BASIC ELECTRONICS

(24B11EC111)
UNIT-2
Lecture-1 (P-N Junction)

1
 Topics to be Discussed
• Introduction
• Diode Representations
• The P-N Junction Under No Bias, Reverse Bias, and Forward Bias
• V-I Characteristic of Ideal Diode, and Practical Diode
• Si Diode Vs Ge Diode
• Effect of Temperature
• Example
• Junction Capacitances
• Transition Capacitance
• Diffusion Capacitance
• References
2
 Introduction [1, 2]
• The semiconductor diode is basically a p-n junction diode.
• A p-n junction diode is two-terminal or two-electrode semiconductor device, which
allows the electric current in only one direction while blocks the electric current in
opposite or reverse direction.
• If the diode is forward biased, it allows the electric current flow. On the other hand, if
the diode is reverse biased, it blocks the electric current flow.
• A p-n junction is formed at the boundary between a p-type and n-type semiconductor
created in a single crystal of semiconductor by doping.
• Methods:
• Ion implantation
• Diffusion of dopants
• Epitaxy (growing a layer of crystal doped with one type of dopant on top of a layer of crystal
3
doped with another type of dopant).
Diode Representations

4
 The p-n Junction Under No Bias [1, 2]
• In a p-n junction, without an external applied voltage, an equilibrium condition is
reached in which a potential difference is formed across the junction. This potential
difference is called built-in potential. It is also called barrier potential or contact
potential or diffusion potential.

5
 The p-n Junction Under No Bias [1, 2]
• The regions nearby the p-n interfaces lose their neutrality and become charged, forming
the space charge region or depletion layer or transition region.

• Therefore, under no-bias conditions, no external current exists as Diffusion Current (I dif)
= Drift Current (Idr).

6
 The p-n Junction Under Reverse Bias [1, 2]
• The small amount of current that exists under reverse bias condition is called reverse saturation current (Is).
• It also causes widening of the depletion layer as the carriers move away from the junction, leaving more
donor and acceptor ions depleted.
• When the potential formed by the widened depletion layer equals the applied voltage, the current will cease
except for the small thermal current (due to minority carriers).

7
 The p-n Junction Under Reverse Bias [1, 2]
• Net barrier potential, VB increases.
• Diffusion current, Idif due to majority carriers reduces to almost zero.
• Drift current, Idr slightly increases.
• The net current, IR remains constant till breakdown, hence called saturation current, Is.

8
 The p-n Junction Under Forward Bias[1, 2]
• Positive biases result in narrow depletion region. As a result, electrons in an n-region and
holes in a p-region will have smaller barriers to overcome and diffuse to the other side.
This leads to a shrinking depletion region and increased conductivity.
• At the junction the electrons and holes combine so that a continuous current can be
maintained.

9
 The p-n Junction Under Forward Bias [1, 2]
• Applied voltage opposes the contact potential.
• Net barrier potential, VB is reduced.
• Diffusion current, Idif increases.
• Drift current, Idr slightly decreases.
• The forward biasing current is as follows: I F I dif  I dr

10
 V-I Characteristic of Ideal Diode [1, 2]
• The V-I characteristic of the ideal diode is highly non-linear; although it consists of two straight line
segments, these are at 90° to one another. A non-linear curve that consists of straight line segments is said to
be piece-wise linear.

11
 V-I Characteristics of Practical Diode [1, 2]
• The V-I characteristics or voltage-current characteristics of the practical diode is shown in the below
figures.
• The horizontal line in the below figures represents the amount of voltage applied across the p-n junction
diode whereas the vertical line represents the amount of current flows in the p-n junction diode.

12
• The forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts increasing rapidly, is called the
knee voltage or cut-in voltage. It is generally 0.7V for a silicon diode and 0.2V or 0.3V for a
germanium diode.
• The reverse voltage at which p-n junction of a diode breaks down with sudden rise in reverse current
is known as break down voltage. 13
• Diode Equation:
qVD
 kT
I D  I S (e  1)
where,
IS = Reverse saturation current
q = Charge of electron (1.6×10-19C)
VD = Applied forward bias voltage across diode in Volts
k = Boltzmann’s constant (1.38×10-23J/K)
η = Non-ideality or emission coefficient or semiconductor constant (typically 1 for Ge and 2 for Si )
T = Junction temperature in Kelvins (Note: If the temperature is given in Celsius (C) then it can be
converted to Kelvin (K) by the help of following relation, C+273 = K)

• Thermal Voltage: VT = kT/q = 26mV at room temperature (300K)

• So Diode Equation can also be represented as follows:
VD
VT
I D  I S (e  1) 14
• As per biasing conditions, the working of diode can be explained in following three
cases.
• Case 1:
No bias: When VD = 0, ID = 0
• Case 2:
Forward bias: VD is positive
VD
VT
• Case 3: D I I e
S

Reverse bias: VD is negative, diode current quickly saturates.

I D  I S
• The effect of contact resistance, resistance of material and surface current are generally
neglected. Actual reverse biased current is much higher due to surface leakage current,
generation of carriers in the depletion region. It also depends on the junction area. Power
diodes have more junction area. 15
 Example [2]
Find the applied voltage on a forward biased diode if the current is 1mA and
reverse saturation current is 10-10. Temperature is 25°C and take ideality factor as
1.5.
Solution:

16
 Silicon and Germanium Semiconductor Diodes
[1]
• For designing the diodes, silicon is more preferred over germanium.
• The p-n junction diodes made from silicon semiconductors work at high temperature than the germanium
semiconductor diodes.
• Forward bias voltage for silicon semiconductor diode is approximately 0.7 volts whereas for germanium
semiconductor diode is approximately 0.3 volts.
• Silicon semiconductor diodes do not allow the electric current flow, if the voltage applied on the silicon
diode is less than 0.7 volts.
• Germanium semiconductor diodes do not allow the electric current flow, if the voltage applied on the
germanium diode is less than 0.3 volts.
• Most importantly, the cost of silicon semiconductors is low when compared with the germanium
semiconductors.

