oor os =o ee Integrated Training System Designed in association with the lub66pro.com question practice aid Module 11A Turbine Aeroplane, Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems for . Volume 1 [ (Aerodynamics and:Structures chapters) Exclusively from WWW. airtechbooks.comN co Cc cc t oe on ee ro £ in) Integrated Training System Designed in associatlon wih the ‘lub66px0.com question practice ald Preface Thank you for purchasing the Total Training Support Integrated Training System, We are ‘sure you will need no other reference material to pass your EASA Part-66 exam in this Module. These notes have been written by instructors of EASA Part-66 courses, specifically for practitioners of varying experience within the aircraft maintenance industry, and especially those who are self-studying to pass the EASA Part-66 exams. They are specifically designed to meet the EASA Part-66 syllabus and to answer the questions being asked by the UK CAA in their examinations. The EASA Part-66 syllabus for each sub-section is printed at the beginning of each of the chapters in these course notes and is used as the ‘Leaming Objectives”. We suggest that you take each chapter in-turn, read the text of the chapter a couple of times, if only to familiarise yourself with the location of the information contained within, Then, using your club66pro.com membership, attempt the questions within the respective sub-section, and continually refer back to these notes to read-up on the underpinning knowledge required to answer the respective question, and any similar question that you may encounter on your real Part-66 examination, Studying this way, with the help of the question practice and their explanations, you will be able to master the subject piece-by-piece, and become proficient in the subject matter, as well as proficient in answering the CAA style EASA part-66 multiple choice questions. We regularly have a review of our training notes, and in order to improve the quality of the notes, and of the service we provide with our Integrated Training System, we would appreciate your feedback, whether positive or negative. So, if you discover within these course notes, any errors or typos, or any subject which is not particularly well, or adequately explained, please tell us, using the ‘contact-us’ feedback page of the club66pro.com website. We will be sure to review your feedback and incorporate any changes necessary. We look forward to hearing from you. Finally, we appreciate that self-study students are usually also self-financing. We work very hard to cut the cost of our Integrated Training System to the bare minimum that we can provide, and in making your training resources as cost efficient as we can, using, for example, mono printing, but providing the diagrams which would be better provided in colour, on the club66pro.com website. In order to do this, we request that you respect our copyright policy, and refrain from copying, scanning or reprinting these course notes in any way, even for sharing with friends and colleagues. Our survival as a service provider depends on it, and copyright abuse only devalues the service and products available to yourself and your colleagues in the future, and makes them more expensive too. i ‘TTS integrate Training System ‘© Copysght 2010 Module 11 PrefaceC7 E ees eure Lateey U u L | European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) (| Aircraft Maintenance Licence Programme p ( Module 11A ( Licence Category B1 U Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, L Structures and Systems 11.2 Airframe Structures — General u Concepts U Ul Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 24 ‘TTS integrated Training System @ Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe clube. com question practice ait Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd. Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category 82 basic knowledge levels. ‘The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: LEVEL 1 + _Afamilatisation with the principal elements of the subject. Objectives: The applicant should be familar with the basic elements of the subject. ‘+ The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples. ‘+ The applicant should be able to use typical terms, LEVEL 2 + A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. + _ An ability to apply that knowledge, Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. ‘+ The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. + The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject. + The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the subject. + The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures. LEVEL 3 ‘+ Adetailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. * Acapacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: The applicant should know the theory ofthe subject and interelationships with other subject, ‘The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals and specific examples, Tae applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics describing the subject. + The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturers instructions. ‘+ The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate 22 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts ecaiag acta TTS intograted Training System croraty be nt (© Copyright 2010 age et ear co ~ oo]eee eee U {i co [ @ Table of Contents Integrated Training System Designadin asaciaon wt ihe clubéspro.com question practices somaya pops 2d hs oper Module 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts 5 (a) 5 Airworthiness Requirements for Structural Strength 5 Safe-Life 7 Fail-Safe Design 9 Damage Tolerance 11 Structural Classification 13 Dimensions and Locations. 17 Aircraft Structural Design. 25 ‘System Installation Provision 3t Drains and Ventilation Provision 31 Lightning Strike Protection (LSP) and St 33 Stresses Acting on an Aeroplane Structure 35 Stress, Strain and Hooke’s Law. 38 Structure Definitions 43 (b) 45 Construction Methods of Aeroplanes. 45 Structure Assembly Techniques 53 Riveting 53 Bolting 75 Bonding 79 Surface Protection 85 Aircraft Cleaning 93 Aircraft Symmetry Checks 95 see cs Module 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts 23 TTS integrated Training System (© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association wth the ‘lubeepo.cem question pravice id Module 11.2 Enabling Objectives Objective EASA 66 Reference Level Airframe Structures — General Concepts 11.2 [ (a) 11.2 (a) Airworthiness requirements for structural strength ‘Structural classification, primary, secondary and tertiary Failsafe, safe life, damage tolerance concepts; Zonal and station identification systems Stress, strain, bending, compression, shear, torsion, tension, hoop stress, fatigue Drains and ventilation provisions System installation provisions Lightning strike protection provision Aircraft bonding (b) 11.2 (b) Construction methods of stressed skin fuselage, formers, stringers, longerons, bulkheads, frames, doublers, struts, ties, beams, floor structures, reinforcement, methods of skinning, anti-corrosive protection, wing, empennage and engine attachments; Structures assembly techniques: riveting, bolting, bonding; Methods of surface protection, such as chromating, anodising, painting Surface cleaning Airframe symmetry: methods of alignment and symmetry checks 24 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts “TTS Integra Training System ©Copyright 2010 santo secasrele owemedy ta eaters fap ofthc IEEE RE a ego EHH ane} 5 on mo eee J uIntegrated Training System Designedin sociation wih the ceunepro.com question paces aid {| Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts (a) Airworthiness Requirements for Structural Strength Safety means more than only that the aircraft must be capable to withstand the most severe & loadings it will encounter during its service life. It should not be difficult for the flight crew to control it under all circumstances. This means the aircraft should also show sufficient positive stability during all flight phases and attitudes through out the flight envelope. C EASA Certification Specification (CS) -26 is based on Part 25 of the Federal Aviation Administration. {nas These requirements are applicable for all large aircraft. This means aircraft with a maximum mass not less than 5700 kg. Excluded are reciprocating-engine aircraft, seaplanes and skiplanes. cr Cc EASA CS-25 consists of: Section 1 - Regulations * Subpart A - General ‘Sub-part B - Flight ‘Sub-part BB - Flight - Emergency Power or Thrust Sub-part C - Structure Sub-part D - Design and Construction Sub-part E - Power Plant Sub-part F - Equipment Sub-part G - Operating Limitations and Information Sub-part J - Gas Turbine Auxiliary Power Unit Installations Appendices A-J. _, Section 2- "acceptable means of compliance and interpretations [| Sections - reserved Section 4- the basic code (part 25 of the federal aviation regulations of the USA, up to and including amendment N&3). 1a ta wee eee From the structural point of view sub-parts C and D are the most important. They give the applied loads or the procedures to obtain the applied loads. They also give requirements for design other than loads. cerca Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 25 , Beemzaitecraner “TTS Integrated Tilning Syetom fl Sopa "0Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe elubegpo.com question practice id 4 BeEEEE EE : (ana Intentionally Blank a 4 q ul Hee 26 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts tactacamedea tte “TTS integrates Tiaining System seienade aster, © Copyngn 2010 noe th roe 7i | c Peete eee eet <> Hee Integrated Training System Designed In association wth the ‘lub6epz0.com question practice a Safe-Life The discovery of fatigue cracks, and failures of major structural elements on aeroplanes in the late 1930s and early 1940s, forced the development of the safe-life design principle. The safe- Ife design principle requires that major structural elements be replaced after a fixed number of flight cycles. These parts cannot be repaired or refurbished to extend the component's life. The basis for safe-life design is fatigue analysis. Fatigue Soon after the first jet transport aircraft started flying in the early 1950s, three of them broke apart in the air under mysterious circumstances, two of them in relatively non-turbulent air. An extremely thorough investigation disclosed that the cause of the break-ups was metal fatigue brought about by the flexing of the structure during the pressurization and deprassurization cycles. ‘When the first jet transports, the British Comets, were put into service with their pressurization of 8 PSI, real problems did arise. The continued flexing of the structure caused by the pressurization and depressurization cycles fatigued the metal to such an extent that a crack developed at a square come of a cut-out in the structure and the large amount of pressure differential caused the structure to virtually explode, When the cause of the structural failure was determined, new emphasis was placed on fail-safe design of aircraft structures. Stress risers, or portions of the structure where eliminated. Joints and conneetions are carefully pre- stressed to minimize the cyclic stresses from the flight loads. The life of a structure may depend more on how it is loaded than on the total number of times it is loaded, or on the maximum amount of the loads themselves. This is best shown by loading a 5 cm? bar of aluminium alloy that breaks at 370kN when loaded once (see Figure 2.1). However, if loads of from 0 to 111 kN were applied, it would last about 25,000 cycles. Loadings from 111 KN tension to 111 kN compression (commonly called plus to minus 111 KN) it would fail at about 4,000 cycles. saree ceca Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 27 Rowee dine onser TTS Integrated Trining Syston “© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System we Designed in assoctation with the ) lubGbpro.com question pacioe ac ee rs u +171 KN Conon) 491 04 consbory q 1 gos, a / \ a oye 111 KN (compression) Barros ar 2000 ojlos Bar broaks afr 4000 ors q Figure 2.1: Fatigue Demonstration } il A u 28 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts jee ae TS intograte Tralning Systm sonatiysecace © Copyright 2010 opaesattedarru ma eee eet Hee rm C caunis ft Integrated Training System Designed in association with tha ‘lub6épr0.com question practoa aid Fail-Safe Design The fail-safe design principle uses multiple