CHAPTER FIVE

5. Fundamentals of Geological Investigation

5.1 Introductions
 Geological investigation is the first step towards the completion of a building
and is considered as the most important step as it identifies the feasibility
of an area for construction and determines how the foundations
and preventive measurements to be set up for the building.
 Basic geological investigation involves the study of the geological
and
tectonic structure of large regions and the solution of problems
of
stratigraphy and the genesis and age of rocks from a wider point of view
 Site investigation deals with collecting all necessary information for safe
and economic design, construction and maintenance of civil
engineering structures, environmental management, or extraction/
development of resources.
 it is the scientific investigation of the site to find out the properties of the
material in the ground as, engineering parameters in designing
the engineering structures. 1
 It also is done for obtaining information about surface and subsurface conditions
at the site of proposed construction.
 Information about surface & subsurface features is essential for the design of
structures and planning construction techniques.
 SI consists of determining the profile of natural soil deposits at the site, taking
the soil samples, and determining the engineering properties of soils.
 SI is done to obtain useful information such as to;
 Select the type and depth of foundation for a given structure
 Determine bearing capacity of the soil
 Determine the geological structure and lithology of the area

 Determine the geological structure and lithology of the area

 Determine the maximum probable and differential settlement
 Establish the ground water level and determine properties of water
 Predict lateral earth pressure against retaining walls and abutments
 Select suitable construction techniques
 Predict and solve potential foundation problems
 Investigate the safety of existing structures and suggest the remedial measures.

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 Site investigation is a complex process. It is vital to the success of
any
construction project, since inadequate investigation can lead to very
large
construction cost overruns.
 If site investigation is to be effective then it must be carried out in a systematic
way, using techniques that are relevant, reliable and cost-effective.

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 Objectives of Site investigation
 The main objectives of site investigation include the following:

 Determine the nature of soil/rock at the site and its stratification.

 Obtain disturbed and undisturbed soil and rock samples
for visual identification and appropriate laboratory tests.
 Determine the depth and nature of bedrock, if and when encountered.
 Perform some in-situ tests: permeability, bearing
capacity, shear strength, compressibility/settlement behavior,
etc.
 Observe drainage conditions from and into the site.
 Assess any special construction problems with respect to the existing
structures nearby.
 Identify potential geological hazards: landslides, earthquakes, flooding,
volcanoes, etc.
 Assess the quantity, quality and proximity of construction materials for
the proposed of project.

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  On-site investigations one must include:

 Nature of immediately underlying soil + rock;

 Geology of the project & adjacent areas;
 Topography & Vegetation;
 Ground water situations, ie seepage ,springs, etc;
 Natural slopes;
 Depth to Bedrock;
 Types of materials to be excavated;
 Stability of any excavations;
 Absence of toxic wastes
 Position of any Utilities, and
 Permission to access property.
 If necessary, drill site to assess parameters.
 All factors influence site selection/ rejection.

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5.2 Elements of an investigation

1. Formulating an investigation

2. Data collection

3. Data interpretation

4. Understanding the role of measurement and scales

5. Making data manageable for analysis

6. Applying analysis techniques

7. Communication

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1. Formulating an investigation
 An investigation starts from formulating or framing the question or questions
to be answered related to!
 Amount of information needed.
 Scope of the investigation
 The size of the area depends on the scope
 Time available or required to complete the investigation
 Some cases time may be limited by some other factors.
 Time is a function of the need of the engineer, the season and location.
 If the scope of the investigation is wide, the time
required for
investigation is longer
2. Data collection
Data collection needs two kinds of studies:
Office study and Field study
a. Office study
 Gathering all the existing useful to the investigation like
information geomorphology, population, accessibility, aerial
hydrogeology, geology, photography, etc. 7
 Office study reduces time of field work if conducted properly.
 Office study/data collection is completed once
 The available sources have been tapped

 The information extracted and the data organized in a usable form

 Finally compare the available data with what is required and it gives a
guide to select the appropriate methods for acquiring it.

b. Field study
 Involves generating new data through exploration and testing

3. Data interpretation
With out interpretation of the data collected investigation is incomplete.

Interpretation starts with analysis of the data in light of the questions posed for the
investigation.

