Dr.
Jameel Ahmed
Department of Electrical Engineering
HITEC University
March 2, 2013
Contents
1 Introduction to Digital Signal Processing
Analog Signal Processing Versus Digital Signal
2 Processing
3 Classification of Signals
4 Analog to Digital Conversion
Comparison Between Continuous-Time & Discrete-
5 Time Sinusoids
6 Characteristics of Discrete-time Sinusoids
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Introduction To DSP
Signal
A signal is any physical quantity that varies with time, space or any
other independent variable or variables.
Processing
Performing certain operations on a signal to extract some useful
information
Digital
The word digital in digital signal processing means that the
processing is done either by a digital hardware or by a digital
computer.
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Digital Signal Processing
Digital Signal Processing is a processing of a signal using
digital techniques with the aid of digital hardware and/or
some kind of computing device.
Digital Signal Processor is a digital computer or processor
that is designed especially for signal processing applications.
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Cont…
Multichannel & Multidimensional Signals
Let ,where k=1,2,3 denotes the electrical signal from the kth
sensor as a function of time, the set of p=3 signals can be
represented by a vector , where
Such vector signals are referred as Multichannel Signals.
5 March 2, 2013
Cont…
If the signal is a function of single independent variable, it is
called one-dimensional signal, where as if its value is a
function of M independent variables, it is called M-
Dimensional Signal.
Multi-channel, Multi-dimensional color TV signal
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Cont…
Real-Valued & Complex-Valued Signals
The value of the function can be a real-valued scalar
quantity, a complex-valued quantity, or perhaps a vector.
Example:
Is a real-valued signal.
Is a complex-valued signal.
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Limitations of Analog Signal
Processing
Accuracy limitations due to
Component tolerances
Undesired nonlinearities
Limited repeatability due to
Tolerances
Changes in environmental conditions
• Temperature
• Vibration
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Cont…
Sensitivity to electrical noise
Limited dynamic range for voltage and currents
Inflexibility to changes
Difficulty of storing information
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Advantages of DSP
Accuracy can be controlled by choosing word length
Repeatable
Sensitivity to electrical noise is minimal
Dynamic range can be controlled using floating point numbers
Flexibility can be achieved with software implementations
Digital storage is cheap
Digital information can be encrypted for security
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Limitations of DSP
Sampling causes loss of information
A/D and D/A requires mixed-signal hardware
Limited speed of processors
Quantization and round-off errors
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Classification of Signals
Signal
Continuous Discrete
Continuous- Discrete-
Valued Valued
Time Signal Time Signal
Signal Signal
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Cont…
Continuous-Time Signal
Function of time
Finite or Infinite values
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Cont…
Discrete-Time Signal
Function of n (number of samples)
Finite or Infinite values
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Cont…
Continuous-Valued Signal
Infinite values
Function of time or n
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Cont…
Discrete-Valued Signal
Finite values
Function of time or n
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A/D & D/A Conversion
Analog Analog
A/D Digital Signal D/ A
input output
Convertor Processor Convertor
signal signal
Digital Digital
input output
signal signal
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Cont…
Input Band Pass
Sampler Quantizer Coding
signal Filter
Analog Discrete- Quantized Digital
signal Time signal signal signal
01001...
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Example Of Quantization
Example # 4:
n x(n)
Discrete-time signal (Truncation) (Rounding) (Rounding)
0 1 1.0 1.0 0.0
1 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.0
2 0.81 0.8 0.8 -0.01
3 0.729 0.7 0.7 -0.029
4 0.6561 0.6 0.7 0.0439
5 0.59049 0.5 0.6 0.00951
6 0.531441 0.5 0.5 -0.031441
7 0.4782969 0.4 0.5 0.0217031
8 0.43046721 0.4 0.4 -0.03046721
9 0.387420489 0.3 0.4 0.012579511
10 0.34867844 0.3 0.3 0.04867844
11 0.313810596 0.3 0.3 0.013810596
12 0.282429536 0.2 0.3 0.017570463
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Quantization
Quantization converts a signal continuous in amplitude into a
signal discrete in amplitude.
Quantization error: The error introduced in representing the
continuous-valued signal by a finite set of discrete value levels is
called Quantization error or Quantization noise.
Range Of Quantization Error:
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Cont…
Quantization Levels:
The values allowed in the digital signal are
called the Quantization Levels.
Number of Quantization Levels = L
Resolution: The distance ∆ between two successive quantization
levels is called the Quantization Step Size or Resolution.
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Cont…
Dynamic Range: It is the difference between and .
If the dynamic range is fixed, increasing the number of quantization
levels L results in a decrease of the quantization step size
SQNR: It is the ratio of the signal power to the noise power.
SQNR is expressed in decibel as
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Coding
In the coding process, each discrete value is represented by a b-bit
binary sequence.
L=13 and b=4
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Cont…
n x(n) Code
Truncated
0 1.0 0000
1 0.9 0001
2 0.8 0010
3 0.7 0011
4 0.6 0100
5 0.5 0101
6 0.5 0101
7 0.4 0110
8 0.4 0110
9 0.3 0111
10 0.3 0111
11 0.3 0111
12 0.2 1000
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Cont…
0000
0001
0010
0011
0100
0101
0110
0111
1000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
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Continuous-Time Signal
Continuous-Time Signals (Analog signal) are defined for
every value of time.