load paths to ensure structural integrity. If one load path cracks completely through, or sustains accidental damage; the remaining load paths carry the additional load. This type of design Is common on modem jet aeroplanes. Examples include: Muttipte stringers and ribs in wings. Multiple wing panels. Multiple stringers and frames in fuselage construction. This construction also breaks the fuselage skin into redundant panels. * Bonded and bolted fittings (often called back-to-back fittings), and bonded and bolted landing gear beams. The fail-safe principle also requires that any damage will be detected during an inspection, and then repaired, Some types of damage produce effects that are obvious, such as flapping fuselage skin panels, or wing tank leaks. This obvious damage is considered part of the fail-safe inspections Fail-safe design is a good philosophy, and worked well for many decades. Infact, fail-safe design still provides the basis for most new aeroplane designs. However, operational experience shows that some of the assumptions of fail-safety do not hold true. Cracks usually develop in several elements at the same time, making the altemate load paths weaker. This is called “multiple site cracking’. Corrosion weakens altemate load paths, and accelerates crack growth. ‘Stringer Severed Figure 2.2: Fail Safe Design To compensate for these deficiencies in fail-safe design, the damage tolerance philosophy was developed. sane dacooyats Module 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts 29 (rosy atone Grape2d mcr ‘TTS Integrated Training Syetom ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System hx Designed in assaciation with the 7] ‘lubéépro.com question practice aid Intentionally Blank 2.10 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts Une anor ascents ‘TTS Integrated Trsning Systom oewmadiy eset ©Copyright 2010 sa 7Integrated Training System Designedin ssociaton wih the ceunegpro.com question races aid 1 u Damage Tolerance The damage tolerance principle requires that any aeroplane damage is detected, and repaired before the strength is below a minimum level. c Damage Tolerant Design Fail-safe structure forms the basis for damage tolerant design. Damage tolerance improves on fail-safety by considering multiple site cracking, and the residual strength of partially failed , structural elements. Damage tolerance also considers the effects of environmental damage | (corrosion), and discrete damage (accidental). \ Multiple Sita Cracking a ul Figure 2.3: Damage Tolerant Design ( Damage Tolerance Concept | Maximum structural strength capability occurs at the beginning of an aeroplanes life. The J operating loads are much smaller than the ultimate strength. As the aeroplane ages, the strength slowly reduces, due to crack growth and/or corrosion damage. ‘+ Before the strength becomes less than the residual requirement, the damage Is detected and repaired back to original capability. / This process continues throughout the life of the aeroplane. p 1 iam oo eared Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts 211 ages heper TTS integrated Training Syston 0 ‘© Copyright 2010,Integrated Training System Designed in association wth the clubépra.com question practice até q Uy Figure 2.6: Wing Structural classification {c) Tertiary Structure. These are lightly stressed parts such as fairing, wheel shields, minor. component brackets, etc. They are often shown in GREEN (or stippled) in repair manuals or (9 drawings. Identification of Structure n The structure diagrams are coloured or specially shaded to represent the various classifications. Primary structures are coloured red or shown white. Secondary structures are coloured yellow or shown hatched. Tertiary structures are coloured green or shown stippled. If there is any doubt whatsoever, as to whether a piece of structure is primary or secondary, it is safest to assume it is primary. q 1 cn oon ct qo 214 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts aliases a ‘TTS integrated Training System Sora fon cn ‘© Copyiight 2010Designed in association with the ‘clubéépro.com question practi aid Integrated Training System cy co Figure 2.7: Structural classification ‘eunanas Asepucces KS sammonns Savana [—] co om oo anmaoc 245 ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts (ovonody a sanert Bron 24 mis cape 7 } G {Integrated Training System Designed in association wth he cupéepro.com question prcice aid Intentionally Blank J co J oe n I ~ 1 2.16 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts ocala ) “TTS integrated Training Systom sorenaday asaenent (© Copyright 2010 rorapedchiecuner TyIntegrated Training System Deslgnadin asacialon wih the cjubGepr.com question pacice sd eee Dimensions and Locations Q Station identification Systems In order to determine a particular location in an aeroplane, it is divided into three (imaginary) planes that are at an angle of 90°to each other. (see Figure 2.8). Lateral Axis Vertical Axis Longitudial Axis u EEE C3 > Figure 2.8: Axle Systems m (cma ara caenyel Module 11.2 Airirame Structures — General Concepts 217 Sipageedmacupor TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with he eube6pe0.com question practice aid BWL130.4 oc . 0 z a = 5 6 i a pty o z 8 = $ 1 2 ae = u a BWL9t. BWLO- } = ae a | on Ge, 4 s eB ; = eou z m4 Eo So es = a Zi vi pauls Lip ites uit eOS OTS Figure 2.10: Stations Examples AU 2.20 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts Use ancior ioctosure it : } "FET Sn osnliitieeeC3 C u 4 c m Integrated Training System Designedin seocion wn the cfub66pecom qveston poctee ek The zero point of the W.L. (Z Sta.) depends on the type of aeroplane. The zero point of the W.L. in a B-747 is 91 inches below the lowest point. ‘The zero point of the B.L. (X Sta.) is the centre line of the aeroplane (see Figure 2.10). Looking in the direction of flight, there are left-hand and right-hand buttock lines. The left-hand buttock lines are indicated by a minus sign and the right-hand ones with a plus sign. The wings, horizontal and vertical stabilizers, and powerplants of most aeroplane types have their own location identification system. Zonal Identification Systems The location identification system is used to pinpoint the various locations in an aeroplane. The station numbers make it possible to indicate the location of the centre of gravity, the distribution of the load, the location of the compartments and of parts. To localize parts more easily and to localize where work must be done, the aeroplane is divided into: ‘+ Major zones ‘* Major sub-zones © Unit zones Major zones are identified by hundred as follows: * 100 FUSELAGE LOWER SECTION * 200 FUSELAGE TOP SECTION * 300 STABILIZERS * 400 NACELLES * 500 LEFT WING * 600 RIGHT WING * 700 LANDING GEAR * 800 DOORS Use ane danse Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts 2.21 overdo) sateen SMoage2d eure TTS Integrated Training System "© Copyight 2070Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe ubeepro.com question praton aid J a 800 800 800 oe 3 eae | aan | co). 4 3 Figure 2.11: Major zones (Example) Zones are further broken down by 10 sub-zones as shown in figure 2.12. oe Ee ecco oo cI 2.22 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts ison daceexoie TTS Integrated Training System rere ert © Copyright 2010 age cpt aIntegrated Training System Oesigndinsetcciaion with tho chaégpr.com suoston pacice ad B Hi u 7 u Figure 2.12: Major Sub Zones (Example) {1 Unit zones are identified by a three digit number. An example of a location identification system Y is2t2: ‘* 200: upper half of body (major zone) ‘* 10: Cockpit (major sub-zone) * 2: zone number on the right-hand side (unit zone) ul ca uw anes deers Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.23 oer Sipe tal mechan “TIS integrated Teaning System ©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in ateociaton wi te csubpro.com question practice aid 221 ay ie bee Ho zes[zzs ass 263 Bs ut es u7 ‘uo 242 | 224 2 bse tea Mee 325 a home, Oe eg aaim ame we A ee i Leste C be Lema tf i a’. Bc Ht a : A458 5F secrtee C- scr A-A toe usa 1 Figure 2.13: Unit Zones (Example) Where necessary, the uneven zone number refers to the left-hand zone, and an even number indicates a right-hand zone. Large construction sections, including doors and control surfaces, have their own zone numbers. 2.24 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts ‘TTS integrated Tralnng System scenacy erent ©Copyright 2010 pees } Pee te Poe see oeSea c Integrated Training System Cesigned in association vith the clube pr0.com question practice aid Aircraft Structural Design Introduction Although the major foous of structural design in the early development of aircraft was on strength, now structural designers also deal with fail-safety, fatigue, corrosion, maintenance and inspectability, and producability. Figure 2.14: Structural Concepts Modem aircraft structures are designed using a semi-monocoque concept: a basic load- carrying shell reinforced by frames and longerons in the bodies, and a skin-stringer construction supported by spars and ribs in the surfaces. ea ane doen Module 11.2 Airftame Structures — General Concepts 2.25 Sorry nent SRoape ze aap ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with he clupeeex0.com question practice aid Figure 2.15: Proper stress levels, a very complex problem in highly redundant structures, are calculated using versatile computer matrix methods to solve for detailed intemal loads. Modem finite element models of aircraft components include tens-of-thousands of degrees-of-freedom and are used to determine the required skin thicknesses to avoid excessive stress levels, deflections, strains, or buckling. The goals of detailed design are to reduce or eliminate stress concentrations, residual stresses, fretting corrosion, hidden undetectable cracks, or single failure causing component failure. Open sections, such as Z or J sections, are used to permit inspection of stringers and avoid moisture accumulation. Fail-safe design is achieved through material selection, proper stress levels, and multiple load path structural arrangements which maintain high strength in the presence of a crack or damage. Examples of the latter are: a) Use of tear-stoppers b) Spanwise wing and stabilizer skin splices 2.26 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts ina TTS Integrated Training System onenetiy tess © Copyright 2010 naga ha oeIntegrated Training System Designed in associaiion vit the ‘lubéepo.com question practice aid DOUGLAS CANTE Foae Skin oamase FAA neque 18a SOM Daweaue Figure 2.16: Fail Safe Criteria Analyses introduce cyclic loads from ground-air-ground cycle and from power spectral density descriptions of continuous turbulence. Component fatigue test results are fed into the program and the cumulative fatigue damage is calculated. Stress levels are adjusted to achieve requited structural fatigue design life. Design Life Criteria -- Philosophy Fatigue failure life of a structural member is usually defined as the time to initiate a crack which would tend to reduce the ultimate strength of the member. Fatigue design life implies the average life to be expected under average aircraft utilization and loads environment. To this design life, application of a fatigue life scatter factor accounts for the typical variations from the average utilization, loading environments, and basic fatigue strength allowables. This leads to a safe-life period during which the probability of a structural crack eat doar Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts, 2.27 (oreo) ie eaenet ‘ae ecapr ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association wth the clubéépro.com question pracice eid occurring is very low. With fail-safe, inspectable design, the actual structural life is much greater. The overall fatigue life of the aircraft is the time at which the repair of the structure is no longer economically feasible. Scatter factors of 2 to 4 have been used to account for statistical variation in component fatigue tests and unknowns in loads. Load unknowns involve both methods of calculation and type of service actually experienced. Primary structure for present transport aircraft is designed based on average expected operational conditions and average fatigue test results, for 120,000 hrs. For the best current methods of design, a scatter factor of 2 is typically used, so that the expected crack-free structural life is 60,000 hrs, and the probabilty of attaining a crack-free structural life of 60,000 his is 94 percent as shown in the following figure and table. Hours to Failure, Mean Life = 120,000 120,000 60,000 40,000 30,000 24,000 20,000 15,000 100 3 g = . 