17
Si Diode Vs Ge Diode

Vt is cut-in, knee, offset, turn-on, or threshold voltage.

Is is reverse saturation current.
Diode Characteristics Vt ≡ 0.7V (for Si diodes)
Vt ≡ 0.3V (for Ge diodes)
18
 Effect of Temperature [2]
 Effect of temperature:

• Reverse saturation current, IS = IS0 2(∆T/10) = IS0 2(T2 – T1)/10.

• For every 10 degree rise in temperature, IS doubles.

• The width of the depletion layer decreases with rise in temperature and hence barrier
potential also decreases with rise in temperature.
• Barrier potential decreases by 2 mV for each Celsius degree rise in temperature.

• Therefore, temperature and applied reverse bias are very important factors in designs
which changes the reverse saturation current.
19
Effect of Temperature [2]

Diode Characteristics with Variations in Temperature 20

 Example [2]
The threshold voltage of a silicon diode is 0.7V at 25°C. What will be the value of
threshold voltage if the junction temperature rises to 100°C.
Solution:
The barrier potential decreases by 2mV per Celsius degree rise in temperature. Therefore,
if the temperature rises to 100°C from 25°C, the decrease in barrier potential

= (100 – 25) × 2mV = 150mV = 0.15V

• Thus, the threshold voltage at 100°C is

Vt = 0.7V – 0.15V = 0.55V

21
 Example [2]
The reverse saturation current of a diode at 25°C is 1.5 × 10 -9A. What will be reverse
current at temperature 30°C?
Solution:
The equation relating final reverse saturation current (I S) to initial reverse saturation
current (IS0) is given by
IS = IS02(∆T/10) where ∆T is temperature change

Here ∆T = 30 - 25 = 5
Therefore, 5
I S I S 0 2 10
1.5 10  9 1.414 2.12110  9 A

22
 Junction Capacitances [2, 3]
 Junction Capacitance:

• There are two kinds of junction capacitances as follows:

1. Transition or Depletion Capacitance, CT : This is predominant in reverse bias. It

decreases with applied voltage.

2. Storage or Diffusion Capacitance, CD: This is predominant in forward bias. It is

normally of the order of several hundred pF.

23
 Transition Capacitance [2, 3]
 Transition Capacitance (CT):
d  d
C Q  Q
dV dV
A
CT 
d
where, ε = Permittivity of the semiconductor, A = Area of plates or p-type and n-type regions, d = Width of
depletion region, Q = Charge across the capacitance
• In reverse biased region, the transition or depletion region capacitance (or charge
storage capacitance) exists.
• It depends upon area of the junction, the width of depletion region ( the width of
depletion region depends on reversed biased voltage) and dielectric constant of the
material.
• CT decreases with increase in the reverse biased voltage.
• Varicap/Varactor diode (variable capacitance diode) make use of variation in C T .
24
 Diffusion Capacitance [2, 3]
 Diffusion capacitance:
dQ
where, CD 
C = Diffusion capacitance
D
dV
dQ = Change in number of minority carriers stored outside the depletion region
dV = Change in voltage applied across diode

• Diffusion capacitance is directly proportional to the electric current or applied voltage. If large electric
current flows through the diode, a large amount of charge is accumulated near the depletion layer. As a
result, large diffusion capacitance occurs.

• In the similar way, if small electric current flows through the diode, only a small amount of charge is
accumulated near the depletion layer. As a result, small diffusion capacitance occurs.

• When the width of depletion region decreases, the diffusion capacitance increases. The diffusion
capacitance value will be in the range of nano farads (nF) to micro farads (μF).

• In case of forward bias region, diffusion capacitance is prominent and transition capacitance may neglected.
25
 References

[1] R. Boylestad and L. Nashelsky, ‘Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory’,

PHI, 7e, 2001.

[2] D.C. Kulshreshtha, ‘Electronic Devices and Circuits’, New Age, 2e, 2006.

[3] A. S. Sedra,, and K. C. Smith, ‘Microelectronic Circuits’. Oxford Oxford

University Press, 7th Edition, 2012.

26
BASIC ELECTRONICS
(24B11EC111)
UNIT-2
Lecture-2&3 (Diode)

27
 Topics to be Discussed
• Diode Resistances
• Static or DC Resistance
• Dynamic or AC Resistance
• Reverse Resistance
• Diode Equivalent Circuits
• Circuit Model of a Diode
• Simplified Circuit Model
• Other Types of Diodes
• Advantages of p-n Junction Diode
• Possible Applications of Diodes
• References 28
 Diode Resistances [1, 2]

1. Static or DC Resistance (High value): It is the resistance offered by the

diode to a dc current.

2. Dynamic or AC Resistance (Low value): It is the resistance offered by

the diode to ac current.

3. Reverse Resistance (Very high value): It is the resistance offered by the

diode in reverse bias condition.

29
 Static or DC Resistance [1, 2]
• When forward biased voltage is applied to a diode that is connected to a DC circuit, a
DC or direct current flows through the diode.
• Direct current or electric current is nothing but the flow of charge carriers (free
electrons or holes) through a conductor. In DC circuit, the charge carriers flow
steadily in single direction or forward direction.
• The resistance offered by a p-n junction diode when it is connected to a DC circuit is
called static resistance.
• Static resistance is also defined as the ratio of DC voltage applied across diode to the
DC current or direct current flowing through the diode.
• The resistance offered by the p-n junction diode under forward biased condition is
denoted as RF.