Analysis results serve as the basis for developing conclusions

and recommendations.

In actual investigation data analysis usually occurs throughout data collection.

Avoids collecting extraneous data or failure to collect data not initially recognized
as pertinent to the investigation.
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 4. Understanding the role of measurement and
scales
 It is important to understand the relationship of data to scales of measurement.
 Measurement is not limited to using numbers.

 It could be attaching a label such as a name or descriptive term

to an observation or sample.
i. Nominal scale, identification of rock type for collected samples,
saturated,

unsaturated .

ii. Ordinal scale, ordered values of data, low, moderate, high, etc.

iii. Interval scale, order among data & relative difference within that order, zero

point arbitrarily set permitting –Ve values to be obtained, e.g. Temp.

Iv. Ratio scale, have a fixed zero point, e.g. length, volume, weight, et

5. Making data manageable for analysis

 Analysis begin with reducing raw data to a manageable form.
 Once reorganization is complete, analysis techniques can be applied to the data.
 Results obtained are evaluated with each other & with other data or criteria to
the questions being addressed by the investigation. 9
 Reorganizing data involves preparing tables, graphs, measured profiles, cross-

sections, etc. that permit comparison and examination.

 Spatial variations may be important in some cases.
 Then reorganize into maps that would permit comparisons among these factors.
 Some factors may have interest over time, so arranging the data sequentially in

a table or a graph with one axis representing time.

6. Applying analysis techniques
 Analysis techniques may be: Mathematical analysis techniques
or Statistical
analysis
techniques
 All analysis techniques involve some assumptions concerning data

 Choosing analysis techniques must be sufficiently familiar with the underlying assumptions

of each techniques.
 Last step in interpretation is conclusions and recommendations

 This is the point that analysis results are transformed into answers sought by

the investigation
 Where there is some uncertainty exists propose/recommend further detail site investigations

or additional drilling 1
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 7. Communication
o Final step in an investigation

o The answers developed by the investigations should be transferred to

the user for action.
o The user: individual, company manager, governmental board, court, etc.

o No single way of communication is appropriate in all cases.

o Presentation to the public, oral communication, written in a defined format,

etc.
o Conclusions should be supported by data & analysis.

o Keep data separate from interpretations

o To have confidence in the conclusions, the user must be able to see how the
data supports the conclusions.
o Assist reader or listener in understanding your findings by stating
logical
consequences of your conclusions (especially for less-technical background)
o Use pictures, diagrams and other nonverbal means of communicating your
findings to supplement written or spoken words.
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 5.3. Stages/phases of site investigation
 Two basic types of engineering geological investigations

a. Regional study b. Site investigation

 Address questions of land and  Commonly associated with
resource allocation
engineering geology
 Provide information for land use planning
 Study that provides a description of
 Involves large areas & information developed
the state of physical
lacks the detail needed to base
characteristics of the site in most
engineering design
economical manner.
 Useful for broad-decision making purposes
 Concentrates on geologic information
required in regional planning
that affect the design
 Maps and inventories are the result of
and construction of a particular
regional study.
project at a specific location.
 The phases of site investigation:
1. Desk study (office work)
2. Reconnaissance study
3. A preliminary study
4. A detailed site investigation
5. Implementation(construction/monitoring) 1
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1. Desk study
 Literature Search
 First stage of the Site Investigation
 Work taken up prior to commencing the work on site and the Ground Investigation.
 It is used to plan the Ground Investigation.
 A good starting point is to use the:
a. geological maps: In addition to historical maps
 That allow much information to be obtained such as former uses of the site
 Included mine workings; in- filled ponds; old clay, gravel and sand pits; disused
quarries; changes in topography and drainage; changes in stream and river
courses; changes in potential landslide areas.
b. Ariel Photography
 Another useful source of information.
 Such records can be extremely useful in ascertaining historical use of the site,
hidden foundations, changes of river course and much other hidden data.
c. Services records:
o An essential part of the desk study, necessary to locate hidden services such as
electricity cables, sewers and telephone wires.
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o It is essential when conducting a desk study that as much information as possible is
obtained.
o Work at this stage of the Investigation saves much time later and vastly improves the
planning and quality of the Investigation
Advantages of desk study:
 To collect, understand and interpret data
 To limit costs
 Aid in the Design Process
 Highlights problems early
 Low cost & cost effective
 Provides information which would otherwise be difficult to obtain
Sources of information
i. Maps
iii. Specialist
 Geological maps & Surveys
o Environmental Check, Landfill etc.
Memoirs
o Mining Records
 Current OS Maps
o Ecological Survey
 Old Maps / Aerial Photos
ii. Archive
iv. Observational
 Historical Geotechnical Info.
 Site Visit / Walkover survey
 Engineering Drawings
 People ( Construction Staff, Local
 Construction Records
Residents
 Libraries 1
2. Reconnaissance study
 It includes a visit to site to study maps & other records
 It helps in deciding future programme of site investigation, scope of work,

