Atoms, Molecules and Ions
Chapter 2
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Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles
called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the
same size, mass and chemical properties. The atoms of
one element are different from the atoms of all other
elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one
element. In any compound, the ratio of the numbers of
atoms of any two of the elements present is either an
integer or a simple fraction.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation,
combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does not
result in their creation or destruction. 2
Laws governing chemicals
• Law of mass conservation: The total mass of substances does not
change during a chemical reaction.
– If you start with 10g, then you should finish with 10g.
• Law of Definite Composition: A compound will always have the
same ratio of its components. Look at Calcium Carbonate
• Law of Multiple proportions: Compounds can be made using
varying ratios of the component elements as long as they are expressed
as whole numbers. For example, C and O can combine to form CO or
CO2.
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16 X + 8Y 8 X2Y
Law of Conservation of Mass
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Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Law of Multiple Proportions
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WHO HOW WHEN SIGNIFICANCE
J.J. Cathode ray to 1897 ATOMS ARE DIVISIBLE
Thompson Measure charge/mass: Developed the “plum pudding”
determined that there model where there were electrons
were smaller particles with negative charges held in a
(1/1000 the size of H “sphere of positive charge”
atom) than atoms
Robert X-rays 1909 Measured the charge of an
Millikin electron
Ernest Radioactivity and gold 1910 Disproved the “plum pudding
Rutherford foil to detect theory” Identified the nucleus of
positively charged the atom as being dense and
particles positively charged (the protons)
Chadwick Radioactivity to 1932 Discovered the neutron by trying
determine why the to detect neutral charged particles
mass of a nucleus did
not match the protons
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Cathode Ray Tube
J.J. Thomson, measured mass/charge of e-
(1906 Nobel Prize in Physics) 7
Millikan’s Experiment
Measured mass of e-
(1923 Nobel Prize in Physics)
e- charge = -1.60 x 10-19 C
Thomson’s charge/mass of e- = -1.76 x 108 C/g
e- mass = 9.10 x 10-28 g 8
Thomson’s Model
9
Rutherford’s Experiment
(1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)
particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 107 m/s
(~5% speed of light)
1. atoms positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus
2. proton (p) has opposite (+) charge of electron (-)
3. mass of p is 1840 x mass of e- (1.67 x 10-24 g) 10
Rutherford’s Model of
the Atom
atomic radius ~ 100 pm = 1 x 10-10 m
nuclear radius ~ 5 x 10-3 pm = 5 x 10-15 m
“If the atom is the Houston
Astrodome, then the nucleus is a
marble on the 50-yard line.” 11
Chadwick’s Experiment (1932)
(1935 Noble Prize in Physics)
H atoms - 1 p; He atoms - 2 p
mass He/mass H should = 2
measured mass He/mass H = 4
+ 9Be 1
n + 12C + energy
neutron (n) is neutral (charge = 0)
n mass ~ p mass = 1.67 x 10-24 g 12
The Modern Reassessment of the Atomic Theory
• All matter is composed of atoms. The atom is the smallest
body that retains the unique identity of the element.
• Atoms of one element cannot be converted into atoms of
another element in a chemical reaction. Elements can only be
converted into other elements in nuclear reactions.
• All atoms of an element have the same number of protons
and electrons, which determines the chemical behavior of
the element. Isotopes of an element differ in the number of
neutrons, and thus in mass number. A sample of the element is
treated as though its atoms have an average mass.
• Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of two
or more elements in specific ratios.
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mass p ≈ mass n ≈ 1840 x mass e-
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Atomic Symbols, Isotopes,
Numbers
A
Z
X The Symbol of the Atom or Isotope
X = Atomic symbol of the element
A = mass number
Z = atomic number
(the number of protons in the nucleus)
N = number of neutrons in the nucleus
Isotope = atoms of an element that differ in their
atomic mass
Ion = substances that carry a charge, can be
monoatomic or polyatomic
Anion = negative charge
Cation = positive charge 15
27 3+
How many protons and electrons are in 13 Al ?