30
Static or DC Resistance [2]

VD OB OB
RF    cot 
I D OA BP

31
 Example [2]
Determine the DC resistance of a silicon diode, whose V-I characteristics is
given in Fig. at (a) ID = 2 mA, (b) ID = 20mA, and (c) VD = -10 V.

32
Solution:
(a) At ID = 2 mA, VD = 0.5 V (from the given curve).
VD 0.5V
RF   250
I D 2mA
(b) At ID = 20 mA, VD = 0.75 V (from the given curve).

VD 0.75V
RF   37.5
I D 20mA
(c) At VD = -10 V, ID = -2 µA (from the given curve in the reverse-bias region).
VD  10V
RR   5M
I D  2A
33
 Dynamic or AC Resistance [2]
• The dynamic resistance is the resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when AC
voltage is applied.

• When forward biased voltage is applied to a diode that is connected to AC circuit, an

AC or alternating current flows though the diode.

• In AC circuit, charge carriers or electric current does not flow in single direction. It
flows in both forward and reverse direction.

• Dynamic resistance is also defined as the ratio of change in voltage to the change in
current. It is denoted as rf.

34
Dynamic or AC Resistance [2]

Vd
rf  cot β
I d
35
 Example [2]
The V-I characteristics of a silicon diode in forward bias is given in Fig. Calculate the
DC and AC resistances of the diode when the diode current is 20 mA.

36
Solution:
Point ‘A’ on the vertical axis diode current of 20 mA. Corresponding operating point is
‘P’. Point ‘B’ gives the diode DC voltage. Therefore, the DC resistance of the diode

OB 0.75V
RF cot    37.5
PB 20mA

MN (0.8  0.68)V 0.12V

r f cot β    3
NL (40 - 0)mA 40mA

37
 Dynamic Resistance of a Diode [2]
Estimate the value of AC resistance that would be offered by a semiconductor diode at (a)
ID = 10mA, (b) ID = 20mA.
Solution: VT 25(mV )
rf  
I D I D (mA)
(a) At ID = 10mA,
25(mV ) 25mV
rf   2.5
I D (mA) 10mA
(b) At ID = 20mA,
25(mV ) 25mV
rf   1.25
I D (mA) 20mA
38
 Reverse Resistance [1, 2]
• Reverse resistance is the resistance offered by the p-n junction diode when it is
reverse biased.

• When reverse biased voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode, the width of
depletion region increases. This depletion region acts as barrier to the electric
current.

• Hence, a large amount of electric current is blocked by the depletion region. Thus,
reverse biased diode offers large resistance to the electric current.

• The resistance offered by the reverse biased p-n junction diode is very large
compared to the forward biased diode. The reverse resistance is in the range of mega
ohms (MΩ). 39
 Diode Equivalent Circuits [1]
• An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best represent
the actual terminal characteristics of a device, system, or such in a particular
operating region.
• Piece-wise Linear Equivalent Circuit:

40
 Diode Equivalent Circuits [1]
Simplified Equivalent Circuit:
• For most applications, the resistance, rav is sufficiently small to be ignored in
comparison to the other elements of the network.
• The removal of rav from the equivalent circuit is the same as implying that the
characteristic of the diode appears as shown in Figure.

Fig. Simplified equivalent circuit for silicon semiconductor diode

41
 Diode Equivalent Circuits [1]
Ideal Equivalent Circuit :
• Now that rav has been removed from the equivalent circuit let us take it a step further
and establish that a 0.7V level can often be ignored in comparison to the applied
voltage level.
• In this case, the equivalent circuit will be reduced to that of an ideal diode as shown in
following Figure.

42
Circuit Model of a Diode [2]

43
Circuit Model of a Diode [2]

44
Simplified Circuit Model [2]

45
 Example [2]
For the circuit shown in given Figure, find the current through the diode ‘D’ assuming
the diode to be (a) ideal, (b) real with piecewise linear circuit model having threshold
voltage Vt = 0.3 V, and average resistance rav = rf = 25 Ω.

46
Solution:
(a) Assuming diode ‘D’ to be ideal: the current through the diode ‘D’ is given as

V AA 10
ID   222mA
R1 45

(b) Considering the diode to be real with piecewise linear circuit model

VTH open circuit voltage across AB

R2 5
VTH VAA 10  1V
R1  R2 45  5
47
 R1 R2 45 5
RTH   4.5
R1  R2 45  5

VTH  Vt 1.0  0.3 0.7

ID    23.7 mA
RTH  rf 4.5  25 29.5

48
 Example [2]
Determine the current ‘I’ in the circuit shown in Fig. Assume the diodes to be of silicon
and forward resistance of diodes to be zero.

49
Solution:
The conditions of the problem suggest that diode D1 is forward biased and diode D2 is
reverse biased. Therefore, consider the branch containing diode D2 as open as shown in
Fig.

• Further, diode D1 can be replaced by its simplified equivalent circuit.

E1  E 2  V0 24  4  0.7
I  9.65mA
R 2k

50
 Example [2]
Calculate the current through 48 Ω resistor in the circuit shown in Fig. Assume the
diodes to be of silicon and forward resistance of each diode is 1 Ω.

51
Solution:
• Diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased while diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased.
Therefore, consider the branches containing diodes D2 and D4 as “open”.
• Replacing diodes D1 and D3 by their equivalent circuits and making the branches
containing diodes D2 and D4 open. As we know for a silicon diode, the barrier
voltage is 0.7 V.
• Net circuit voltage = 10-0.7-0.7 = 8.6 V
• Total Circuit Resistance = 1+ 48+ 1 = 50Ω
• Circuit current = 8.6/50 = 172 mA

52
 Other Types of Diodes [2]
The various types of diodes are as follows:
• p-n junction diode
• Zener diode
• Tunnel diode
• Schottky diode
• Varactor diode
• Diac
• Triac
• Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) or Thyristor
• Light Emitting Diode
• Photodiode
• Laser diode
53
Other Types of Diodes [2]

(Thyristor)

54
 Advantages of p-n Junction Diode
• A p-n junction diode is the simplest form of all the semiconductor devices. Moreover,
diodes plays a major role in many electronic devices.