methods of exploration to be adopted, types of samples to be taken and

laboratory and in-situ testing.
 The geotechnical engineer makes a visit to the site for a careful inspection in

reconnaissance.
 The following features are examined during reconnaissance;
 The general topography of the site, the existence of drainage, ditches and

dumps of debris and sanitary fills

 Existence of settlement cracks in the structure near the site
 Evidences of landslides, creep of slopes and shrinkage cracks
 Stratification of soils as observed from deep cuts near the site
 Location of high flood marks on nearby building and bridges
 Depth of ground water as observed in the wells
 Existence of springs, swamps etc at the site
 Type of vegetation existing at the site (give clue nature of soil)
 Existence of underground water, power conduit at the site 1
 Besides, making site visit, the geotechnical engineer should study geological
maps, aerial photographs, soil maps and blueprint of existing buildings =>
geologic character of the area
 The geotechnical engineer should get information about the type of structure to
be built and its proposed use
 In case of multi-stored building

Information about column loads and their approximate

locations should be obtained.
 In case of bridges;

The span length and load carried by piers and abutments

 In case of dams;

Type of dam, its height, base width etc

3. Preliminary study
 The aim of PS is to determine the depth, thickness, extent and composition
of
each soil stratum at the site.
 To determine depth of bedrock and ground water table

 PE is generally in the form of a few borings and test pits 1

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 Tests are conducted with cone penetrometers to obtain information about the strength and
compressibility of soils.
 Geophysical methods are also used for locating boundaries of different strata.
 Earlier uses of the site, evidence of underground working
 Important in determining relative suitability of alternative sites or project
 In determining the basis and extent of detailed investigation required
 In providing geologic information for basing reasonable cost estimate e.g. time, instruments,
borehole, geophysics, pit, etc.
4. Detailed site investigation
 Intensive and Detailed investigation of a site

 Two main goals

1. Determining & interpreting surface & subsurface conditions that

influence design & construction

2. Evaluating the behaviour, characteristics & engineering significance of earth

materials present or those intended for use in construction
Examples Building/Investigation a road route
 Exploration along the route would include areas that require special designs,
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 Wet areas needing drainage, stream channels needing bridges or large fills, &
rock outcrops requiring blasting might be among the factors identified during
exploration.
5. Implementation studies
 Preliminary & detailed study results are continually revised & involve the
recognition & monitoring of the geologic conditions / may differ from what was
expected (changed condition).
 Basis for changing the project design to avoid major problems project
in performance.
 All problems encountered during construction are studied at this stage

 Preparation of an in-constructed geologic map.

 Some times continue into the post-construction period

(regulatory requirements).

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5.4 Methods of Geological Investigation
 Geological surveying employs techniques from the traditional walk-over survey,
studying outcrops and landforms, to intrusive methods, such as hand
augering and machine-driven boreholes, to the use of geophysical
techniques and remote sensing methods, such as aerial photography and
satellite imagery.
Types of site investigation
a. Surface investigations
 Surface information (soil &rock) understand geological processes which formed

the soils and rocks (natural outcrops, river cut, etc)

These include preparation of topographic maps (if these are not

already available) using the normal mapping techniques.

 Field surveys begin with the preparation (or availability) of topographic maps

showing elevation contours relative to some datum.

 Aerial surveys and preparation of photogeological maps are the latest methods

of surface investigations.
 The entire area involving an engineering study is photographed
 These maps are then interpreted to provide sufficiently accurate
geological

details of the area surveyed.

