuming the plant
foods and vegetarian dairy products also consume the
direct animal foods, like fish, shellfish, meat, eggs etc.
 Types of Food resources
• Plant food
• Animal Food
 Plant food
• Although the exact number of plant species
available on Earth is not known, the Biologists
estimate their number to be around 2.7 lakhs.
• Out of these huge numbers of plant species
slightly more than 100 species provide 90% of the
total food consumed by the human beings either
directly or indirectly.
• Out of these, about 100 plant species only 12 plant
species provide the bulk of the food consumed by
human beings.
 Plant food
• Even these plant species are those that do not grow
naturally in the world but grown from agriculture a
process under which specific plant species are care
and managed by man to obtain the maximum yield of
their consumable parts.
• The plant species when grown through agriculture are
called crops.
These crops provide ;
• Food not only to human beings and for their livestock
also like cows, buffaloes, sheep, Chickens, pigs,
turkeys, geese, goats, ducks etc. through whom they
get their animal husbandry food.
 Animal Food
• This is particularly rich in proteins. It mainly
include vegetarian dairy products like milk, ghee,
cheese etc. as well as the non vegetarian food like
eggs, meat and sea food like fish, shell fish, crabs
etc. Broadly animal food may be divided into the
two types; i.e.
• i) Food from animal husbandry and
• ii) Sea food coming from fishing.
 Animal Food
• About 80 species of livestock are used to produce animal
husbandry food.
• The important ones include; cows, buffaloes, sheep, pigs,
chickens, turkeys geese, goats, ducks etc.
• The nutritious animal food is an expensive source of food
because animals are inefficient converters of plant food.
• For e g. Out of every 100 Joules of plant material
consumed by a cow about 86 Joules is burnt off in its
normal metabolic functioning and only 14 Joules are
stored in the cow for being consumed by humans.
 Animal Food
• Meat consumption is high in affluent societies and hence
large portions of the crops grown in highly developed
countries are used to nourish the live stock animals required
for human consumption.
• Thus almost half of the cereal grains produced in highly
developed countries are used to feed their livestock.
• Only the human beings thus finally consume a part of the
energy consumed by the livestock, since a lot of this energy
goes away in their metabolic functioning.
• The breeding of livestock and their ultimate consumption as
meat is thus a highly energy loss process.
• That is why it is stated that vegetarians cause lees burden on
the society in consuming food energy.
 Global food problem
• In several countries, where populations are
increasing rapidly, the production of food is not
keeping pace with the increasing population.
• These countries, thus, find themselves unable to
meet the food demand of their people.
• These countries are neither able to produce more
food, nor able to import food grains due to their
dwindling financial resources.
• Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)
estimated that out of the total world population of
about 6000 million, about 830 million people
lacked access to food needed to get healthy and
productive diet.
 Global food problem
• FAO has further estimated that for proper
nourishment, an average adult human, needs about
2600 calories/day of food energy.
• This minimum energy need of an average human
(males and females both included) is worked out
on the basis of minimum food energy requirement
of 3000 calories/day of a male person and of 2200
calories/day of a female person.
• People receiving less than 90 percent of this
minimum required food over a long period of time
will become under-noirished and if their food
intake over a long period of time is less than 80
percent of this minimum requirement, then they
become seriously under nourished.
 Global food problem
• As a matter of fact, the humans require for their
nourishment, not only the calorie intake ( energy)
but also proteins, minerals and vitamins.
• For example, a person whose primary food is rice,
can obtain enough calories fro rice, but will lack
proteins, lipids, minerals and vitamins to maintain
normal body development and functions.
• Additional nutritive food, rich in proteins and
vitamins will, hence, also be required to avoid
malnutrition.
 Global food problem
• It has been estimated that world wide, about 18
million people ( most of whom are children)
annually die due to malnutrition and starvation
and many more suffer from a variety of diseases
due to dietary deficiencies.
• Another World Health Organization’s (WHO)
estimate shows that world wide, about 180 million
children under the age of 5 years suffer from
malnutrition and are hence, seriously under
weight.
• This figure represents about 30 percent of all the
children of the world under 5 years of age in
developing countries.
 Global food problem
• However, India after several severe famines in the initial
years since its independence has made tremendous efforts to
increase its food production by developing an extensive
irrigation system and inventing high yielding varities of
wheat and rice.
• Construction of a large number of dams and hydro-electric
power stations made it possible to store water during three to
four monsoon months and to utilize the same for irrigation
during the eight to nine non-monsoon months of the year.
• To support the high yielding varities of wheat and rice,
fertilizers were supplied to farmers at highly subsided rates
along with supplying electricity to run tube wells and canal
irrigation water, virtually free of cost.
• This encouraged the Indian farmers to produce more and
more food and cash crops.
 Food security
• Food security is the ability of all people at
all times to access enough food for an
active and healthy life. The following three
conditions must be fulfilled to ensure food
security;
• Food must be available
• Each person must have access to it
• The food utilized must fulfill nutritional
requirements.
 Availability
• Global food security requires sufficient food production to
provide the world’s people with the amount of food they
need to lead active and healthy lives.
• On a national level, food can be produced domestically or
imported.
• Domestic production depends on the size of the area
harvested and the yields achieved and are heavily influenced
by weather, especially where irrigation is nonexistent.
• Imports depend on a country’s ability to finance them and
are determined by export earnings and international food
process.
• Domestic production and import activity are affected by
domestic policies and international prices.
 Access
• Access to food is mainly determined by
household income.
• Lack of access is therefore closely linked
with poverty.
• Where income is insufficient, transfer or
food assistance programs (such as feeding
programs or food subsidies) are a means to
ensure access to food.
 Utilization
• Adequate food utilization is a key of food
security.
• Access to safe water, good sanitation and
basic health care make a difference in
nutritional well-being as they have an
impact on the bodies ability to utilize
consumed foods.
• In adequate knowledge of basic nutritional
facts may also prevent the best use of
available food.
 Adverse affects of modern agriculture on
soil and water resources
• 1.The agricultural use of fossil fuels in modern farming
machines like tractors, diesel pumps, harvesters and many
other farm machines used for tilling, seeding and harvesting
crops cause air pollution.
• 2. The use of pesticides, herbicides, fungicides sprays cause
a lot of severe and harmful air pollution. Similarly the use of
fertilizers and pesticides cause water pollution, polluting the
under ground waters as well as the waters of the rivers.
• 3. The constant and continuous use of certain specific
synthetic chemicals make the pest to become resistant to the
used pesticide which forces the farmers to use progressively
increasing quantities of these chemicals, which prove very
costly and harmful to the environment.
• 4. The use of heavy machinery in the field causes
compaction of soil leading to decline in soil fertility.
 Adverse affects of modern agriculture on
soil and water resources
• 5. The hybrid high yielding varieties of crop seeds
encourages monoculture, micronutrient imbalance in soil,
nitrate pollution in ground waters and eutrophication of
water bodies like lakes.
• 6. Large scale development of agriculture has resulted in the
conversion of valuable and biologically rich forest into
agricultural land thereby causing severe environmental
imbalance due to shrinking forest cover. The loss of forests
have not only reduced the carbon dioxide absorption
capacity and oxygen producing capacity of our natural
environment, but also caused habitat loss to various animal
species, leading to various mammals, reptiles and birds
becoming extinct or endangered.
• 7. The large scale use of land for agriculture has also
resulted in destruction of wetlands, as several wetlands have
been filled up and reclaimed for agriculture.
 Problems with fertilizers