• A p-n junction diode can be used to convert the alternating current (AC) to the direct
current (DC). These diodes are used in power supply devices.

• If the diode is forward biased, it allows the current flow. On the other hand, if it is
reverse biased, it blocks the current flow.

• In other words, the p-n junction diode becomes on when it is forward biased whereas the
p-n junction diode becomes off when it is reversed biased (i.e. it acts as switch).

• Thus, the p-n junction diode is used as electronic switch in digital logic circuits.
55
 Possible Applications of Diodes
• Diodes are used in rectification.
• Diodes are used in clamping circuits for DC restoration.
• Diodes are used in clipping circuits for wave shaping.
• Diodes are used in voltage multipliers.
• Diodes are used as switch in digital logic circuits used in computers.
• Diodes are used in demodulation circuits.
• Laser diodes are used in optical communications.
• Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) are used in digital displays.
• Diodes are used in voltage regulators. 56
 References

[1] R. Boylestad and L. Nashelsky, ‘Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory’,

PHI, 7e, 2001.

[2] D.C. Kulshreshtha, ‘Electronic Devices and Circuits’, New Age, 2e, 2006.

57
 BASIC ELECTRONICS
(24B11EC111)
UNIT-2
Lecture-4 (Half Wave Rectifier)

58
 Topics to be Discussed
• Rectifier Circuits
• Half Wave Rectifier
• Parameters of the Half Wave Rectifier
• Efficiency of Half Wave Rectifier
• Ripple Factor
• Peak Inverse Voltage
• Peak Factor
• Form Factor
• Effect of Using a Silicon diode with VT = 0.7V
• Examples
• References
59
 Rectifier Circuits [1, 2]
• A rectifier is a circuit which converts the alternating current (AC) input power into
a direct current (DC) output power.
• One of the most important applications of diodes is in the design of rectifier circuits.
• A diode rectifier forms an essential building block of the dc power supplies required to
power electronic equipment.
• A block diagram of such a power supply is shown below.

60
 Rectifier Circuits [1, 2]

• Two Types of rectifications are possible.

– Half Wave Rectifier
– Full Wave Rectifier
61
 Half Wave Rectifier [1, 2]
• The process of removing one half of the input signal to establish a dc level is called half wave
rectification.
• In Half wave rectification, the rectifier conducts current during positive half cycle of input ac signal
only. Negative half cycle is suppressed.

62
 Half Wave Rectifier [1, 2]
Operation:
• Case 1: During “positive” half cycle (0 to T/2), the diode is forward biased.

63
 Half Wave Rectifier [1, 2]
• Case 2: During “negative” half cycle (T/2 to T), the diode is reverse biased.
Therefore, NO current flows through the diode or circuit.

64
 Parameters of the Half Wave Rectifier [2]
• Let vi = Vm sinωt be the input voltage to the rectifier, where Vm is the peak input
voltage.
• Let rf is the resistance in the forward direction i.e. in the ‘ON’ state, and R R (= ∞) in
the reverse direction i.e. in the ‘OFF’ state.
 Im for 0 t  
i 
0 for  t 2

where,
Vm  VT
Im 
r f  RL

65
DC output current or Average Current (Idc):

 
2   2  1 Im
Area 1 1   I m  cos t 0 

I dc  
Base 2
0

idt 
2 
0
 

I m sin tdt  0dt 
 2


0.318 I m

Vm  VT
or I dc 
Vm  VT
 rf  RL 
I dc 
If RL>>rf, then RL

DC output voltage or Average Voltage (Vdc):

Im Vm  VT Vm  VT
Vdc  I dc RL  RL  r  R RL  
  rf 
 f L
  1  
 RL 
Vm
If RL>>rf , and VT = 0, then Vdc 
 66
RMS Current (Irms):
2   2 
1 1
  
2 2 2
I rms  i dt   I m sin tdt  0dt 
2 2  
0 0  

I m2

1  cos 2t  dt  I m

2 
0
2 2

RMS Voltage (Vrms):

Im Vm  V Vm  V
T T

Vrms  I rms RL  RL  2rf  RL RL   rf 

2 2 1  
 RL 
If RL>>rf, and VT=0 then,
Vm
Vrms  67
2
 Efficiency of Half Wave Rectifier [2]
• The ratio of DC output power to the applied input AC power is known as rectifier
efficiency.
DC output power Pdc
Rectifier efficiency,   
Input AC power Pac
2
 Im 
2   RL
Pdc
 2
I dc RL
    4
 2
RL

Pac I rms  RL  r f 2 
 RL  r f 
 Im 
  
  RL  r f
 2 
0.406

 rf 
1  
 R 
 L 
• The efficiency of a half wave rectifier is equal to 40.6% (i.e. η max = 40.6%).
68
 Ripple Factor [2]
• Ripple Factor is the ratio of rms value of ac component present in the rectified
output to the average value/dc value of rectified output. It is a dimensionless
quantity and denoted by ‘r’.