 Photogeology is now a branch of geology in its own right and is fast acquiring

an important place.
 It is the interpretation of the geological and geomorphological features by means

of remotely sensed data.

 Its scope is enlarged by mapping of vast areas of the globe through satellites.
 Imageries obtained from satellite surveys and aerial surveys, when interpreted
properly, provide useful details regarding rock outcrops on the surface with
possibilities of estimating their subsurface configuration
b. Subsurface investigations
 Objectives of subsurface investigation are:
 Identify and delineate geologic units

 Describe the unites systematically:

o Include information on field identification

o Extent of weathering or density or compressibility

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  Identify features such as joints, faults, slickensides

 Conduct simple (index) tests during investigation

 Assess hydrogeologic conditions

 Extract samples of geologic units and groundwater for laboratory testing

 Install instrumentation

-To monitor time dependent changes in sub-surface conditions

Methods of subsurface investigation
 These are accomplished by following two broad methods:

1. Direct

2. Indirect Methods
1. Direct methods
 The direct methods involve examination of rocks or materials of the
underground
by digging of drill holes, trial pits, adits, shafts, galleries and exploratory tunnels.
 In such explorations, both the underground areas are reached for
direct
examination and testing or samples are obtained which are examined and
tested
Methods of Direct
investigation
a. Open excavation (trial pit and Trenches)
b. Boring methods
a. Pits and Trenches
 Pits & trenches are excavated at the site to inspect sub-surface
 The size of the pit should be sufficient to provide necessary working space.
 The depth of pit depends on the requirement of investigation.
 Shallow pits up to depth of 3m can be made without lateral support. when it goes deeper,
lateral support is needed.
 For depths > 6m , boreholes are more economical than pits
 Trenches are long shallow pits
 Trenches are more suitable than pits for exploration on slopes

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 b. Boring for Investigations
 When depth of exploration is large, borings are used for exploration
 Vertical borehole is drilled to get information about sub-soil strata
 Used to conduct in-situ & laboratory tests soil samples
 Depending on the type of soil and purpose of boring, there are d/t methods of drilling holes;
Auger boring, rotary drilling, percussion drilling, core drilling etc,

1. Auger boring
 Used for shallow depth and soft soils

 Used in soils w/c can stay open without casing (e.g. clay, silt), but sandy soils below water
table requires support (casing)
 Not used in the presence of large cobbles, boulders

 Disadvantage: soil samples are highly disturbed

2. Rotary drilling
 Used in clay, sand and rocks
 Not used for materials containing large percentage of gravel size and larger
3. Percussion drilling
 Used for making holes in rocks, boulders and other hard strata
 Advantage: it is used for all types of materials including drilling holes in glacial tills.
 Disadvantage: the material at the bottom of the hole is disturbed by heavy blows.
 It is quite expensive than others
4. Core drilling
 Used for drilling holes and obtaining rock cores. 2
Types of soil samples
 Samples are required to accurately identify and classify soil or rock.
 Soil samples are generally classified into two categories
 Both sampling can be conducted in pits, trenches, audits, boreholes, etc.
1. Disturbed samples
 In w/c the natural structure of the soil gets disturbed during sampling
 Represent the composition and mineral content of the soil
 Used to determine index properties of the soil such as, grain size, plasticity
characteristics and specific gravity.
2. Undisturbed samples
 In w/c the natural structure of the soil and water content are retained.
 It is impossible to get truly undisturbed sample
 Used for determining the