13 protons, 10 (13 – 3) electrons
78 2-
How many protons and electrons are in 34 Se ?
34 protons, 36 (34 + 2) electrons
16
Fill in the table
substance Mass Atomic protons electrons neutrons
number
36
P
38
P
35
Cl
80
Br
S
33 2-
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Weighted Averages
• What are they?
• How do you calculate them?
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Calculating the Atomic Mass of an Element
PROBLEM: Silver(Ag: Z = 47) has 46 known isotopes, but only two occur
naturally, 107Ag and 109Ag. Given the following mass
spectrometric data, calculate the atomic mass of Ag:
Isotope Mass(amu) Abundance(%)
107
Ag 106.90509 51.84
109
Ag 108.90476 48.16
This info tells you that 51.84 % of the average mass comes from atoms that
weigh 107, and 48.16% comes from atoms that weigh 109.
(Mass of isotope 1)(abundance of isotope 1) + (Mass of isotope 2) (abundance of isotope 2) =
average mass
(106.90509)(0.5184) + (108.90476) (0.4816) = 107.868
= 107.9 amu
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20
Noble Gas
Halogen
The Modern Periodic Table
Group
Period
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal
Group Characteristics
• Group 1A: Alkali metals: shiny, soft metals with low
melting points. They react with water to form alkaline
(basic) products. Are so reactive that they are never found
in a pure state
• Group 2A: Alkaline earth metals: lustrous, silvery metals
that are less reactive than group 1A, but still are not found
in a pure state
• Group 7A: Halogens: colorful, corrosive non-metals. Are
so reactive that they are never found in a pure state
• Group 8A: Noble gases: Colorless gasses that have a full
valence shell and are therefore non-reactive and combine
with few if any other elements
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• A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in
a definite arrangement held together by chemical
forces.
• A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms:
H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO
diatomic elements
• A polyatomic molecule contains more than two
atoms: O , H O, NH , CH
3 2 3 4
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• An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a
net positive or negative charge.
cation – ion with a positive charge
If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons
it becomes a cation.
11 protons 11 protons
Na 11 electrons Na +
10 electrons
anion – ion with a negative charge
If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons
it becomes an anion.
17 protons 17 protons
Cl 17 electrons Cl -
18 electrons
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• A monatomic ion contains only one
atom: Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-
• A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom:
OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-
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Some common monatomic ions of the elements.
Can you see any patterns?
Ag, Cd, Zn, and Al only form one ion, so you 25
should know the charge on these ions
• A molecular formula shows the exact number
of atoms of each element in the smallest unit of
a substance.
• An empirical formula shows the simplest
whole-number ratio of the atoms in a substance.
molecular empirical
H2O H2O
C6H12O6 CH2O
O3 O
N2H4 NH2
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Formulas and Models
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Ionic compounds consist of a combination of cations
and anions.
• The formula is usually the same as the empirical formula.
• The sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in
each formula unit must equal zero.
The ionic compound NaCl
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The most reactive metals (green) and the most reactive
nonmetals (blue) combine to form ionic compounds.
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Formulas of Ionic Compounds
2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6
Al2O3
Al3+ O2-
1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2
CaBr2
Ca2+ Br-
2 x +1 = +2 1 x -2 = -2
Na2CO3
Na+ CO32-
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Chemical Nomenclature
• Ionic Compounds
– Often a metal + nonmetal
– Anion (nonmetal), add “-ide” to element name
BaCl2 barium chloride
K2O potassium oxide
Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide
KNO3 potassium nitrate
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• Transition metal ionic compounds
– indicate charge on metal with Roman numerals
FeCl2 2 Cl- -2 so Fe is +2 iron(II) chloride
FeCl3 3 Cl- -3 so Fe is +3 iron(III) chloride
Cr2S3 3 S-2 -6 so Cr is +3 (6/2) chromium(III) sulfide
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Example 1
Name the following compounds:
(a)Cu(NO3)2
(b)KH2PO4
(c)NH4ClO3
Example
Solution
(a)The nitrate ion ( ) bears one negative charge, so the
copper ion must have two positive charges. Because copper
forms both Cu+ and Cu2+ ions, we need to use the Stock system
and call the compound copper(II) nitrate.