I 2rms  I dc
2 2
Vrms  Vdc2
Ripple factor (r )  2

I dc Vdc2

Ripple factor of Half wave rectifier: 2

 Im 
 
 2
Ripple factor (r )  2
 1 1.21
 Im 
 
  69
 Peak Inverse Voltage [1, 2]
• Peak inverse voltage (PIV) or peak reverse voltage (PRV) is the maximum voltage that
the diode can withstand without breakdown during reverse bias condition.
• If a voltage is applied more than the PIV, the diode will be burned or damaged.
• The required PIV rating for the half-wave rectifier can be determined as shown below

• Applying Kirchhoff”s voltage law, it is fairly obvious that the PIV rating of the diode
must equal or exceed the peak value of the applied voltage.
VPIV Vm
70
 Peak Factor [2]
• Peak Factor is defined as the ratio of maximum/peak value to the
RMS value of an alternating quantity. The alternating quantities
can be voltage or current.
Peak value I m Vm
Peak Factor   
rms value I rms Vrms

• For the half wave rectifier : Im Im

Peak Factor   2
I rms I m
2
71
 Form Factor [2]
• The ratio of the RMS value to the average value of an alternating
quantity (current or voltage) is called Form Factor.
rms value I rms Vrms
Form Factor   
average value I avg Vavg

• For the half wave rectifier : Im

I rms 2 
Form Factor    1.57
I avg Im 2

72
 Effect of Using a Silicon Diode with VT = 0.7V [1]
• For the forward-bias region in the HWR:

73
 Example [1]
(a) Sketch the output vo and determine the dc level of the output for the network of
given figure.
(b) Repeat part (a) if the ideal diode is replaced by a silicon diode.

74
 Example [2]
A diode having internal resistance rf = 20Ω is used for half-wave rectification. If the applied
voltage v = 50sinωt and load resistance RL= 800 Ω, find: (i) Im, Idc, Irms (ii) AC power input
and DC power output (iii) DC output voltage (iv) Efficiency of rectification.
Solution: v = 50sinωt
Maximum voltage, Vm = 50V
(i)

75
Solution:
(a) In this situation the diode will conduct during the negative part of the input as
shown in Fig., and vo will appear as shown in the figure.

For the full period, the dc level is

Vdc  0.318Vm  0.318 20  6.36V

• The negative sign indicates that the polarity of the output is opposite to the
defined
polarity.

76
(b) Using a silicon diode, the circuit and the output vo will appear as shown in the
figure below.

Vdc  0.318Vm  VT   0.318 20  0.7   6.14V

77
 Example
A diode having internal resistance rf = 20Ω is used for half-wave rectification. If the applied
voltage v = 50sinωt and load resistance RL= 800 Ω, find: (i) Im, Idc, Irms (ii) AC power input
and DC power output (iii) DC output voltage (iv) Efficiency of rectification.
Solution: v = 50sinωt
Maximum voltage, Vm = 50V
(i) Vm 50
Im   61mA
r f  RL 20  800

Im 61
I dc   19.4mA
 
I m 61
I rms   30.5mA
2 2

78
(ii) AC power input (Pac)
2
Pac  I rms   
 RL  r f  30.5 10  20  800 0.763W
3 2

DC power output (Pdc)

2
Pdc  I dc 
RL  19.4 10  800 0.301W
3 2

(iii) DC output voltage (Vdc)

Vdc  I dc RL 19.4 10  3 800 18.52V

(iv) Efficiency of rectification

Pdc 0.301
Rectifier efficiency,    100 39.5%
Pac 0.763

79
 Example [2]
A half-wave rectifier is used to supply 50V DC to a resistive load of 800 Ω. The diode
has a resistance of 25 Ω. Calculate AC voltage required.
Solution: Output DC voltage, Vdc = 50V
Diode resistance, rf = 25 Ω
Load resistance, RL= 800Ω
Let Vm be the maximum value of AC voltage required
Vm
Vdc I dc RL  RL

 rf  RL 
Vm
50  800
 25  800 
Vm 162V
80
 Example [2]
An AC supply of 230 V is applied to a half-wave rectifier circuit through a transformer of
turn ratio 10 : 1. Find (i) the output DC voltage and (ii) the peak inverse voltage. Assume
the diode to be ideal.

81
Solution: RMS primary voltage = 230V
Maximum primary voltage (Vpm)
Vpm  2 r.m.s primary voltage  2 230 325.3
N2 1
Vsm V pm  325.3  32.53
N1 10

(i) output DC voltage (Vdc):

Im Vsm 32.53
Vdc I dc RL  RL   10.36V
  
(ii) Peak inverse voltage: During the negative half-cycle of a.c. supply, the diode is
reverse biased and hence conducts no current. Therefore, the maximum secondary
voltage appears across the diode.
VPIV Vsm 32.53V
82
Properties Half Wave Rectifier

Ideal diode Diode with VT

D.C. Current (Idc) Im/π Im/π

Maximum Current (Im) Vm/(rf+RL) (Vm-VT)/(rf+RL)

D. C. voltage (Vdc) 0.318Vm 0.318(Vm-VT)

Maximum efficiency 0.406/(1+(rf/RL)) 0.406/(1+(rf/RL))

Peak Inverse Voltage Vm Vm

83
 References

[1] R. Boylestad and L. Nashelsky, ‘Electronic Devices and Circuit

Theory’, PHI, 7e, 2001.

[2] D.C. Kulshreshtha, ‘Electronic Devices and Circuits’, New Age,

2e, 2006.