3 2 Z 5 10 9 2 2 5 = a $ 3 2 2 a 1 9 3 g g é 0. ee oo5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Scatter Factor, N/NF Figure 2.17: With fail-safe design concepts, the usable structural life would be much greater, but in practice, each manufacturer has different goals regarding aircraft structural life. 2.28 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts ieaietaecin ‘TTS Integrated Training System srcraty ese © Copytight 2010 a te eee ee J Eee| eas) fon 7 fen ca n co ca Soa Hee ee Ee [ace ee (or ee ger ee et Integrated Training System Designed in assocaon with the ‘lub 6pro.com question practice aid Materials Choice of materials emphasizes not only strength/weight ratio but also: Fracture toughness Crack propagation rate Notch sensitivity Stress corrosion resistance Exfoliation corrosion resistance Acoustic fatigue testing is important in affected portions of structure. Doublers are used to reduce stress concentrations around splices, cut-outs, doors, windows, access panels, etc., and to serve as tear-stoppers at frames and longerons. Generally DC-10 uses 2024-T3 aluminium for tension structure such as lower wing skins, pressure critical fuselage skins and minimum gage applications. This material has excellent fatigue strength, fracture toughness and notch sensitivity. 7075-76 aluminium has the highest strength with acceptable toughness. It is used for strength critical structures such as fuselage floor beams, stabilizers and spar caps in control surfaces. It is also used for upper wing skins. For those parts in which residual stresses could possibly be present, 7075-T73 material is used. 7075-73 material has superior stress corrosion resistance and exfoliation corrosion resistance, and good fracture toughness. Typical applications are fittings that can have detrimental preloads induced during assembly or that are subjected to sustained operational loads. Thick- section forgings are 7075-173, due to the possible residual stresses induced during heat treatment. The integral ends of 7075-T6 stringers and spar caps are over-aged to T73 locally. This unique use of the T73 temper virtually eliminates possibility of stress corrosion cracking in critical joint areas. Although the yield stress of 7075 or 2024 Aluminium is higher, a typical value for design stress at limit load is 54,000 psi. The density of aluminium is 101 Ib / in? Minimum usable material thickness is about 0.06 inches for high speed transport wings. This is set by lightning strike requirements. (Minimum skin gauge on other portions of the aircraft, such as the fuselage, is about 0.05 inches to permit countersinking for flush rivets, ‘On the Cessna Citation, a small high speed airplane, 0.04 inches is the minimum gauge on the inner portion of the wing, but 0.05 inches is preferred, Ribs may be as thin as 0.025 inches. ‘Spar webs are about 0.06 inches at the tip. For low speed aircraft where flush rivets are not a requirement and loads are low, minimum skin gauge is as low as 0.016 inches where little handling is likely, such as on outer wings and tail cones. Around fuel tanks {inboard wings) 0.03 inches is minimum. On light aircraft, the spar or ‘spars carry almost all of the bending and shear loads. Wing skins are generally stiffened, Skins contribute to compression load only near the spars (which serve as stiffeners in a limited area). Lower skins do contribute to tension capability but the main function of the skin in these cases is to carry torsion loads and define the section shape. ee ncaa Module 11.2 Airtrame Structures — General Concepts 2.29 Eoweadinewener ‘TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2010Integrated Training System cy Designed in association with th elubdpra com question practices J In transport wings, skin thicknesses usually ate large enough, when designed for bending, to a handle torsion loads. ] eee oo 4 7 5 i a a} 2.30 He ; Module 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts Tce eee “TS Integrates Traling System peers be ane ©Copyright 2010 cooape fetes atot co u fe eee Hee t inv peed BEE) rc Integrated Training System Designed in association wth the ‘lubéépre.com question practice aid oe System Installation Provision Consideration needs to be given to the construction of the fuselage where it may be necessary to increase its structural integrity. For example: * The installation of brackets for the attachment of system components such as hydraulic system reservoirs, fuel filter modules and system shut off valves etc. ‘+ Increasing structural strength will be required in areas of high load; landing gear and engine attachments would be a good example of this. ‘+ The installation of firewalls to prevent the spread of fire from hot sections of the aircraft such as engine nacelles and APU housing. ‘+ Some system fluid lines, ducting and controls will have to be routed through the aircraft structure. This will weaken the structure; the manufacture will keep this in mind during the design stage and keep this to a minimum. * Control cables are used extensively throughout the aircraft to operate different aircraft systems, these control cables will be routed through the aircraft structure, and special consideration will need to be given to the routing of these cables to protect the aircraft ‘structure from the cables. This is accomplished by the use of grommets, fairleads and pressure seals. Not only is the routing of control cable important, the routing of hydraulic system fiuid lines, electrical cables, fuel lines, pneumatic system ducting and air-conditioning distribution must be considered and provisions made for the attachment and correct routing of these system components. Drains and Ventilation Provision At places in aeroplane structures where collection of fluids may be expected, drainage points are provided. To prevent unintended pressure differentials and the accumulation of hazardous gases, structures are supplied with means of ventilation. Drainage External and intemal holes and drain paths are provided in aircraft structures to prevent water and other fluids collecting within the structure. These fluids could cause a fire or corrosion. External drain ports are located on exterior surfaces of the fuselage, wing and tail unit to drain any fluids overboard. These drains are always open. Drain valves are fitted along the lowest points of the pressure cabin. These drain valves are ‘open when the aircraft cabin is unpressurised, but closed when the cabin is pressurized to prevent loss of cabin pressure. In the simplest type, a rubber diaphragm forms the seal. Other types of drain valve are illustrated in figure 2.18. Sometimes a levelling compound is used to prevent fluid collecting in cavities. The compound directs fluid to the drains. The internal structure of an aircraft is provided with tubes, channels, earseraeas Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts 2.31 Snead ees ‘TTS Inograted Training System © Copyight 2010Integrated Training System Designed in associat withthe ‘lbeGpro.cem question practice aid dams and drain holes to direct the flow of fluid towards external dr Spring Drain Hole 4 Lower Skin i Alrcraft 5 Bottom Skin ; Retainer rt Water I Entry Rubber Diaphragm is Figure 2.18: Pressure Zone Drain Valves Ree oe } 2.82 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts eee ‘TTS Integrated Training System rena ett © Copyright 2010 aoe oth ohfee) Herter c co Ee eee eee eee oe u -) ca Integrated Training System Designed in sociaton win the ceuneeero cam question practee aid Lightning Strike Protection (LSP) and Static Dissipation Ifa lightning bolt strikes an unprotected structure, up to 200,000 amps of electricity seeks the path of least resistance. In the process, it may vaporize metal control cables, weld hinges on control surfaces and explode fuel vapours within fuel tanks if current arcs through gaps around fasteners. These direct effects also typically include vaporization of resin in the immediate strike area, with possible burn-through of the laminate. /ndirect effects occur when magnetic fields and electrical potential differences in the structure induce transient voltages, which can damage and even destroy onboard electronics that have not been EMF (electromagnetic field) shielded or lightning protected. No matter whether an aircraft is aluminium or composite, when lightning hits an aircraft it needs a path for the electricity to flow through. On an aluminium skin, the electricity will flow through the skin and discharge out the static wicks. LSP strategies have three goals: provide adequate conductive paths so that lightning current remains on the structure's exterior; eliminate gaps in this conductive path to prevent arcing at attachment points and ignition of fuel vapours; and protect wiring, cables and sensitive equipment from damaging surges or transients through careful grounding, EMF shielding and application of surge suppression devices where necessary. Normally the structure of an aircraft consists of metallic assemblies which ensure an excellent electric conductibility; however certain insulating intermediate parts stop the continuity in large zones. The continuity is restored by means of strips, screws or grounding lugs fitted between metallic assemblies. Hinged parts (control surfaces, doors, hatches, etc.), removable parts (unhinged inspection doors, etc.), are provided with one or several bonding means shunting each part where conductibility may be interrupted. For particular zones such as fuel tanks, engines and APU, the bondings provide an efficient circulation of static potential; bonding strips and screws are connected to the main structure. External protruding parts, metallic or not, is provided with electrical leads connected to the main structure. Antennas and other equipment are not bonded due to the fact that a flash of lightning could damage only the element struck without endangering the other parts of the aircraft. Zone 1, Initial Lightning ‘Attachment Area Zone 2, Swept Stroke ‘Attachment Area [1 Zone 3, ait Remaining Areas Figure 2.19: Lightning Attachment Zones wae ace Module 11.2 Airlrame Structures ~ General Concepts 2.33 Samedneca TS integrated Teling Systm ‘@ Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe ‘lubG6pro.com question practice id Composite Structure Since composites do not conduct electricity, ightning and static protection has to be built into the structure. Traditionally, conductive paths in composite structures have been established in one of the following ways: Bonding aluminium foil to the structure as the outside ply Bonding aluminium or copper mesh to the structure either as the outside ply or embedded one ply down * Incorporating strands of conductive material into the laminate. All require connecting the conductive pathways to the rest of the aircraft in order to give the current an ample number of routes to safely exit the aircraft. This is typically achieved by using metal bonding strips (ie., electrical bonding) to connect the conductive surface layer to an intemal “ground plane," which includes metal components such as engines, conduit, etc. + Afine aluminium screen may be laminated under the top layer of fabric. If this method is used on a carbon/graphite component; it is usually sandwiched between two layers of fibre glass to prevent a galvanic potential. + Athin aluminium foil sheet may be bonded to the outer layer of composite during the manufacturing process. * Aluminium may be flame sprayed onto the component. This is molten aluminium that is sprayed on like paint. Some companies will just paint the component with an aluminized paint (often a primer paint). ‘+ Insome structures, a piece of metal is bonded to the composite to allow the dissipation of the electrical charge out to another metal component or static wick. In some cases, all metallic components are connected via strips of aluminium or copper, effectively forming an intemal “cage” throughout the airframe. Because lightning strikes can attach to metal fasteners in composite structures, it may be desirable to prevent arcing or sparking between them by encapsulating fastener nuts or sleeves with plastic caps or polysultide coatings. For external surface protection, a number of metal and metalized fibre products have been developed, typically woven and nonwoven screens and expanded foils. These mesh-like products enable the lightning's current to quickly transmit across the structure's surface, reducing its focus. 