• The main problem associated with fertilizers use is

contamination of water with nitrates, phosphates
and potassium.
• Nutrients are lost from agricultural fields through
runoff, drainage or attachment to eroded soil
particles.
• The amount lost depend on the soil type and
organic matter content, the climate, slope of the
land and depth of ground water as well as on the
amount and type of fertilizer and irrigation used.
 Pesticides

• The pesticides are the chemicals sprayed on

crops and over the agricultural fields to kill
various types of pests that are likely to
cause plant diseases and consequently
reducing the crop yields.
• The chemical pesticides have been used in
modern agriculture on a large scale.
 Pesticides
• Depending on the type of organisms they
are used to control, pesticides can be
subdivided into following categories:
– Insecticides which are used to kill and control
insects.
– Fungicides which are used to kill unwanted
fungal growth.
– Herbicides which are used to kill unwanted
plant pests.
– Rodenticides which are used to kill mice and
rats.
 The ideal pesticide
• The following are the qualities of an ideal
pesticide
• Kills only the target pest
• Has no short or long term health effects on non-
target organisms including people
• Can be broken down into harmless chemicals in
fairly short time
• Prevents the development of genetic resistance in
target organisms
 The problems of pesticide
• The pesticides are used to kill the unwanted insects and
pests in the fields.
• They would kill not only the bacteria and organisms in the
fields but may also harm or even kill animals, including
humans/living outside the fields.
• Pesticides may be either persistent or non-persistent.
• The terms persistent and non-persistent refer to how long
a pesticide stays in the environment.
• Non-persistent pesticides break down in the environment
more quickly than persistent pesticides.
 The problems of pesticide