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 Common Sampling
Methods

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01/13/20 26
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2. Indirect Methods
 The indirect methods of subsurface explorations are used extensively and
involve application of geophysical techniques for obtaining fairly accurate
idea of subsurface geology.
 The provide quick, inexpensive, easy and fairly reliable means to get
subsurface details
 Geophysics - the science of measurement of physical property variations to
study the composition and structure of the Earth‟s interior.
Advantages of Indirect method
 Non-destructive nature.
 The cost-effectiveness of using geophysical -methods over traditional
excavation is not directly measurable in dollars and cents.
 To delineate structurally weak zones (like faults, fracture zones and fissures)
that usually serve as conduits for the groundwater to flow into or out of the
aquifers.
 Can detect both lateral and depth variations in a physically relevant parameter
 Can produce detailed images of structural features present in the subsurface.
 Determining the nature and morphology of the principal types of deposits;
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Disadvantage of indirect method
 Amount of data collected in a survey can rapidly become overwhelming.
 Data reduction and processing can be time consuming, require sophisticated
computer hardware, and demand considerable expertise.
 Because both sources and receivers are under the surveyor's control, he must
supply both. Therefore, field equipment tends to be more complex.
 Insufficient/low physical properties contrast among the underlying geological
units. In this case it will be difficult or even impossible to differentiate geologic
features by their petro physical characteristics.
 Over estimation of subsurface parameters
Geophysical investigation
o It is an indirect approach to the investigation of ground or built structure.
o Can be used, for example, to measure the variation of the physical properties of
subsurface materials, eg compressional and shear wave velocities,
electrical
conductivity and resistivity.
o The advantage is that it enables information to be obtained for large volumes of
ground that cannot be investigated by direct methods because of the 2
0i1n/13v/
o The cost of geophysical explorations is generally low compared with the cost of
core borings or test pits, and considerable savings may often be affected by
judicious use of this exploration method in conjunction with other methods.
Types of geophysical methods
Gravity Methods
Magnetic Methods
Electrical
Methods
Electromagnetic Methods
Seismic Methods

Geophysical
methods

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a. Gravity methods
 Gravity method is based on the study of variation of gravitational force

of attraction caused by density differences of earth crust.

 This means the aim of gravity survey is to detect effects of the differences in

rock density related to subsurface geological features.

 Measure variations in density within the Earth‟s surface

 Absolute value of “g” is measured by using a sensitive instrument-

the GRAVIMETER
 Common unit of “g” for geophysical purposes is the “milligal”

1 gal = 1 cm/s2
 Therefore, small variations in density of subsurface rocks give rise to measurable

gravity anomaly on the surface

 Gravity is a potential field, i.e., it is a force that acts at a distance.

 It has foundnumerous applications in engineering, environmental

and

geothermal studies including locating voids, faults, buried stream valleys, water
table levels and geothermal heat sources. 3
 The primary goal of studying detailed gravity data is to provide better
a

understanding of the subsurface geology.

 It is relatively cheap, non-invasive, non-destructive remote sensing method.

 It is also passive
 Measurements of gravity provide about densities of rocks
information
underground.
Density
No of the main
Mineral rock-forming
Density g/cc) minerals
No Mineral Density (g/cc)
1 Coal 0.8-1.5
12 Amphibole 2.9-3.6
2 Rock Salt 2.0-2.2
3 Gypsum 2.3-2.5
13 Epidote 3.1-3.5
4 Serpentine 2.5-2.6 14 Olivine 3.0-4.4
5 Calcite 2.6-2.8
15 Chrome 4.3-4.6
6 Quartz 2.6-2.7
16 Pyrite 5.0-5.1
7 Kaolin 2.6-2.6
8 Plagioclase 2.5-2.8 17 Magnetite 5.0-5.2
9 Mica 2.7-3.2 18 Hematite 5.3-5.5
10 Dolomite 2.7-2.9
19 Galena 6.6-7.6
11 Anhydrite 2.7-2.9
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Approximate density ranges (Mgm-3) of some common rock types and ores..
Materials Densities

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b. Magnetic Methods
The susceptibilities of
 The method for changes in various rocks and minerals
searches
magnetic susceptibility (K=I/H –the
degree to which a body gets magnetized)
of rocks in the subsurface
 Magnetic surveys are conducted to
determine changes in physical properties
of subsurface rocks (viz., magnetic
susceptibility).
 Materials like magnetite, ilmenite,
chromite show large K values and
moreover different rock units exhibit
different susceptibilities
 The natural field of the Earth is used as
magnetizing force and records are made
by MAGNETOMETERS
 Common unit in geophysical
surveys is the “gamma”
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c. Electrical Resistivity Methods
o The measured parameter is the vertical or lateral variations in resistivity of
subsurface materials
o The methods in general, deal with the electrical state of the Earth and include
studies on the electrical properties of rocks and minerals under different
geophysical conditions
o Electrical methods employ a variety of measurements of the effects of electrical
current flow within the Earth.
o The phenomena that can be measured include current flow, electrical potential
(voltages), and electromagnetic fields.
o Resistivity () - which governs the amount of current (I) passing through a
rock for a given potential difference ( V),
o The resistivity of geological materials exhibits one of the largest ranges of all
physical properties: from 1.6 x 10-8 -m for native silver to 1016 -m for pure
sulphur.