2.34 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts toe TTS Integrated Training System sree tet ©Copyright 2010 Tope oho co eee eee eee Hated fee ee i: oeIntegrated Training System Designod in assocalon with the = clubéspro.com question practice aid Heer eee Stresses Acting on an Aeroplane Structure c , _ Aircraft are unique in their structural requirements. They must be lightweight and at the same {time withstand flight loads, landing loads, and a wide range of vibration. In this study of all-metal & structure, we will consider the five basic stresses that act on all physical objects: tension, _. Compression, torsion, bending, and shear. Tension and compression are the basic stresses and |) the other three are combinations of these two. A stress is a force that is set up within an object \ that tries to prevent an outside force changing its shape. A strain is a deformation or a physical -, _ change caused by a stress. A material that is strained within its elastic limit will return to its {| original size and shape after the stress is removed, but if it has been strained beyond this limit, it will be permanently deformed. Torsion Torsion is a combination of tension and compression acting in the same object. The shaft in Figure 2.20 has a tensile stress and a compressive stress acting at 90°to each other, and they are both acting at 45°to the shaft. Propeller shaf ts and helicopter rotor shafts are both subjected to torsional stresses. ui a u Compressive Stress { 1 u n u Figure 2.20: Torsion Bending Bending is also made up of tension and compression. The wing of the aeroplane in Figure 2.21 is under a bending stress. When the aeroplane is on the ground, the top skin of the wing is under a tensile stress and the bottom skin is under a compressive stress. In flight these forces 2 are the opposite. The top skin is under a compressive stress and the bottom skin is under a q tensile stress. u ni { 1 ear agenen | Module 11.2 Aidrame Structures ~ General Concepss 2.35 Spenco ‘TTS integrated Teining System il ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in associat wth the alubéspro.com question practice ad Compression Figure 2.21: Bending Ten: Tension tries to pull an object apart. Consider the hoist in Figure 2.22. The chain is under tension, or more properly stated, it has a tensile stress in it. Figure 2.22: Tension } 2.36 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts iabeaeee ‘TTS Integrated Training System Opraeda tacos © Copyright 2010 biIntegrated Training System Designedin tocion wh tho csubsépro.cam question practice ald (> Compression LL. Compression tries to squeeze the ends of an object together. The rivet in Figure 2.23 is distorted or strained by a compressive stress between the rivet gun and the bucking bar. if ret u in (i us i KR RSS SSS 8 { teat Bucking i Bar i u G Figure 2.23: Compression i Shear {| Ashear stress tries to slide an object apart. The rivet bolt in Figure 2.24 is subject to a shear “stress. The force on one sheet puts a tensile stress in the rivet toward the right while the fixed =; _ other sheet puts a tensile stress into the bolt toward the left. These two tensile stresses act [| beside each other rather than opposite each other, and the result is a force that tries to shear the rivet, or to slide it apart. Paria Einnnn&hnhnM_@_@_@_ SSSA LLLIPPTTPLLLLL LLL LLL oy rc r u ie c pean Figure 2.24: Shear 1 | coma esr denna Module 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts 2.87 py Scotter TTS nerae Ting Sten { {© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association ith the clubgépre.com question practice ald Stress, Strain and Hooke’s Law Introduction Structural integrity is a major factor in aircraft design and construction. No production aeroplane leaves the ground before undergoing extensive analysis of how It will fly, the stresses it will tolerate and its maximum safe capability. Every aircratt is subject to structural stress. Stress acts on an aeroplane whether on the ground or in flight. Stress is dofined as a load applied to a unit area of material. Stress produces a deflection or deformation in the material called strain. Stress is always accompanied by strain. Current production general aviation aircraft are constructed of various materials, the primary being aluminium alloys. Rivets, bolts, screws and special bonding adhesives are used to hold the sheet metal in place. Regardless of the method of attachment of the material, every part of the fuselage must carry a load, or resist a stress placed on it. Design of interior supporting and forming pieces, and the outside metal skin all have a role to play in assuring an overall safe structure capable of withstanding expected loads and stresses. The stress a particular part must withstand is carefully calculated by engineers. Also, the material a part is made from is extremely important and is selected by designers based on its known properties. Aluminium alloy is the primary material for the exterior skin on modem aircraft. This material possesses a good strength to weight ratio, is easy to form, resists corrosion, and is relatively inexpensive. Stress, Strain and Young's Modulus What is known as Axial (or Normal) Stress, is defined as the force perpendicular to the cross sectional area of the member divided by the cross sectional area. Or Force ea (units tbvin? or Nim?) Stress = In figure 2-1, a solid rod of length L, is under simple tension due to force F, as shown. If we divide that axial force, F, by the cross sectional area of the rod (A), this would be the axial stress in the member, Axial stress is the equivalent of pressure in a gas or liquid, As you remember, pressure is the force/unit area. So axial stress is really the ‘pressure’ in a solid member. Now the question becomes, how much ‘pressure’ can a material bear before it fails. 2.38 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts taeda alata TTS Integrated Training System Snpan tea © Copyright 2010 in q poet 3 amas ot J sanat m aoeIntegrated Training System Designed in association with the celud6Epr0.com question practice aid Axial Siress = FA u tare te : (umits = Ibi” er Nan) cress sectlonsl area u fi Li rn Zi Force perpendicular to area Figure 2.25: Tensile Stress ca In fact, if we look at a metal rod in simple tension as shown in figure 2.25, we see that there will be an elongation (or deformation) due to the tension. If we then graph the tension (force) verses the deformation we obtain a result as shown in figure 2.26. u : | — Plastic Region — | p See u f Proportional Limit — Faiture Point - : i. Oil. 4 [i : necking down U AL @eformation) (inn) 7 Figure 2.26: Force-Extension diagram u in figure 2.2, we see that, if our metal rod is tested by increasing the tension in the rod, the {deformation increases. In the first region the deformation increases in proportion to the force That is, if the amount of force is doubled, the amount of deformation is doubled. This is a form -, of Hooke's Law and could be written this way: F e k (deformation), where k is a constant [depending on the material (and is sometimes called the spring constant). After enough force has been applied the material enters the plastic region - where the force and the deformation are not proportional, but rather a small amount of increase in force produces a large amount of deformation. In this region, the rod often begins to ‘neck down’, that is, the diameter becomes “smaller as the rod is about to fail, Finally the rod actually breaks. The point at which the Elastic Region ends is called the elastic limit, or the proportional limit. In ee u Use anc caciceue i Module 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts 2.39 ray Se sort Sepage2 athe sheer ‘TTS Integrated Trening System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe club6épre.com question practice eid actuality, these two points are not quite the same. The Elastic Limit is the point at which permantnt deformation ocoure, that i, after the elastic mt ithe force is taken off tho sample, | it will not return to its original size and shape, permanent deformation has occurred. The Proportional Limit is the point at which the deformation is no longer directly proportional to the applied force (Hooke's Law no longer holds). Although these two points are slightly different, we will treat them as the same in this course. aes | Next, rather than examining the applied force and resulting deformation, we will instead graph the axial stress verses the axial strain (figure 2.28). We have defined the axial stress earlier. eee The axial strain is defined as the fractional change in length or Strain = (deformation of member) divided by the (original length of member) AL st cat rain = Jd co a § Figure 2.27: Axial force in a member of length Le causing deformation (extension) of AL We may write: Strain - Deformation Original Length where Lo is the original length of the member. Strain has no units - since its length divided by length, however it is sometimes expressed as | ‘infin (or inches per inch)’ in some texts : ‘As we see from figure 2.28, the Stress verses Strain graph has the same shape and regions as the force verses deformation graph in figure 2.26. In the elastic (linear) region, since stress is directly proportional to strain, the ratio of stress/strain will be a constant (and actually equal to nm the slope of the linear portion of the graph). i} This constant is known as Young's Modulus, and is usually symbolized by an E or Y. We will 5 use E for Young's modulus. We may now write us 2.40 Module 11,2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts Vee andlor disclosure fe J ‘TTS Integrated Training System Tometenecoss = © Copyright 2010cy Integrated Training System Designadin atsociaton wt the club6épro.com question praptoe aid Stress Strain Young's Modulus (E) = (This is another form of Hooke's Law.) co Ultimate | — Plastic Region — Stress 07h ees (elastic) U o | Proportional Limit Faure Point : Stress E Ihin? Lincar (elastic) Region 6 u u € Stra p Figure 2.28: Stress-Strain graph The value of Young's modulus - which is a measure of the amount of force needed to produce a unit deformation - depends on the material. Young's Modulus for Steel is 30 x 10° Ib/in’, for Aluminium E = 10 x 10° Ib/in’, and for Brass {] B= 15x 10° Ib/in’. To summarize our stress/strain/Hooke's Law relationships up to this point, we have: Stress = F2°° (units tb/in? or Nim?) ‘Area Strain = Deformation Original Length ft Stress : lus = SESS u Young's Modulus = === 5 ae n wae desonie Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts 241 nq TES Inte ining System Vt ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System @ Designed in association wih the lubépro.com question practice aid BEE oa BULK YOUNG MODULUS, E —ygputus, 6 MATERIAL —_(LBWIN?) em) te ULTIMATE ‘Alumtoum 10x10 10x10 ELASTIC.LIMIT STRESS q Brass 13108 as x 10° MATERIAL an (UB.ANA us Copper 18108 wrx 08 ‘Aluminum 13x10" 24x10" a Glass 78 x 108 5.2 x 10% Brags 55 x 10% 66 x 10% u ron 13 x 10° 1.45 x 10% ‘Copper 23 x 108 4.9 «104 Steel 29 x10! 23x10! tron 24x 10° 47 x10 a Ethyl Alcohol 0.16 x 10° AnnealedStee! 