• Persistent pesticides, when once applied

remain effective for a long time.
• Since such pesticides do not break down
easily, they tend to accumulate in the soil
and in the bodies of plants and animals of
the food chain for a number of years
causing several health hazards, diseases and
even deaths.
 The problems of pesticide
• Persistent pesticides concentrations increases with
the passage of time in the animals and if the
animals is unable to flush them out of its body
system.
• This phenomenon is called bio-accumulation.
• When an infected animal is eaten by another
carnivorous animal, these pesticides are further
concentrated in the body of that carnivore.
• This phenomenon of causing increased
concentrations of pesticides in the bodies of each
higher trophic level organisms is known as bio-
magnification.
 The problems of pesticide
• Considering the highly dangerous effects of
the pesticides, efforts are being made to
educate the farmers for not using pesticides
in their fields.
• Instead stress is being made for either to go
in for organic farming or to adopt the
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
Technique.
 Organic farming

• Organic farming advocates avoiding the use of

chemical fertilizers or pesticides.
• The negative impacts of non-using of these
synthetic substances on the soil-fertility are
controlled by using a variety of techniques.
• For example leaving crop residue on the soil and
its incorporation within the soil reduces soil
erosion and increases organic matter within the
soil thereby increasing its fertility.
• The introduction of organic matter into the soil
also makes compaction less likely.
 Organic farming
• Crop rotation is also an effective way to enhance
soil fertility, reduce soil erosion and control pests.
• However, organic farming may not be able to give
as high crop yields, as may be given by the use of
synthetic fertilizers.
• Still some farmers have started resorting to
organic farming because their products are
fetching higher rates in the markets of rich and
environmentally knowledgeable people and they
have not spent any money on the fertilizers and
pesticides.
Advantages of organic fertilizer
• Fertilizer products supplement the nutrients already in
the soil. Man-made fertilizers (non-organic) are
concentrated and quick acting. Organic fertilizers release
nutrients slowly and usually contain many other trace
elements that plants may need and which are not found
in most chemical formulations.
• Too much fertilizers can burn plants and leach into the
ground water causing pollution problems. Organic
fertilizers are safer to use because they are not as
concentrated as man-made fertilizers.
• Ecologically and environmentally safe-no toxins, no
pollution.
• Provides a constant flow of amino acids and fatty acids
where necessary.
Advantages of organic fertilizer
• Restores the depleted vitamins and mineral
content to the soil.
• Safe and easy to apply.
• Eliminate environmental contamination-
especially the surface water and in many areas,
the underground water table.
• Provides the necessary soil micro-organisms that
assist in the manufacturing of organic matter and
nitrogen fixation products that are very
important to plant production and health.
 Integrated Pest Management
(IPM) Technique
• In this technique, scientific study is conducted to
obtain a complete understanding of all ecological
aspects of a crop and the particular pests to which
the said crop is susceptible to infection.
• This may help, for either not using any pesticides
at all or using calculated quantities of some non-
persistent pesticide or by using bio-pesticide.
 Alternative methods of insect control

• Crop rotation, in which types of crops planted in fields

are changed from year to year so that populations of
pests that attack a particular crop do not have time to
multiply to uncontrollable sizes.
• Planting rows of hedges or trees in and around crop
fields to act as barriers to invasion by insect pests,
provide habitats for their natural enemies and serve as
wind breaks to reduce soil erosion.
• Adjusting planting times to ensure that most major
insect pests starve to death before the crop is available or
are consumed by their natural predators.
Planting rows of hedges or trees
Planting rows of hedges or trees
Alternative methods of insect control

• Growing crops in areas where their major

pests do not exist.
• Switching from monocultures to
modernized versions of intercropping,
agro forestry and polyculture that use
plant diversity to help control pests.
• Destroy diseased or infected plants.
Intercropping or Multiple cropping
Intercropping or Multiple cropping
Intercropping or Multiple cropping
Agro forestry
Agro forestry
Agro forestry
 Land resources