84
 BASIC ELECTRONICS
(xxx)
UNIT-2
Lecture-5&6 (Full Wave Rectifier)

85
 Topics to be Discussed
• Full Wave Rectifier
• Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier
• Parameters of the Full Wave Rectifier
• Efficiency of Full Wave Rectifier
• Ripple Factor
• Peak Inverse Voltage
• Peak Factor and Form Factor
• Effect of Using a Silicon diode with VT = 0.7V
• Examples
• Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
• Peak Inverse Voltage
• Effect of Using a Silicon diode with VT = 0.7V
• Examples
• Advantages and Disadvantages of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
86
• References
 Full Wave Rectifier [1, 2]
• The full wave rectifier is a very useful circuit for AC to DC conversion and it is designed using the
diodes.
• Unlike the half wave rectifier, the full wave rectifier gives output during both half cycles.
• The output of the Full wave rectifier is pulsating DC.
• The ripple in the output waveform can be reduced using the filter.
• There are two types of full wave rectifier circuits as follows:
– Center tapped full wave rectifier
– Full wave bridge rectifier

87
 Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier [1]
• A popular full wave rectifier appears in following Figure with only two diodes but
requiring a center-tapped (CT) transformer to establish the input signal across
each section of the secondary of the transformer.

88
 Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier [1]
Operation:
• Case 1: During the positive portion of ‘vi’ applied to the primary of the transformer,
the network will appear as shown in Figure.

89
 Center Tapped Full Wave Rectifier [1]
• Case: 2 During the negative portion of the input, the network appears as shown in Figure.

• Reversing the roles of the diodes but maintaining the same polarity for the voltage across the load
resistor, R.
• The net effect is the same output as that appearing in positive half cycle with the same DC levels.

90
 Parameters of the Full Wave Rectifier [1, 2]
• Let vi = Vm sinωt be the input voltage to the rectifier, where Vm is the peak input
voltage.
• Let rf is the resistance in the forward direction i.e. in the ‘ON’ state, and R R (= ∞) in
the reverse direction i.e. in the ‘OFF’ state.

 I msinꞷt for 0 t    0 for 0 t  

i1  i2 
0 for  t 2  I msinꞷt for  t 2
where,
Vm  VT
Im 
rf  RL

91
Average Current (Idc):

2(Vm  VT )
or I dc 
 rf  RL 
If RL>>rf, and VT=0 then, 2Vm
I dc 
RL
Average Voltage(Vdc): 2I m 2(Vm  VT ) 2(V  VT )
Vdc I dc RL  RL  RL  m
  rf  RL   rf 
  1  
If RL>>rf, and VT=0 then 2Vm  RL 
Vdc  92

RMS Current (Irms): Since current is of the same form in the two halves.
 
1 1  2 
 i d t   I m sin tdt 
2 2
I rms 
 0  0 

I m2

1  cos 2t  dt  I m

 
0
2 2

RMS Voltage (Vrms):

Im Vm  V Vm  V T T

Vrms I rms RL  R

L 2 rf  RL 
RL 
 rf 
2 2  1  
 RL 

If RL>>rf, and VT=0 then

Vm
Vrms 
2 93
 Efficiency of Full Wave Rectifier [1, 2]
• The ratio of DC power output to the applied input AC power is known as rectifier
efficiency.
DC power output Pdc
Rectifier efficiency,   
Input AC power Pac
2
 2I m 
2   RL
Pdc
 2
I dc RL
    8
 2
RL

Pac I rms  RL  r f  Im 
2 
 RL  r f 
  
  RL  r f
 2
0.812

 rf 
1  
 RL 

• The efficiency of a center tapped full wave rectifier is equal to 81.2% (i.e. η max =
81.2%)
94
 Ripple Factor [1, 2]
• Ripple Factor is the ratio of RMS value of ac component present in the rectified output to
the average value of rectified output. It is a dimensionless quantity and denoted by ‘r’.

I 2rms  I dc
2 2
Vrms  Vdc2
Ripple factor (r )  2

I dc Vdc2
Ripple factor of full wave rectifier:
2
 Im 
 
 2
Ripple factor (r )  2
 1 0.48
 2I m 
 
   95
 Peak Inverse Voltage [1, 2]
• Peak inverse voltage (PIV) or peak reverse voltage (PRV) is the maximum voltage that
the diode can withstand without breakdown during reverse bias condition.
• The required PIV rating for the Center tapped full wave rectifier can be determined as
shown below.

• Applying Kirchhoff”s voltage law,

VPIV Vm  vo Vm  Vm
VPIV 2Vm 96
 Peak Factor and Form Factor [1, 2]
• For the full wave rectifier, the expressions for peak factor
and form factor are as follows:

Peak Factor:
Im Im
Peak Factor    2 1.414
I r . m. s Im
2
Form Factor: Im
I r . m. s 2 
Form Factor    1.11
I avg 2I m 2 2
 97
 Effect of Using a Silicon Diode with VT = 0.7V
• For the forward-bias region in the FWR:
[1]

• The applied signal must now be at least VT = 0.7V before the diode can turn ‘ON’.
• When conducting, the difference between vo and vi is a fixed level of VT = 0.7V and vo =vi
-VT. Vdc 0.636(Vm  VT )
98
Properties Center Tapped Full wave rectifier

Ideal diode Diode with VT

D.C. Current (Idc) 2Im/π 2Im/π

Maximum Current Vm/(rf+RL) (Vm-VT)/(rf+RL)

(Im)
D. C. voltage (Vdc) 0.636Vm 0.636(Vm-VT)

Maximum efficiency 0.812/(1+(rf/RL)) 0.812/(1+(rf/RL))

Peak Inverse Voltage 2Vm 2Vm-VT

99
 Example [2]
A full-wave rectifier uses two diodes, the internal resistance of each diode may be
assumed constant at 20Ω. The transformer rms secondary voltage from center tap to each
end of secondary is 50V and load resistance is 980Ω. Find: (i) the average load current
(ii) the r.m.s. value of load current.
Solution: rf = 20 Ω, RL = 98 Ω
Maximum a.c. voltage Vm =50√2=70.7
Vm 70.7
Maximum load current, I m   70.7 mA
r f  RL 20  980

Average load current (Idc) 2I m 2 70.7

I dc   45mA
 
rms value of load current Im 70.7
I rms   50mA
2 2
100
 Example [2]
• In the center-tap circuit shown in Figure, the diodes are assumed to be ideal
i.e. having zero internal resistance. Find: (i) DC output voltage (ii) Peak inverse
voltage (iii) Rectification efficiency.