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⚫ In general:
- Igneous rocks tend to have the highest resistivities
- Sedimentary rocks tend to be most conductive,
largely due to their high pore fluid
content
- Metamorphic rocks have intermediate but
overlapping resistivities
⚫ The resistivity of igneous and metamorphic rocks is
greatly dependent on
- the degree of fracturing,
- the percentage of the fractures filled with
fluids, and
- the resistivity of the fluid filling the fractures.
(thus a given rock type can have a large range of
resistivity,
from about 1000 to 10 million -m, depending on whet her it is wet
or dry).
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⚫ 24
Sedimentary rocks, which are usually more porous and have higher water
 Table Resistivities of common rocks and ore minerals
Common rocks Ore
minerals
Rock type Resistivity (Ohm-m)
Topsoil 50–100
Ore Type Resistivity
Loose sand 500–5000 (ohm-m)
Gravel 100–600 Pyrite (ores) 0.01–100
Clay 1–100
Pyrrhotite 0.001–0.01
Weathered bedrock 100–1000
Chalcopyrite 0.005–0.1
Sandstone 200–8000
Limestone 500–10 000 Galena 0.001 – 100
Greenstone 500–200 000 Sphalerite 1000 – 1 000
Gabbro 100–500 000 000
Granite 200–100 000 Magnetite 0.01 – 1000
Basalt 200–100 000
Cassiterite 0.001 – 10 000
Graphitic schist 10–500
Slates 500–500 000 Hematite 0.01–1 000
000
Quartzite 500–800 000

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A more generalized values of resistivities of various rocks, soils and
minerals
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 Igneous and metamorphic rocks typically have high resistivity values.

The resistivity of these rocks is greatly dependent on the degree of

fracturing, and the percentage of the fractures filled with ground water.

Thus a given rock type can have a large range of resistivity, from about 1000

to 10 million .m, depending on whether it is wet or dry.

 Sedimentary rocks, which are usually more porous and have

higher water content,normally have lower resistivity values compared to

igneous and metamorphic rocks.

The resistivity values range from 10 to about 10000 m, with most values

below 1000 .m.

The resistivity values are largely dependent on the porosity of the rocks, and the

salinity of the contained water.

 Unconsolidated sediments generally have even lower resistivity values

than
sedimentary rocks, with values ranging from about 10 to less than 1000
 The resistivity value is dependent on the porosity (assuming

all the pores are saturated) as well as the clay content.

Clayey soil normally has a lower resistivity value than sandy soil.

 In general, boundaries between high and low resistivity can be

considered as one of discontinuities which is interpreted as a fault

or weak zone in engineering sense.
 In many cases, these boundaries have a high permeability and tend

to be the flow channels of groundwater. They should be

considered very carefully when an excavated in the zone having
low resistivity.

 Because of various types of cavitation progressing in limestone

area, they are predicted that limestone cavities very

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irregularly
24 develop from small to large scale.
d. Seismic Methods
 Measure acoustic impedance (V) of the layers of the subsurface

 Signals are picked up by „geophones‟ and recorded by seismometers

 The major advantage of the method is that:

-to resolve lateral changes in depth to the top of the refractor, and

-determine the seismic velocity within it

-the most commonly derived geophysical parameter is the seismic

wave velocity of the subsurface layers

 From the velocities and their distribution, a number of important geotechnical

factors can be derived , such as

- assessing the rock strength,

- the presence of weak zones- fissures, fractures, faults

- potential fluid content, and

-mapping the weathered fractured and faulted zones, that can

act as conduits or barriers for groundwater flow

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 The seismic method is a powerful geophysical exploration technique
that
has been in wide-spread use in ground engineering
 The energy source is critical in seismic surveying. It determines the

depth of penetration.
 A vibrator or explosives are usually used in reflection surveys.

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