3.6 x 10" 7A x10 ol 0.25 x 108 Spring Steel 6.0 x 10° tox 104 aia oat x 10° Table 2.3: Elastic Limit and Ultimate Stress Mercury 40 x 108 of some common materials 7 Table 2.2: Young’s Modulus and Bulk a Modulus of some common materials ] u Aas i il fee eee eee ree oe 2.42 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts foetal J TTS Integrated Training System Rrgedate cane ©Copyright 2010 Ee i onoeH eo eat AEE Eee eee oe Integrated Training System Destged in aseocaion wih he ehissgpra.com question practice 33 Structure Definitions Bulk Modulus - The bulk modulus gives the change in volume of a solid substance as the pressure on it is changed. The formula for bulk modulus is very similar to that for Young’s Modulus: ‘ Bulk Modulus (B) = Pressure_ Sy V, = =Pr fo Volumetric Strain AV, ressurexs Some examples of Bulk Modulus for different materials are given on the next page. Poisson’s Ratio - As a member is stressed in tension, its length increases (axial strain) and its width decreases (transverse strain). Poisson's Ratio is the ratio of transverse strain to the axial strain in a stressed member. Cantilever - Figure 2.29 illustrates a cantilever structure. The beam is under bending stress (which is greatest at the root end) and shear stress (which is constant along the beam). LOAD Figure 2.29: A cantilever structure Hoop Stress and Longitudinal Stress - A pressure vessel (such as a pressurised fuselage) has to retain pressure. In doing this the pressure applies two types of stresses. They are circumferential and longitudinal. se ae cea Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.43, Seago dhe nar ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in assoczaton wth the cSusetpr0.cam question practios aid (esa Circumferential Stess or Hoop Stress pee Eee on oi eH mm oo J Longitusinal Stress or Axiel Stress. fee Figure 2.30: Hoop stress and longitudinal stress Longitudinal stresses are half as much as the circumferential (hoop) stresses for any given 7 pressure contained within the vessel. j Hogging and Sagging - Hogging and sagging describe the shape of a beam or similar long 7 object when loading is applied. Hogging describes a beam which curves upwards in the middie | (ike a hogs back), and sagging describes a beam which curves downwards in the middle. n When applied to an aircraft wing, the wing is sagging if the wingtips are bending upwards, as. a would be the case when the aircraft is in normal straight and level flight. The wing is hogging if the wingtips are bending downwards, as would be the case when the aircraft has just landed and the inertial forces cause the wings to bend downwards. J J 2.44 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts pee i] TTS intogratesTelnng System sen ere © Copynght 2010, Seiabecwe iIntegrated Training System Oesignein association with the ctubéspro cam question practce ad Lb) Construction Methods of Aeroplanes. Evolution of Aeroplane Structures Aircraft structures have evolved fully as much as have their powerplants. The very first airframes were made of open trusses of either wood strips or bamboo. The aerodynamic 7 Surfaces were made of lightweight wood covered with cotton or linen fabric, shrunk and made airtight with a syrup-like collodion product that dried to a hard film. Figure 2.31: Truss Type Structure [) _ The next major development came with the welded steel tube fuselage structure that replaced Li _ the wooden truss. This structure is strong, but it has the disadvantage that to give it a streamlined shape, a superstructure must be built around the load-bearing truss. This adds weight but is needed for aerodynamic smoothness and aesthetics. pasa In the late 1920s the Lockheed Company developed a streamlined wooden monocoque (| _ structure that carried virtually all of the stresses in its outer skin. This light-weight streamlined Li structure was used on some of the most efficient aircraft of the time. It, however, had the disadvantage of being extremely labour intensive in its construction. f uo I nara Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.45 i, Seanad neciner ‘TIS intograted Training Sytem f ‘@ Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with the suo com question pracice ald Figure 2.32: Plywood Monocoque Aeroplane (Lockheed Orion) The next logical step in the evolution of aircraft structure was to replace the wooden monocoque with a thin aluminium alloy monocoque. This decreased the dependence upon skilled craftsmen for its construction and made mass production of interchangeable parts practical and cost effective. Pure aluminium is weak, but during World War |, the Germans discovered that by alloying aluminium with copper, manganese, and magnesium, they could increase its strength without increasing its weight, This new alloy was called Duralumin, and it was the forerunner of the high-strength and lightweight alloys (7017 aluminium alloy) that we use in aircraft construction today. Metal stressed-skin aircraft structure has been the standard since the 1930s, but a new era is dawning, that of composites. Composite structure can be made stronger, lighter in weight, more rigid, and less costly than metal. We have experienced what may be termed a plastics revolution, Early plastic materials such as celluloid and Beetleware gave promise of a low-cost, easy-to-manufacture material, but they did not have the strength needed for structural applications. One of the first plastic materials used in aviation was a thermosetting phenol- formaldehyde resin that was reinforced with paper or linen cloth. This phenolic material, trade named Micarta or Tufnol, pioneered in the early 1930s, is still used for control cable pulleys and fairieads and for electtical insulators. Glass fibres, both woven into cloth and packed into loose mat and roving, have been reinforced with polyester resins and used for radomes, wing tips, and wheel pants since the early 1950s. This material is truly a composite, and may be thought of as being the ancestor of modern composite structural materials. 246 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts eae east TTS Integrated Teining Systom onemetiy teases ©Copyright 2010 eae PEE eee eee oo “I f rel coo co ud cq co coo cl “4ae ie Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe ceubeepe.com question prackee aid i Cc ae Figure 2.33: First All-Composite Commercial Aircraft (Beech Starship) Moder composite materials use fibres of graphite and Kevlar as well as glass for most applications, with boron and ceramic used in some special applications. These fibres are (| primarily bonded into an epoxy resin matrix. Composite structural components have the || advantage over metal of being lighter in weight, stronger, more rigid, and better able to withstand the sonic vibrations that are commonly encountered in aircraft structure. UL The military forces have been responsible for much of the development in advanced composite structure because performance and the successful accomplishment of military goals have [| always been more important than cost. The airlines have also contributed to its development because every pound of weight saved by replacing metal with composite materials adds a pound of payload capability for each flight and reduces the fuel bur. [ {aa {sans q u a n va nenc Module 11.2 Airtrame Structures ~ General Concepts 2.47 Siege de case ‘TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with he Suseopro.com question practice aid Traling edge S ‘Apron anddevetor Leading edge. J N : q ‘Spoilers: Leading edge / bottom ‘access panels: 9 gat Tag fall Main (andi ings. doors: Figure 2.34: Use of Composites on Jet Airliner (Airbus A321) 2.48 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts TTS integrated Training System © Copyrgnt 2010 ee BESS Ree eee ae Ree ee SRE a eee ca cI BSE eeeeee eee C Ree c EEE eee jaa f Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe ckibo6p0.com question practce aid Maintenance and repairs to aeroplanes must be done well, fast and at the right location. That is why the aeroplane maintenance mechanic must know where the part to be repaired or replaced is. When constructing an aeroplane, a distinction is made between the main sections and the subsections. The main sections are connected to each other in a particular order in various ways. The main sections of the aeroplane construction as shown in Figure 2.35 are: * the fuselage the wings * the landing gears * the empennage (consisting of the vertical and horizontal stabilizers, rudder and elevator) * the propulsion systems (powerplants, also referred to as engines). Engines aX Gear Tail Surfaces. Wings Figure 2.35: Main Sections of an Aircraft ae cacy Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepis 2.49 Shomed meceae TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with the fl ‘lud66pr0.com question practice aid ud Stressed Skin Construction Method a To take the maximum advantage of metal, most aircraft structure is of the stressed skin. Atype | of altcraft structure in which all or most of the stresses are carried in the outside skin. A stressed skin structure has a minimum of intemal structure. There are two types of metal stressed skin: monocoque and semimonocoque. fee Monocoque Structure q The name monocoque means single shell, and in a true monocoque structure, all the strength _} of the structure is carried in the outside skin. Figure 2.36 shows a view of a monocoque structure. The formers give the structure its shape, but the thin metal skin riveted to them n carries all the flight loads. } ‘A monocoque fuselage is similar to a tube; its cross section is of high bending and torsion a strength. There is no need for cross-struts, which would demand too much space from the cabin. | and cargo compartments. q The formers are directly attached to the skin. Boa cq Figure 2.36: Monocoque Structure u 2.50 Module 41.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts eaten J ‘TTS Integrated Telaing System conten iret onyngrt 2010 ‘roagedothsctosn u {aaa co Eee ca eee Integrated Training System ee! canegpe com eson practee a Semi-monocoque Structure Pure monocoque structure has the serious drawback that any dent or deformation will decrease its ability to carry the flight loads. To overcome this limitation, semimonocoque structure as seen in Figure 2.37 is widely used. In this type of structure, formers not only provide the shape, they carry the majority of the flight loads. Figure 2.37: Semi-Monocoque Structure are en Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts 2.51 ovemady fe Saleen Eugezd nent” ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2070Integrated Training System Designed in association with the elubedpro com question practice aid Figure 2.38: Semi-Monocoque Structure 2.52 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts iidia ae ‘TTS Intograted Tralning System realy © Copyright 2010 foetal aeee c Cc Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe ‘lub §pro.com question practice ald Structure Assembly Techniques There are many different assembly methods used by the manufacture, it should be remembered that it is far easier to remove a nut and bolt than it is to de-rivet a component. Those items that are removed on a regular basis are normally secured by the nut and bolt method. Screw Bonded — Hi-Lok ‘Structure Figure 2.39: Different Assembly Techniques on a Panel Riveting Sheets of metal must be fastened together to form the aircraft structure, and this is usually done with solid aluminium alloy rivets. There are many locations on an aircraft where it is not possible to reach both sides of the structure, and special blind rivets must be installed. Rivets and other permanent types of fastener used in aircraft construction may be divided into four classes as follows: * Solid © Tubular © Blind — — Chertylock — Tucker Pop * Special Purpose _- Hi-Lok — — Taper-Lock Use andr eictosua i Module 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts 2.53 ovmaby econo sage za necro ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System (es gned in association with ho eubgpro.com question practice aid Solid Riveting Introduction Only the solid-shank rivet increases, when it is properly installed, in size and strength. A steel bolt, for example, will actually decrease in diameter when it is installed and torqued. Some manufacturers of special fasteners attempt to duplicate the natural action of solid-shank rivets by putting expanding sections on the fasteners pulling stems. Most of these special fasteners only approximate the natural shank expansion of a driven solid-shank rivet. co Since pure aluminium weighs one-third as much as steel, aluminium alloy solid-shank rivets are lighter than many other fasteners. Their lightness is an advantage, but it limits their usefulness: Solid-shank rivets greater than 1/2-inch in diameter are not used, However, the allowable range, 3/32 to 1/2-inch in diameter, is broad enough for the needs of most typical aircraft construction and repairs. Rivets are always supplied to the operator with one head already formed and the shank plainto permit insertion into the rivet hole, the opposite end being formed into a head by manual or L mechanical means. Solid rivets have the greatest strength and are therefore preferable to any other type of rivet, but they can only be used where there is access to both sides of the structure. Solid Rivet Dimensions and Head Types 400" i < fe : el ‘ Figure 2.40: Snap head and countersunk rivet dimensions 5 a 2.54 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts es ato osois “TTS Integrated Training System omeetevncass (©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with tho acepeanamaion sh ts A Types of Head | The most common forms of solid rivets are as follows: ry a) Snap head: for general purposes where strength is required but not a streamlined u finish b) Mushroom head: for skin coverings to give maximum strength L c) Flat head: for internal work where heads are not easily accessible d) Countersunk: for flush finish (90°, 100°, 120° head) | : e) Pan head: for heavy structures 1 3 bu “ : a ye ~ oT TY te u n b u CSUNTERSUNK 90° Figure 2.41: Rivet head type n u n U fl | [ i 0 r L oamaconc Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.55 Seow ter ‘TTS integrates Traling System aa "© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System oe i Designed in association wih he } ubdopr.com question practee aid ul Rivet Clearance 4 The clearance is the difference between the size of the hole and the rivet diameter; rivet holes are normally drilled 0.003 in oversize. Clearance is necessary, particularly with light alloys to prevent puckering of the sheet owing to the metal spreading when the rivet head is formed. i - | ul - Figure 2.42: Rivet clearance 4 Allowances for Riveting I When fitting a rivet, sufficient shank must be left protruding above the plate to take up the iad clearance and form the head. Failure to observe this precaution leads to many riveting faults. = — The allowance for rivet heads is expressed in terms of the diameter of the rivet shank and are ] dependent on the material specification of the rivet and gauge of sheet being riveted. 