101
Solution: RMS primary voltage = 230V
RMS secondary voltage = 230×(1/5) = 46V
Max. voltage across secondary = 46 √2 = 65V
Max voltage across half secondary winding (Vm) = 65/2 = 32.5 V
(i) Average current, Idc
2Vm 2 32.5
I dc   0.207A
RL  100
(ii) The peak inverse voltage = 2Vm = 2×32.5 = 65V
(iii) Rectification efficiency,

0.812
 100 81.2%
 rf 
1  
Since the value of rf = 0 Ω  RL 


102
 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier [1, 2]
• Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the full wave rectifier circuit, is the Full
Wave Bridge Rectifier.
• The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that It does not require a special center tapped
transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost.

103
 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier [1, 2]
• The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two diodes
conducting current during each half cycle.

104
 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
Operation:
• Case 1: During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while
diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased.

105
 Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
• Case 2: During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but
diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased.

Note: The current flowing through the load is the same direction as before in the positive half cycle.
106
 Peak Inverse Voltage [1,2]
• The required PIV rating for the full-wave bridge rectifier can be determined as
shown below.

• Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law,

VPIV vo Vm

VPIV Vm
107
Effect of Using a Silicon Diode with VT = 0.7V [1]
• For the forward-bias region in the FWR:

• The applied signal must now be at least VT = 0.7V before the diode can turn ‘ON’.
• When conducting, the difference between vo and vi is a fixed level of VT = 0.7V and
vo =vi -2VT. Vdc 0.636(Vm  2VT )
108
Properties Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Ideal diode Diode with VT

D.C. Current (Idc) 2Im/π 2Im/π

Maximum Current (Im) Vm/(2rf+RL) (Vm-2VT)/(2rf+RL)

D. C. voltage (Vdc) IdcRL IdcRL

Maximum efficiency 0.812 0.812/(1+(2rf/RL))

Peak Inverse Voltage Vm Vm-VT

109
 Example [2]
In the bridge type circuit shown in Figure, the diodes are assumed to be ideal. Find : (i)
d.c. output voltage (ii) peak inverse voltage (iii) rectification efficiency. Assume primary
to secondary turns to be 4.

110
Solution:
RMS primary voltage = 230V
RMS. secondary voltage = 230×(1/4) = 57.5V
Max. Voltage across secondary = 57.5 √2 = 81.3 V
(i) Average current, Idc
2Vm 2 81.3
I dc   0.26A
RL  200
Therefore, d.c. output voltage, Vdc = Idc × RL = 0.26×200 = 52 V
(ii) The peak inverse voltage = Vm = 81.3 V
(iii) Rectification efficiency,

0.812
 100 81.2%
 2r f 
1  
Since the value of rf = 0 Ω  RL 


111
 Example [2]
The bridge rectifier shown in Figure, uses silicon diodes. Find (i) DC output voltage (ii)
DC output current. Use simplified model for the diodes

112
Solution:
AC voltage across transformer secondary is 12V r.m.s.
Peak secondary voltage (Vm) = 12√2=16.97 V

(i) Average output voltage (Vdc)

Vdc 0.636(Vm  2VT ) 0.636(16.97  2 0.7) 9.91V

(ii) Average output current (Idc)

Vdc 9.91
I dc   825.8 μA
RL 12k

113
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Full Wave Bridge Rectifier

Advantages:
• Need for center tap transformer is eliminated.
• PIV is one half of that of center tap circuit.
Disadvantages:
• Requires 4 diodes.
• Internal resistance voltage drop is twice than that of Center Tap
Circuit.

114
 References

[1] R. Boylestad and L. Nashelsky, ‘Electronic Devices and Circuit

Theory’, PHI, 7e, 2001.

[2] D.C. Kulshreshtha, ‘Electronic Devices and Circuits’, New Age,

2e, 2006.

115
 BASIC ELECTRONICS
(24B11EC111)
UNIT-2
Lecture-7 (Clipper Circuits)

116
 Outline
• Content
– Introduction to clippers
– Classifications
– Series clipper
– Parallel clipper
– Biased clipper
– Examples
– Combination clipper
– Summary of clippers
– Reference
117
 Introduction of clipper
• Clippers are networks that employ diodes to “clip” away a portion of an input
signal without distorting the remaining part of the applied waveform.
• A circuit which use to remove the peak of the wave is called clipper.

Ref 1
118
 Why clipper used?
• The purpose of clippers is to protect a circuit against too high or too low voltages.
• A simplest clipper circuit 

Vin

119
Ref 1
 Classification of clippers
• According to non- linear devices used
– Diode clippers and Transistor clippers

• According to circuit configuration

– Series clippers and Parallel clippers

• According to biasing
– Biased clippers and Unbiased clippers.