(b)The cation is K+ and the anion is (dihydrogen
phosphate). Because potassium only forms one type of ion
(K+), there is no need to use potassium(I) in the name. The
compound is potassium dihydrogen phosphate.
(c) The cation is (ammonium ion) and the anion is .
The compound is ammonium chlorate.
Example
Write chemical formulas for the following compounds:
(a)copper(II) nitrite Cu(NO3)2
(b)cesium sulfide Cs2O
(c)calcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2
Practice Problems
• Give the formula of the following
– Magnesium nitride
– Cobalt (II) chloride
– Potassium sulfide
– Sodium dichromate
– Iron (III)oxide
– Manganese (II) chlorate
– Potassium dihydrogen phosphate
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Practice problems
• Give the names of the following compounds:
– Fe2(CO3)3
– (NH4)2SO4
– Sr3N2
– TiCl4
– NaH
– CsClO3
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• Molecular compounds
− Nonmetals or nonmetals + metalloids
− Common names
− H2O, NH3, CH4
− Element furthest to the left in a period
and closest to the bottom of a group on
periodic table is placed first in formula
− If more than one compound can be
formed from the same elements, use
prefixes to indicate number of each
kind of atom
− Last element name ends in -ide
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Molecular Compounds
HI hydrogen iodide
NF3 nitrogen trifluoride
SO2 sulfur dioxide
N2Cl4 dinitrogen tetrachloride
NO2 nitrogen dioxide
N2O dinitrogen monoxide
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Example
Name the following molecular compounds:
(a)SiCl4
(b)P4O10
Example
Write chemical formulas for the following molecular compounds:
(a) carbon disulfide
(b) disilicon hexabromide
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• An acid can be defined as a substance that yields
hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water.
For example: HCl gas and HCl in water
•Pure substance, hydrogen chloride
•Dissolved in water (H3O+ and Cl−),
hydrochloric acid
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46
• An oxoacid is an acid that contains hydrogen,
oxygen, and another element.
HNO3 nitric acid
H2CO3 carbonic acid
H3PO4 phosphoric acid
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The rules for naming oxoanions, anions of
oxoacids, are as follows:
1. When all the H ions are removed from the
“-ic” acid, the anion’s name ends with “-ate.”
2. When all the H ions are removed from the
“-ous” acid, the anion’s name ends with “-ite.”
3. The names of anions in which one or more
but not all the hydrogen ions have been
removed must indicate the number of H ions
present.
For example:
– H2PO4- dihydrogen phosphate
– HPO4 2- hydrogen phosphate
– PO43- phosphate 48
Naming Oxoacids and Oxoanions
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50
Example
Name the following oxoacid and oxoanion:
(a)H3PO3
(b)
Example
Strategy To name the acid in (a), we first identify the reference
acid, whose name ends with “ic,” as shown in Figure 2.15.
In (b), we need to convert the anion to its parent acid shown in
Table 2.6.
Solution
(a)We start with our reference acid, phosphoric acid (H 3PO4).
Because H3PO3 has one fewer O atom, it is called phosphorous
acid.
(b)The parent acid is HIO4. Because the acid has one more O
atom than our reference iodic acid (HIO3), it is called periodic
acid. Therefore, the anion derived from HIO4 is called periodate.
• A base can be defined as a substance that yields
hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water.
NaOH sodium hydroxide
KOH potassium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 barium hydroxide
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• Hydrates are compounds that have a specific
number of water molecules attached to them.
BaCl2•2H2O barium chloride dihydrate
LiCl•H2O lithium chloride monohydrate
MgSO4•7H2O magnesium sulfate heptahydrate
Sr(NO3)2 •4H2O strontium nitrate tetrahydrate
CuSO4•5H2O CuSO4
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