6 RIVET LENGTH UPSET Ld GRIP LENGTH PLUS1.5D DIMENSIONS A B _ 5D: a ARIVET IS DRIVEN 4.5 WIDE AND .5D HIGH. 4 IT MUST EXTEND THROUGH THE GRIP LENGTH fe PLUS 1.5 DIA. A + B EQUALS GRIP LENGTH. Figure 2.43: Rivet allowance 2.56 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts eee TTS Integrated Training System ‘cosine © Copyright 2010 papeIntegrated Training System Designed in association with the L cauneepr.com question pases ad F) Typical values of allowance are: a * Snap Head 1.5D I Countersunk 0.75D u + Reaction 1.5D [) Rivet Grip Length This is the length of rivet shank taken up by the combined thickness of the sheets being joined. - Se k U -+t-—- " Figure 2.44: Grip length To determine the length of rivet to be used add the rivet allowance to the rivet grip length. Have a trial on scrap metal of the same thickness and specification. Solid rivets can be fitted manually using appropriate snaps, sets and dollies or mechanically, using the special power operated riveting tools. It is essential to have access to both sides of the joint since the rivet must be supported on one side as the head is formed. } a) Set- this is a hollow punch tool used to draw the metal sheets together and bring the pre-formed rivet head hard against the metal surface. b b) Snap - a punch tool with a shaped hollow at one end, the same shape as the fy manufactured head. The set and snap may be separate tools or combined into one tool. t u n & Pa Lecanto Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.57 Sroepazd sere ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2070Integrated Training System Designad in association with the Su66pro.com question pracioe aid 4 J A Figure 2.45: Combined Set and Snap tool A ¢) Dolly - This is a metal block with a recess to the same shape as the pre-formed head. : Used to support the pre-formed head whilst forming the rivet. The pre-formed head n should fit squarely into the dolly. For reaction rivet the dolly is a smooth flat block. J WYyyy : 4 Z| = correct I Figure 2.46: Dolly sizing 7 i 7 al 7 2.58 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts oddaetaeaEeee TTS Integrated Training System Seton fae chaar © Copysght 2010, iay ta ees Ca f \ Integrated Training System Designadin assocaton wth tho _sube6pr.com question pace aid 4, The riveting tools are available in different sizes depending on diameter or rivet being used and the shape of head. Cleco Clamps and Pliers Cleco clamps are used to align parts prior to being re-riveted to an aircraft. The clamps are in- stalled with Cleco pliers (figure 2.47). The color of the Cleco clamp indicates the diameter of the rivet it is to be used with. Four commonly used sizes are 3/32 of an inch (silver), 1/8 of an inch (copper), 5/32 of an inch (black), and 3/16 of an inch (brass, gold).inch (copper), 5/32 of inch (copper), 5/32 of an inch (black), and 3/16 of an inch (brass, gold). bY eee SX g KKK wy uy Power cLeco winenur cteco PINTYPE weDeeLook CLECO eta cece RIVET DRILL CLECOCOLOR fl 332 #40. «SILVER cLECO 18 #30 «= COPPER PUERS 592 #21 BLACK ane #11 = GOLD cs Y EKA Fig 2.47: Metal Cleco clamps Seomchrcacant Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.59 Enpagea dhe cer ‘TTS Integrated Training System (© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association wth the ql lub6spro.com question practice sid Rivet Guns = The hand tool commonly used to drive rivets is a rivet gun (figure 2.48). Rivet guns are powered | by compressed air and are classified as light, medium-, or heavy-hitting. A light-hitting gun is used to install 1/32-inch and 1/8-inch diameter rivets. Medium-hitting guns are used to install ™ 5/82-inch and 3/16-inch diameter rivets. Heavy-hitting guns are used to install larger diameter. | rivets and some special fasteners. 4d Rivet Sets or Gun Sets There are two types of gun sets: The universal and the countersink (figure 2.48). The universal gun set is sized to fit on the driven end of the various shapes of rivet heads. The opposite end of the universal gun set fits into the rivet gun barrel and is held in place by a beehive retainer spring. piieat) J PISTON RIVET SET q Figure 2.48: Rivet gun 7 Countersink gun set The countersink gun set is made to fit on the 7 driven end of any size flush head rivet. A il beehive retainer spring will not fit over the gun set retainer ring of the countersink gun set. It uses a specially constructed retainer spring. Figure 2.49 pictures both types of retainer springs. The retainer ring, located in the middle q of the gun set, holds the retainer spring as it is td threaded onto the gun barrel and prevents the oe gun set from accidentally flying off. The rivet gun pe a should never be fired if the gun set is not held in nen PROTRUDNG oun place by the retaining spring. fae eee = . | 2.60 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts fae eee TTS Integrated Training System Pieced anwar © Copyright 2010 cnoageattis craterIntegrated Training System Designedin sbeorcon with the clubspr0.com question pracon et ¢ igure 2.49: Gun set retaining springs Rivet Cutters Rivet cutters are used to cut rivets to size prior to driving, The rivet cutter has a stack of {7 thickness gauges which are used to determine the correct rivet length by measuring the space Li between the rivet head and the cutting edge (figure 2.50). When rivet cutters are not available, the rivets can be cut to size using a pair of diagonal cutting pliers. The rivet is cut by squeezing together the two rotating plates connected to the cutter handles. : RIVET SHANK } ‘CUTTING HOLES i SPACER az Locknur LC il I Cc RIVET LENGTH ‘SPACERS, Figure 2.50: Rivet cutters (T1 ead eee Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.61 to TTS iat ening Syston n connateIntegrated Training System Designed in association wth the &ub66po.com qeton prance aid Bucking Bars Bucking bars are tools used to form shop heads on solid-shank rivets during installation. Bucking bars are available in many sizes, shapes and weights. An assortment of bucking bars is illustrated in figure 2.51. When installing rivets, itis important to remember that the bucking bar weight should correspond to the diameter of the rivet being driven (figure SntennS ST 1000-2 ST 1000-3 4 2.52). z The face of the bucking bar is smooth and (P i: wa Ss 5 must be protected from any nicks or scars YH fe oY | which can affect the proper shaping of the driven head. Damaged bucking barfaces st 1000-4 sT1000-5 ST 1000-8 ST 1000-7 can be filed and then smoothed using oil ! sT1000-8 $7 1000-9 sT1000-10 MISCELLANEOUS BUCKING BARS CHANNEL a AR, SHpAR THE SPAR JAR FLATTENER 1 - q J 2 Y jl 7 - rt ‘s BOTTLE Figure 2.51: Various bucking bars Baa ‘$7 1000-4002-2 vl 7 2.62 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts Une anc Gsonurete ; TTS Integrated Training System cette tet ight 2010, page orca oooot eas} c € oe Integrated Training System Desired in exten win he cubsepercon aanbonpocios RIVET —DRILL— CLECO—BUCKING BARS — MINIMUMS. RIVET BUCKING |; MINIMUM | MINIMUM DIAMETER | DIAMETER | DRILL | oversize | DAIL | cLeco | BAR Rivet | EDGE OF AIVET | DECIMAL | DECIMAL | OFDRILL | NUMBER | COLOR | WEIGHT | PITCH Dist. 3/32 0997 0980 9043 40 | suver | 231s. 9/92, ers, 18 125 1285 0035 30 | COPPER | 341bs. ove 28 5/32 15625 1590 0028 a |Back | 345i. | 15/92 10/32 316 1875 1910 9035 1 | Gow | 45ibs. 916 oe va 250 2570 007 F | GREEN | 56.5ibs. wa 24 NOTE: ALCOA CLAIMS THAT A RIVET SHOULD FIT AS TIGHT AS POSSIBLE BEFORE DRIVING, ESPECIALLY THOSE. RIVETS OF HARDER ALLOY. THE HOLE CLEARANCES LISTED ABOVE ARE THE RECOMMENDED SIZES USED IN THE FIELD. Figure 2.52: Rivet information chart Solid Riveting Procedure (Snap Head) a) b) °) Mark out rivet positions using pencil on light alloys and centre pop centre of rivet position, drill the holes to the correct clearance size. Clean the joining surfaces removing all burrs from the drilled holes. It may be a requirement to put a jointing compound between the surfaces to reduce the possibility of corrosion. To prevent movement during riveting join the surfaces together temporarily using skin or sheet grip pins at regular intervals along the joint. Figure 2.53: Sheet grip pins Insert the correct length of rivet, support the head in the dolly and place the set over the rivet shank. Lightly tap the set to draw the sheets of metal close together and bring the pre-formed head hard against the metal sheet. e) Remove the set and strike the rivet centrally to spread the rivet shank in the hole. 1) Using the snap, form the second head of the rivet to the correct shape. ete cece Module 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts 2.63 boa a sid amie ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘©Copyright 2070Integrated Training System Designed in association with the I ‘elub6Gpro.com question practice aid 7) 5 | Setup e == + botty | Dotly | sae) Lo 5 } ‘Support head Set up ‘Swell shank Form head + Figure 2.54: Rivet procedure using snap Solid Riveting Procedure (Reaction) ‘ This is a rapid method of solid riveting used in setting rivets in light metal structures. In this process, the pre-formed head of the rivet receives the blows via a snap. The other endof the rivet being supported by a flat and smooth block (dolly). The impact of the hammer drives the head of the rivet again the metal sheets and atthesame | time the rivet shank is spread into a “cheose-head” by the reaction of the metal block. q ot cae co 4 vl 2.64 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts eee ‘TTS Integrated Training Syston serenadty rennet Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in associalon wth tho ‘lub66pro.com question prastoe afd Gee oe ¢ c oe IMPROPER FIT ¢ PROPER FIT Figure 2.55: The radius of the cup of the rivet must be slightly larger than the radius of the rivet head. Also shown is a selection of rivet sets. u C Heat Treatment Duralumin Rivets ‘Owing to their age-hardening properties, duralumin rivets must be heat treated. They must be used within two hours of this treatment unless they have been kept in cold storage. Immediate cold storage after solution heat treatment retards duralumin’s age hardening property. On removal from cold storage, the rivets must be used within the two hour period previously specified. | eae econ Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts, 2.65 Sipaead nectar ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010tan aan System ‘uodpro.com cuss rates ld Formed Rivet Dimensions RECOMMENOED UPSET Sheree ARE, 1.50 WIDE, 5D HIGH, NEVER FLATTE! e FOR THIN SKINNED AAGRAFT IDEO UPSET DIMENSIONS ARE 4.33 * DIA. WIDE AND .66 x OIA, HIGI COUNTERSUNK RIVETS ARE DRIVEN TO THE SAME UP-GET DIMENSION AS UNIVERSAL HEAD RIVETS Figure 2.56: Formed rivet tail dimensions 2.66 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts TTS Integrated Tralning System ©Copyright 2070 evmacby the slenertIntegrated Training System Designed in ascocition with the ‘lub66pr0.com question practice 6 *) Rivet Faults \5 Before commencing any type of riveting job, the operator should whenever possible, make a “dummy run” by forming rivets in some spare piece of metal of corresponding thickness. The main causes of faulty riveting are as follows: Tj a) Excessive or insufficient shank allowance. u b) Rivet holes not drilled straight or drilled to wrong size. ‘ c) Rivet holes out of line on separate plates. [) @)__ Surface of metal not drawn up together, possibly due to burrs around the dil holes. ) Wrong size of dolly or snap used, thus damaging the metal surface or forming a bad rivet head. qi f) Rives not fling rivet holes correctly because initial hammer blows on the tail of the u rivet have not swollen the shank. Q CuNCHED ‘SPREAD « BUCKTAIL SCARRED A. SMILE ONMFG HEAD BUCKTAIL HEAD TOOFLAT MFG.HEAD —_B. SLANTED BUCKTAIL 4 L)poonsuckncBAR MATERIAL ToONARO —_ovERDaIven __SEMOVEDGUNSET A TPEDGUN SET eae WHILEFORMING © GUNADJ. TOOHIGH Too Ss00N BARDS! fi CRACKED Ppl ies ‘TENSION HEAD MISCROSHAVING I 3) HEADS FLAT & BINDING oni.eo¢ out TipPED vs, WORKED WHILE ’ DRIVEN eee meniOPEALY Figure 2.57: Rivet faults r 0 ewe gceias Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.67 Ripmeed mater ‘TTS integrated Training System i Conyraht 2010Integrated Training System oe Designed in association wih the cseepro.cam question racice aid Removal of Rivets. oy Procedure a) File a flat on the pre-formed (markers) head of the rivet. The pre-formed head is more symmetrical about the shank than the formed head. b) Mark the centre with a centre punch 7 ©) Drill through the head with a drill of the same diameter of the rivet shank and to a depth slightly less than the thickness of the rivet head, and then carefully chip off the head with a small flat chisel. 