• Land is a delineable area of the earth’s terrestrial

surface, encompassing all attributes of the
biosphere immediately above or below this surface
including those of the near-surface climate, the
soil and terrain forms, the surface hydrology
(including shallow lakes, rivers, marshes and
swamps), the near-surface sedimentary layers and
associated ground water reserve, the plants and
animal populations, the human settlement pattern
and physical results of past and present activity.
 Land resources
• The quality of a soil is controlled by its properties
like the structure of soil, type and size of soil
particles, extent of voids (controlling its water
holding capacity) which ultimately decides as to
what kind of vegetation can grow effectively on
the given soil under the given climatic conditions.
• In view of this reason, the quality of soil and
maintaining it in good condition becomes
extremely important since the fertility of the soil
will decide the quantum of production of crops
and other vegetations.
 Land degradation
• Land degradation can be considered as loss of actual
or potential or utility as a result of natural or
anthropogenic factors. It is the decline in land quality
or reduction in its productivity. Mechanisms that
initiate land degradation include physical, chemical
and biological processes.
• Physical processes initiate decline in soil structure
leading to crusting, compaction, erosion, and
desertification.
• Chemical processes initiate acidification, leaching,
decrease in cation exchange capacity and fertility
depletion.
• Biological processes initiate reduction in total and
biomass carbon and decline in land biodiversity.
 Soil erosion

• Soil erosion is the washing or blowing away (by

wind or water) of the top layer of soil. This is a
serious problem for people who want to grow
crops.
• Crops are the foods that farmers grow. If the soil
has eroded, the crops will not grow very well. Soil
erosion is a natural process.
• It becomes a problem when human activity causes
it to occur much faster than under natural
conditions.
 Causes of soil erosion
• Wind and water are the main agents of soil
erosion. The amount of soil they can carry
away is influenced by two related factors:
• * speed - the faster either moves, the more
soil it can erode.
• * Plant cover - plants protect the soil and in
their absence wind and water can do much
more damage.
 Preventing soil erosion
• Use of contour ploughing and wind breaks.
• Leaving grass strips between ploughed lands.
• Making sure that there are always plants growing on the
soil and that the soil is rich in humus (decaying plants and
animals). This organic matter is the “glue” that binds the
soil particles together and plays an important part in the
prevention of erosion.
• Avoiding overgrazing and over use of crop lands.
• Allowing indigenous plants to grow along the river banks
instead of ploughing and planting crops right up to the
water edge.
• Encouraging biological diversity by planting several
different types of plants together.
• Conservation of wetlands.
 Soil conservation and its type

• Soil conservation is a set of management

strategies for prevention of soil being
eroded from the Earth’s surface or
becoming chemically altered by overuse,
acidificatio, salinization or other chemical
soil contamination.
 Soil conservation and its type
The various soil conservation practices are
• Planting Vegetation
• Contour Ploughing
• Maintaining the Soil pH
• Soil Organisms
• Crop Rotation Practice
• Watering the Soil
• Salinity Management
• Terracing
• Bordering from Indigenous Crops
• No-tilling Farming Method
Soil conservation and its type
Planting Vegetation
• This is one of the most effective and
cost saving strategies.
• This measure is among soil
conservation technique used by farmers.
• By planting trees, grass, and plants, soil
erosion can be greatly prevented.
• Plants help to stabilize the properties of
soil, and trees act as a wind barrier and
prevent soil from being blown away.
• This is also among strategies used for
soil conservation in urban areas, one
can plant trees and plants in the
landscape areas of the residential places.
• The best choices for vegetation are
herbs, small trees, plants with wild
flowers, and creepers which provide a
ground cover.
Planting Vegetation
 Contour Ploughing
• Contour farming or ploughing is used by
farmers, wherein they plough across a slope
and follow the elevation contour lines.
• This method prevents water run-off, and
thus prevents soil erosion by allowing water
to slowly penetrate the soil.
 Contour Ploughing
•
 Contour Ploughing