It is represented as a function of time.
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Discrete-Time Signal
Discrete-Time Signals are defined only at certain specific
values of time.
It is represented as a function of n (number of samples).
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Sampling
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Cont…
Continuous Signal
Discrete Signal
where
T = Sampling Period
Fs = Sampling Frequency (Hz) = Sampling Rate (Samples / Second)
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Cont…
Comparing the above equation with
where T = 1
where ƒ is the normalized frequency
As
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Aliasing
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Example #1
a) Determine the minimum sampling rate required to avoid aliasing.
b) Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate of 200Hz, what is the
discrete-time signal obtained after sampling ?
c) Suppose that the signal is sampled at the rate of 75Hz, what is the
discrete-time signal obtained after sampling ?
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Solution
a) The frequency of the analog signal is F=50 Hz. Hence
minimum sampling rate required to avoid aliasing is
Fs=2F .So Fs=100Hz.
b) If the signal is sampled at Fs=200Hz the discrete time signal is
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Cont…
c) If the signal is sampled at Fs=75Hz the discrete time signal is
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Cont…
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Example # 2
Consider the analog signal
What is the Nyquist rate of this signal?
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Solution
The frequencies present in the given signal are
F1=50Hz F2=125Hz F3=30Hz
Thus
Fmax=125Hz and Fs 2Fmax
S0 the Nyquist rate is
FN= 2Fmax=250Hz
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Example # 3
Consider the following two signals which are sampled at 40 Hz.
Then find,
a) Discrete-Time signal?
b) Is there any aliasing, if so find Alias signal?
c) Find the minimum sampling rate to avoid Aliasing?
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Solution
a)
So and
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Cont…
Similarly
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Comparison Between Continuous
Time and Discrete Time Signal
Continuous Time Discrete Time
x(t) = A cos(Ωt +θ ) , - ∞ < t < ∞ x (n) = A cos(ω n+ θ) - ∞ < n< ∞
Ω = 2π F -∞ < Ω < ∞ ω =2π f -π ≤ ω ≤ π
Where Where
A= Amplitude A = Amplitude
Ω = Frequency (radian/ second) ω = Frequency (radian/sample)
θ=Phase θ = Phase
F=cycles/second -∞ < F < ∞ f = cycles/sample -1/2 ≤ f ≤ 1/2
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Characteristics of Analog
Sinusoidal Signal
For every fixed value of F, x(t) is periodic. i.e. x(t)=x(t+T)
Continuous-time sinusoidal signal with distinct(different)
frequencies are themselves distinct.
Increasing the frequency(F) results in increased rate of oscillations.
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Characteristics of Discrete Time
Sinusoid
A Discrete-time sinusoid is periodic if its frequency f is a
rational number.
Discrete-time sinusoids whose frequencies are separated by an
integer multiple of 2π are identical.
The highest rate of oscillation in a discrete-time sinusoid is
attained when ω = π ( or ω = -π) or, equivalently f=1/2
(or f= -1/2).
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Cont…
A Discrete-time sinusoid is periodic if its frequency “f “is a
rational number.
Rational
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Cont…
Discrete-time sinusoids whose frequencies are separated by an
integer multiple of 2π are identical.
Consider the sinusoid
It follows
Where
are indistinguishable(i.e. identical).
The sinusoids having the frequency |𝝎|>𝝅 are the alias of
the corresponding sinusoid with frequency |𝝎|<𝝅.
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Cont…
The highest rate of oscillation in a discrete-time sinusoid is
attained when ω = π ( or ω = -π) or, equivalently f=1/2
(or f= -1/2).
46 March 2, 2013
Cont…
The highest rate of oscillation in a discrete-time sinusoid is
attained when ω = π ( or ω = -π) or, equivalently f=1/2
(or f= -1/2).
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Cont…
If is greater than , then the original signal will repeat itself.
Also is also called alias of . Due to this property it
is difficult to distinguish between signals.
Range for discrete time signal will become
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Example
x (n) = A cos(ω n+ θ)
Where
ω = π/6 and θ=π/3
f = 1/12 cycles per sample
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Digital Signal & Analog Signal
Digital Signals
Digital Signals are discrete-time signals having a
set of discrete values.
Analog Signals
Analog signals are defined for every value of time
and they take on values in the continuous interval.
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Analog To Digital Converter
An Analog-to-Digital converter (ADC) is a device that converts an
analog voltage into a digital number.
Steps of A/D Conversion:
Sampling.
Quantization.
Coding.
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Digital To Analog Converter
A Digital-to-Analog converter (DAC) converts a digital number
to an analog voltage.
Steps of D/A Conversion:
Decoding.
Quantization.
Sampling.
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Cont…
Digital
Decoding Quantizer Sampler Band Pass
signal
Filter
01001... Decoded Quantized Discrete- Analog
signal signal Time signal signal
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Cont…
b) Since both signals are same, so we can say that is an
alias of .
c) To avoid aliasing we apply Nyquist Criteria which states that the
sampling frequency should be double the original signal.
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