4 4) Support the work locally to prevent buckling of the plate on fitting and drive out the rivet.) with a parallel pin punch slightly smaller than the rivet shank. If any rivet hole is found to be enlarged as indicated by a loose rivet, or shows signs of oracks around the edges, or a hole is enlarged during the drilling out operations for rivet removal prior to repairs, the repair information in the relevant aircraft repair manual usually contains A authorisation for the hole to be enlarged up to 1/32" more than the existing rivet holes, they ‘ must be carefully reamed to required size, ensuring that all cracks are removed for edges of holes, Centre-pop and drill pre- | Drill of same size q as rivet shank u Damaged head supported by dolly Figure 2.58: Removal of snap-head rivet 2.68 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts feat ‘TTS tarate Tealnng Systern cenenachybesoret sommes etreeea ue ry Lu paeya Wee eeet (a Integrated Training System Designed in association wih tha ‘lubé6pre.com question practoa aid Riveted Joints Introduction In considering a typical joint it should be understood that the plate resists shear, bearing and tensile loads while the rivet resists shear and bearing loads only. At no time should the rivets be in tension as this tends to burst them apart with a load they are not designed to withstand. Strength of Joints The factors that gover the strength of a joint are: a) Plate specification. This will be of such a material and gauge as to successfully withstand tensile and bearing loads. b) Rivet specification. This will be selected to withstand shear loads. In cases where the specification of the rivet is not given, use a rivet of the same material as the plate, with a diameter of 3 x T where T is the thickness of one of the sheets. c) Rivet pitch. This is important as too great a pitch will result in insufficient rivets to take the shear loads and too small pitch will result in lowering the resistance of the plate to tensile loads. Types of Rivet Spacing a) Single Chain - used chiefly on attachment and lightly stressed joints. 20 Figure 2.59: Single row rivet spacing and land ama ar Module 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts 2.69 Seed teen “T78 Inegrated Training System © Copyright 2010Integrated Training System = Designed in association wit the lsboepocom poston pace ald Wi b) Multiple Chain - used on watertight joints and in places of high stress, where thick ~ gauge plate is used. | ui a | Figure 2.60: Multiple chain rivet spacings ©) Staggered Riveting - used as an alternative to Multiple Chain in watertight joints, circular patches, etc. a I 2D, 4 4 5 Figure 2.61: Staggered riveting spacings 2.70 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts : TTS integrated Tiaring Systm ooeratbr essere © Copyig 20°0, orIntegrated Training System Designed in associaion with the ‘lubéEpro com question practice aid (Types of Joints a) Lap Joint - used in places where stress is not particularly high and where flush surfaces t are not required. A disadvantage is that the loads are not directly opposite one another u and therefore not truly axial. A u n Figure 2.62: Lap joint b) The Joggled Lap Joint - the under plate is joggled to preserve the continuity of the n upper surface. This provides a flush surface but as in the previous joint, the load is not uu truly axial. - | i poe OK u ( vB i fi aa Figure 2.63: Joggled lap join m a n u ie) C nm at cena Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts 2.71 ovomedoy avatar rpms mecca ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with the ceubero.cam question pracve aid ce) The Butt Joint - single strap, used on flush surfaces where stress is encountered, requiring the use of heavy gauge plate. Figure 2.64: Single strap but joint The butt joint - double strap, used in places of very high stress, where strength is more important than streamlining. Figure 2.65: Double strap but joint 2.72 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts se andor aacsunis ‘TTS integrated Training System sonal tarot © Copyright 2010 ‘cpap escnape wc Bee J Ee eeeCare te Cae —) ea cht c rn ‘ to co ¢ 4 | is) 1 ius Het Integrated Training System Designain assoriaion wth tho ‘lub6spr@ om question protic ad Faying Surfaces The faying surfaces are those surfaces of the plate that lie in contact with each other. All joints have faying surfaces and theses must be treated as laid down in current instructions. On normal joints where only structural considerations are involved the surfaces are insulated with suitable jointing compound, such as pigmented vamish or by zinc shims. This is absolutely essential if dissimilar metals are in contact, otherwise rapid corrosion of the parts will result. (On watertight or airtight joints the faying surfaces must be separated by a cotton strip impregnated with jointing compound, to ensure the joint is water tight. To make a good joint care must be taken when preparing the plates to ensure that there are no gaps in the faying surfaces. Guide to Rivet Pitch and Position It should be understood that when working to a repair scheme as laid down in the particular aircraft repair manual, the rivet pitches and positions given there must be strictly adhered to even if they conflict with one or more of the following statements: The rivet pitch of a joint will depend on the function to be performed by that joint. The rivet pitch is the distance between each rivet. a) If it is merely an attachment joint, then the pitch will be 8-10D. b) Joints subjected to high stress, the pitch should not be more than 4D and under no circumstances less than 3D. ©) Rivets should never be placed nearer than 2D from the edge of a plate. The land. d) The distance between adjacent rows of rivets should be 3- 4D. The spacing arse sens Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.73 ‘Sage? di hte ‘TTS integrated Tiining System © Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe ‘lubéepro.com question practice ald id + Intentionally Blank Sete J ae ) ae ere i 2.74 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts eneteadstd “TTS Integrate Tralning System corona ete ©Copyright 2010 ‘ope toberom 7 i = | u Integrated Training System Designod in azzociaion wth the ctubsépro.com question practice elt Bolting Maintenance accesses, replaceable and movable structural parts are normally attached by bolts. Boltings are non permanent fasteners. This is necessary in order to perform periodic inspections and maintenance work. The replacement of parts and system components also require the use of non permanent fasteners. Some examples are: Bolts and Nuts Screws Studs and Inserts Pins Clamps Bayonet Fittings eee eee Bolted joints are one of the most common elements in aircraft construction design. They consist of cap screws or studs that capture and join other parts, and are secured with the mating of screw threads. There are two main types of bolted joint designs. In one method the bolt is tightened to a calculated clamp load, usually by applying a measured torque load. The joint will be designed such that the clamp load is never overcome by the forces acting on the joint (and therefore the joined parts see no relative motion). The other type of bolted joint does not have a designed clamp load but relies on the shear ‘strength of the bolt shaft. This may include clevis linkages, joints that can move, and joints that rely on locking mechanism (like lock washers, thread adhesives, and lock nuts). Wy] I a) b) °) Figure 2.66: Three types of joint a) Bolted Joint, b) Screw joint, c) Stud joint sane accent Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts 2.75 foe Sroaeod nsec ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with tho cubdbpro.com queeton practice ald The clamp load, also called preload, of a cap screw is created when a torque is applied, and is generally a percentage of the cap screw’s proof strength. Cap screws are manufactured to various standards that define, among other things, their strength and clamp load, Torque charts are available that identify the required torque for cap screws based on their property class or grade. When a cap screw is tightened itis stretched, and the parts that are captured are compressed. The result is a spring-like assembly. External forces are designed to act on the parts that have been compressed, and not on the cap screw. The result is a non-intuitive distribution of strain; in this engineering model, as long as the forces acting on the compressed parts do not exceed the clamp load, the cap screw does not see any increased load. This model is only valid when the members under compression are much stiffer than the capscrew. This is a simplified model. In realty the bolt will see a small fraction of the external load prior to it exceeding the clamp load, depending on the compressed parts' stiffness with respect to the hardware's stiffness. The results of this type of joint design are: + Greater preloads in bolted joints reduce the fatigue loading of the hardware. + For cyclic loads, the bolt does not see the full amplitude of the load. As a result, fatigue life can be increased or, if the material exhibits an endurance limit, extended indefinitely. + As long as the external loads on a joint don't exceed the clamp load, the hardware doesn't see any motion and will not come loose (no locking mechanisms are required) In the case of the compressed member being less stiff than the hardware (soft, compressed gaskets for example) this analogy doesn't hold true. The load seen by the hardware is the preload plus the extemal load. In some applications joints are designed so that the screw or bolt will intentionally fail before more expensive components. In this case replacing an existing fastener with a higher strength fastener can result in equipment damage. Thus it is generally good practice to replace fasteners with the same grade originally installed. Torque Setting of Bolted Joints Engineered joints require the torque to be accurately set. Setting the torque for cap screws is commonly achieved using a torque wrench. The required torque value for a particular screw application may be quoted in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual or defined by the manufacturer. The clamp load produced during tightening is higher than 75% of the fastener's proof load. To achieve the benefits of the pre-loading, the clamping force in the screw must be higher than the joint separation load. For some joints a number of screws are required to secure the joint, these are all hand tightened before the final torque is applied to ensure an even joint seating. 