•
Contour Ploughing
 Maintaining the Soil pH
• The measurement of soil's acidity or
alkalinity is done by measuring the soil pH
levels.
• Soil gets polluted due to the addition of
basic or acidic pollutants which can be
countered by maintaining the desirable pH
of soil.
Soil Organisms
• Without the activities
performed by soil organisms,
the organic material required
by plants will litter and won't
be available for plant growth.
• Using beneficial soil
organisms like earthworms,
helps in aeration of soil and
makes the macro-nutrients
available for the plants.
• Thus, the soil becomes more
fertile and porous.
 Crop Rotation Practice
• Crop rotation is the soil conservation method
where a series of different crops are planted
one after the other in the same soil area.
• This method is used greatly in organic farming.
• It is done to prevent the accumulation of
pathogens, which occur if the same plants are
grown in the soil, and also depletion of
nutrients.
Crop Rotation Practice
Crop Rotation Practice
Watering the Soil
• We water plants and trees, but
it is equally important to water
soil to maintain its health.
• Soil erosion occurs if the soil is
blown away by wind.
• By watering and settling the
soil, one can prevent soil
erosion from the blowing away
of soil by wind.
• One of the effective soil
conservation ways in India is
the drip irrigation system which
provides water to the soil
without the water running-off.
 Salinity Management
• Excessive collection of salts in the soil has
harmful effects on the metabolism of plants.
Salinity can lead to death of the vegetation
and thus cause soil erosion, which is why
salinity management is important.
 Terracing
• :Terracing is among one of the best soil
conservation method, where cultivation is
done on a terrace leveled section of land.
• In terracing, farming is done on a unique step
like structure and the possibility of water
running off is slowed down.
Terracing
Terracing
Bordering from Indigenous Crops

• It is preferable to native plants, but when

native plants are not planted then bordering
the crops with indigenous crops is
necessary.
• This helps to prevent soil erosion, and this
measure is greatly opted in poor rural areas.
 No-tilling Farming Method
• The process of soil being plowed for farming is
called tilling, wherein the fertilizers is mixed and
the rows for plantation are created.
• However, this method leads to death of beneficial
soil organisms, loss of organic matter and
compaction of soil.
• Due to these side effects, the no-tilling strategy is
used to conserve soil health.
 Mineral resources in India
• India is quite rich in minerals. Substances which are found in
the rocks or are lying hidden under the ground are called
minerals.
• These substances are mined out or pumped out of the earth.
• Mines are big holes dug out in the earth's surface to take out
minerals.
• Sometimes these holes are quite big and long.
• Some /of the minerals like iron, copper, zinc, aluminium, gold
and silver are metals while some others like coal, petroleum,
lime stone and salt are non-metals.
• The metals are found in their crude form known as ores.
• The metals have to be obtained from their ores by melting or
by other process.
 Mining

• Mining is the extraction of valuable

minerals or other geological materials from
the earth .
• Ores recovered by mining include metals,
coal, oil shales, gemstones, limestones etc.
 Adverse effects of mining
• Mining, especially open-pit mining, generates enormous
quantities of waste.
• Water interacts with these wastes to generate contaminated
fluids that can pollute soils, rivers and ground water.
• These fluids can be highly acidic and metal laden or highly
alkaline and they often contain various forms of cyanide
depending on the waste source.
• Acid mine drainage can occur when water and air come into
contact with geologic material containing iron sulphide, as in
abandoned waste piles.
• Such drainage can contaminate nearby streams and ground
water for centuries after a mine is closed.
• The tendency to form acid mine drainage can be aggravated by
high rainfall and high temperatures.
 Adverse effects of mining
• Erosion and sedimentation present another
environmental issue for mine sites.
• When material is disturbed in significant
quantities, as it is mining process, large
quantities of sediment are transported by
after erosion.
• The sediment eventually settles at some
point downstream from the erosive source.
 Adverse effects of mining
• Damage to forest cover is smaller in scale
and more localized for mining locations than
for logging locations.
• However, both increase access to otherwise
remote forest areas and provide an
opportunity for further activities, especially
in places where population pressure already
exist.
 Adverse effects of mining

• Dust generated from mining activities can

cause a serious cause of illness, generally
in the form respiratory troubles.
• Dust can also deposit in surface water
causing sedimentation and turbidity
problems.
 Adverse effects of mining

• Mining activities consume enormous

quantities of timber for their construction
in the case of underground mines and as
source of energy for mines with charcoal-
fuelled casting ovens.
 Adverse effects of mining
• Noise is another major problem from
mining operations.
• The deafening sound of the machinery
used in mining and the blasting crate
conditions that may become unbearable
for the local population and the forest
wildlife.
 Adverse effects of mining

• The large disturbances caused by mining

can disrupt environments, adversely
affecting aquatic habitats and terrestrial
habitats.
 Social damages of mining
• Appropriation of the land belonging to the local
communities.
• Impacts of health.
• Alteration of social relationships.
• Destruction of forms of community subsistence
and life.
• Social disintegration.
• Radical and abrupt changes in regional cultures.
• Displacement of other present and/or future
local economic activities.
THANK YOU

155