• According to level of clipping

– Positive clippers, Negative clippers and combination clippers

120
Ref 1
 Series and Parallel clippers

D If ,Vi < Vd, diode OFF, V0=0

R.B
Vi R V0
Vi R V0

Series configuration

121
Ref 1
 Series…
If, Vi > Vd, diode ON, V0=Vi - Vd
Vd
+ -
Where, Vd=0 V (for ideal diode)
Vd=0.7 V (practical diode or
F.B V0
Vi R silicon diode)

Input and output waveform

Red line represent Practical diode

and Blue line for Ideal diode

122
 Parallel

If ,Vi > Vd, positive half cycle

R diode ON, V0=Vd
D V0
Vi
R +
Vd
Vi V0
F.B -
Parallel configuration

Where, Vd=0 V (for ideal diode)

Vd=0.7 V (practical diode or
silicon diode)

123
Ref 1
 Parallel...
If ,Vi < Vd, for negative half cycle R
diode OFF V0= -Vi D V0
Vi R.B

Input and output waveform

Red line represent Practical diode

and Blue line for Ideal diode

124
Ref 1
Biased positive clipper
• When the input signal voltage is positive.
• If Vi < VR, diode is reversed biased and does not conduct. Therefore, V o = Vi
• If Vi > VR, diode is forward biased and thus, Vo= VR+Vd

125
Ref 1
 Biased negative clipper
• When the input signal voltage is negative.
• If |Vi |< |VR| , diode is reversed biased and does not conduct. Therefore,
Vo = -Vi
• If |Vi |> |VR| , diode is forward biased and thus, Vo= - VR-Vd

Vi V0
VR

126
Ref 1
 Biased series clippers

D D

+V - +V - R.B
R R

Vi R V0 R V0=o
Vi<VR + Vd i

Fig. 1 Fig. 2
127
Ref 1
 F.B

The output voltage +V - Vd

R
V0=Vi-VR-Vd V0
Vi>VR + Vd R
KVL

Vo
Vi
Vm Vm –VR -Vd
Diode on
VR + Vd
T/2 T T/2 T

Diode off
VR + Vd
128
diode change the state
 Example1
• Determine the output waveform for the sinusoidal input of given Fig.1
consider ideal diode.

Fig. 1

Solution:
For ideal diode Vd=0

129
Ref 1
• we find that the transition from one state to the other will occur when,

Fig .2

130
Using Fig. 3 , we find that for conditions when the diode is on and the diode current is
established the output voltage will be the following, as determined using Kirchhoff’s
voltage law:

Fig. 3
131
 Practice problem:
Find the output voltage for the network examined in above example if the
applied signal is the square wave as,

Ans.

132
Ref 1
 Example 2
• Determine the output waveform of given network

133
Ref 1
• The transition level of the input voltage can be found from below Fig. by
substituting the short-circuit equivalent and remembering the diode current is 0 mA
at the instant of transition. The result is a change in state when Vi = 4 V.

134
Ref 1
 Ans
Practice problem:
Repeat above using a silicon diode with Vd = 0.7 V.

135
Ref 1
 Combination (positive and negative) clipper

• When a portion of both positive and negative of each half cycle of the input
voltage is to be clipped (or removed), combination clipper is employed.
• The circuit for such a clipper is shown in below fig.

136
Ref 1
 Combination clipper…
• During the positive half cycle, the diode D1 is forward biased by the input supply voltage Vi and reverse biased
by the reference voltage V1. On the other hand, the diode D2 is reverse biased by both input supply voltage
Vi and reference voltage V2
– if Vi<V1, V0=Vi , D1 and D2 off
– If Vi>V1, Vo=V1, D1 on and D2 off
• During the negative half cycle, the diode D1 is reverse biased by both input supply voltage Vi and reference
voltage V1. On the other hand, the diode D2 is forward biased by the input supply voltage Vi and reverse biased
by the reference voltage V2.
– if Vi<V2, V0= -Vi , D1 and D2 off
– If Vi>V2, Vo=V1, D1 off and D2 on

137
Ref 1
Summary of clippers

138
Ref 1
139
References

• [1] R. Boylestad and L. Nashelsky, ‘Electronic Devices and

Circuit Theory’, PHI, 7e, 2001.

140
 BASIC ELECTRONICS
(24B11EC111)
UNIT-2
Lecture-8 (Clamper Circuit)

141
 Outline
• Content
– Introduction to clampers
– Classifications
– Positive clampers
– Negative clampers
– Biased clampers
– Examples
– Summary of clampers
– Reference
142
 Introduction of clampers
• A clamper is a network
constructed of a diode, a
resistor, and a capacitor
that shifts a waveform to a
different dc level without
changing the appearance
of the applied signal.

Ref 1
143
 Classifications
• Negative clampers
• Positive clampers
• Biased clampers

144
Ref 1
 Negative clamper
• The Negative Clamping
circuit consists of a diode
connected in parallel with
the load.

• This type of clamping

circuit shifts the input
waveform in a negative
direction, as a result the
waveform lies below a DC
reference voltage.

145
• During the positive half cycle (interval 0 to T/2)
• V for this time interval.

• During this same interval of time, the time constant determined by τ= RC

is very small

146
• During the negative half cycle (interval T/2 to T)
• Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the input loop results in,

147
 Positive clampers
• This type of clamping circuit shifts the input waveform in a positive direction, as a
result the waveform lies above a DC reference voltage.

148
• During the positive half wave cycle  diode goes off

• During the negative half wave cycle 

149
 Biased clamper
• The additional dc supply connected within diode as shown in figure.

• For the positive half cycle

• If , diode is OFF,
• If, diode is ON, and the capacitor charge up to voltage
• In this case the resistor R is not shorted out by the diode.
150
• For the negative half cycle,

151
 Example 1
• Determine the output voltage of given network

152
 Solution

• period t1-t2 of the input signal since the

diode is in its short-circuit state. For this
interval the network will appear as shown
in Fig.

153
• For the period t2 to t3 the network will appear as shown in Fig.

154
• The resulting output appears in Fig. with the input signal.
• You can see the output swing of 30 V matches the input swing.

input output

155
 Practice problem
• Repeat Example 1 using a silicon diode with Vd 0.7 V.

156
Summary of clampers

157
References

• [1] R. Boylestad and L. Nashelsky, ‘Electronic Devices and

Circuit Theory’, PHI, 7e, 2001.

158