2.76 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts pce TS Integrated Training System eqcray te sset © Copyright 2010 ae ete oa aes | ee BEE ee aaa | | eee ceia i t (sae) ee C fy ee Integrated Training System Designed in ebsocain wth the ‘ub66pre.com question pace ld The torque value is dependent on the friction between the threads and beneath the bolt or nut head, this friction can be affected by the application of a lubricant or any plating (e.g. cadmium or zinc) applied to the screw threads. The screw standard will define whether the torque value is for a dry or lubricated screw thread. If a screw is torqued rather than the nut then the torque value should be increase] to compensate for the additional friction - screws should only be torqued if they are fitted in clearance holes, Lubrication can reduce the torque value by 15 — 25%, so lubricating a screw designed to be torqued dry could over tighten it. Over tightening may cause the bott to fail, it could damage the screw thread or stretch the bolt. A bolt stretched beyond its elastic limit may no longer adequately clamp the joint. Torque wrenches do not give a direct measurement of the clamping force in the screw - much of the force applied is lost in overcoming friction, Factors affecting the tightening friction: dirt, surface finish, lubrication, etc. can result in a deviation in the clamping force. More accurate methods for setting the screw clamping force rely on defining or measuring the bolt extension. The screw extension can be defined by measuring the angular rotation of the screw (tum of the nut method) which gives a screw extension based on thread pitch. Measuring the screw extension directly allows the clamping force to be very accurately calculated. This can be achieved using a dial test indicator, reading deflection at the bolt tail, using a strain gauge or ultrasonic length measurement. There is no simple method to measure the tension of a bolt already in place other than to tighten it and identify at which point the bolt starts moving. This is known as re-torqueing. An electronic torque wrench is used on the bolt under test, and the torque applied is constantly measured. When the bolt starts moving (tightening) the torque briefly drops sharply - this drop- off point is considered the measure of tension. Failure Modes of Bolted Joints The most common mode of failure is overloading. Operating forces of the application produce loads that exceed the clamp load and the joint works itself loose, or fails catastrophically. Over torquing will cause failure by damaging the threads and deforming the hardware, the failure might not occur until long afterward. Under torquing can cause failures by allowing a joint to come loose. It may also allow the joint to flex and thus fail under fatigue. Brinelling may occur with poor quality washers, leading to a loss of clamp load and failure of the Joint. Corrosion, embedment and exceeding the shear stress limit are other modes of failure. Bolted joints may be used intentionally as sacrificial parts, intending to fail before other parts, as. ina shear pin. Vans cena Module 11.2 Airftame Structures ~ General Concepts 277 orpege del Nechape: TTS Integrated Training System ‘©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in assacaion withthe ‘hubsopro.com question practice eid J Intentionally Blank. i J = 2 eee J 2.78 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts torearaea TTS Integrated Training System cone © Copyright 2010 )Integrated Training System Designedin seacaon with the clubBgr.com questo pactee et Bonding On more and more aircraft, bonding is also used to attach stringers, stiffener, etc. to structure ‘skin. Lightweight materials can often be used with adhesive bonding rather than with conventional fastening, simply because the uniform stress distribution in the joint permits full utilization of the strength and rigidity of the adherents. Payloads in aircraft can be increased. The following are possible advantages of properly designed adhesive bonded joints: * Adhesive bonds provide airtight joints. * Electrochemical corrosion is reduced or laminated. In a bonded joint adhesives are electrically insulated from each other; there are no holes to expose base metal, and cladding, anodize and other corrosion protection surfaces are not destroyed. Higher fatigue life of joints may possibly allow reduced sheet gauges. Residual strength of damaged structure, which is adhesively bonded, can be large. Ina laminated panel, cracks may grow for some time in only one layer; in stiffened panels, cracks may grow more slowly across a bonded area than across a rivet line. * Aerodynamic surface smoothness of adhesively bonded structure is excellent. Adhesively bonded joint may suffer from the following limitations: Assembly may be more expensive than for conventional joints. Very extensive process control over the entire bonding procedure is required. Curing temperatures of some adhesives may degrade other components. Service degradation of bonds is difficult to check. Bonded joints shall not be used in any application in which a complete bond failure or obvious partial failure could cause loss of the aircraft. Bonded joints shall be classified for structural application as follows as a ‘means for designating levels and types of inspection and peel strength requirements. ees Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts 2.79 RRooed macrer ‘TTS integrated Training System (© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe ciubéépro.com question practice aid KB A i Honey 3 comb yn a Adhesive 7 Figure 2.67: Bonded Structure 0 Bonded Joint Design In practice, bonded structures must sustain a combination of forces. For maximum strength, loading stresses should be directed along the lines of the adhesive's greatest strength. =o Cleavage and peel stresses should be avoided. Moreover, the type of substrate, its thickness, and the adhesive must be analyzed for the optimum area of overlap. Joints can compensate for a variety of mechanical stresses, minimize stress concentrations on the bondline, and optimize the characteristics of the substrates being bonded. Lap joints, a simple layer on layer, are generally strongest. The length of an overlap increases strength but by decreasing amounts. Increasing the width of the overlap produces a proportional increase in strength. Most data on adhesive lap shear and peel strengths is based on simple lap joints made on aluminium-alloy substrates. But many other joint designs are successful. For example, metals such as mild steel are often bent or folded to form durable joints. Sheets that cannot be bent or folded can be bonded together using profiles (a connection method) designed for the application. For instance, tapering the edges of a stiffener reduces high-stress concentrations caused by abrupt sectional changes. Large, thin sheets of metal and plastic are reinforced by bonding on stiffeners made of the same <) material in a similar gauge. For instance, a "top-hat" stiffener (the oross section resembles a top hat) can be tapered al the edge of the sheet to perform like a scart joint for maximum strength. 7 2.80 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts sander ceca ‘TTS Integrated Training System scored ©Copyright 2010 isch feastIntegrated Training System L Dssigneinsbeccicon th tho j ctub6spro.c0m question practce aid {} (A.scarf joint is made by tapering substrate surfaces to produce a longer or larger bonding area Li that adds strength to the assembly.) {1 The long-term performance of bonded assemblies also depends on the adhesive and substrate, bondline thickness, and service conditions. The most widely used adhesives in bonded ‘structures include: i Types of Bonding Agent () Epoxies. These form extremely strong, durable bonds on most substrates including metals, \U igid plastics, composites, ceramics, and glass. Epoxies are available with different physical characteristics. These low-shrinkage materials stand up to challenging conditions with good {7 solvent and chemical resistance. u a Polyurethanes produce strong, resilient joints that resist impact and abrasion. They are room- C temperature curable and maintain good flexibility even at temperatures to OF. Polyurethane adhesives are well suited for bonding thermoplastics and assembling dissimilar || materials. They typically require little or no surface preparation, resist sagging, and apply easily \ from dual cartridge dispensing systems, C Polyurethanes are well suited for projects such as multi-component ABS housing for a personal vehicle and the assembly of aircraft tray tables. [onthe downside, polyurethanes cannot handle temperatures above 250. And a few \ polyurethanes weather poorly. Uncured materials have some toxicity, crystallize when wet, and poly (can be attacked by solvents. ‘~ Methacrylate adhesives are fast curing and tough. They have epoxy-like strength and produce > _ long-lasting bonds on thermoplastics including ABS, polycarbonate, thermoset composites, as. |, well as metals, ceramics, and glass. And methacrylates can withstand environmental extremes. Design considerations After selecting an adhesive and identifying service conditions, there are few decisions to make regarding the bondline and surface prep. The adhesive, how it's applied, and bondline thickness . _ affect bond performance. Making the bondline thicker reduces stress by absorbing more load || when the adhesive is more flexible than the substrate. Toughened adhesives like polyurethanes, for example, maintain more strength in thicker bondlines than rigid adhesives such as epoxies. An optimum bondline thickness generally falls between 0.004 and 0.01 in. Between 0,02 and 0.04 in., adhesive strength drops. Shear strength is relatively constant in thicknesses greater than 0.04 in, The tensile tests of simple epoxy-adhesive lap joints show a maximum load of about 1,885 psi. For thicker bondlines, adding fillers to an adhesive lets it fill gaps better. Propeller blades, for ‘example, require a specially formulated epoxy for high-strength joints on blade shells. pet se ete datos Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.81 groomed) tomer ad ‘TTS integrated Traning Syston ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe flubBSpro.cem question practice ai Surface Preparation of Bonded Joints Surface preparation is critical to the bond. The four levels of pre-treatment (from least to most effective) include a dry wipe, degreasing, degreasing followed by abrasion (sanding or sand blasting) and removal of loose particles, and finally degreasing with a chemical treatment. Dry wiping with clean, lint-free cloth removes loose particles and dust. A few polyurethanes and methacrylates have been formulated for this minimal pre-treatment on specific substrates. Degreasing removes all traces of oil and grease. Methods include suspending the surfaces in solvent in a vapour-degreasing unit. Washing and rinsing in separate tanks of the same solvent also works. Technicians can brush or wipe the material with a clean brush or lint-free cloth soaked in a clean commercial degreasing solvent. An additional degreasing process scrubs the surface in a solution of liquid detergent and rinses with clean, hot water, although steam drying is preferable. The best degreasing method uses an alkaline agent following manufacturer's instructions, or with ultrasonic equipment. Abrading surfaces lightly produces stronger bonds than joining polished surfaces. Sandpaper, a wire brush, or for maximum effectiveness, grit blasting works well. When abrading, the substrate must then be degreased or cleaned using dry and filtered compressed air. Chemical pre-treatment improves adhesion. Specific treatments are selected based on substrates, Metals can be acid etched to remove scale. Typical pre-treatments include chromic acid for aluminium, sulphuric acid for stainless steel, and nitric acid for copper. Metals are also cleaned by anodizing or priming, Chemical pre-treatment for thermosetting plastics include using a solvent such as acetone or methyl ethyl ketone. Thermoplastics are the most difficult substrates to join and pre-treatment is determined by the grade of plastic and moulding process that formed the substrates. Bonding should proceed as soon as possible after surfaces are cleaned and pre-treated. To ensure reliable adhesion, accurately weigh the resin and hardener, mix them for 3 min, and apply in a controlled thickness. Once applied, jigs or other fixtures prevent bonded surfaces from moving during curing. Fixing requires only light pressure, but it should be applied as evenly as possible over the bonded area. Finally, follow curing temperatures and times recommended by manufacturers. Bonded Joint Strength and Testing Adhesives are strongest when exposed to shear, compression, and tension stresses. They perform less effectively under peel and cleavage loading. In shear stress, force is applied parallel to the plane of the substrates and distributed over the bonded area to minimize its affect on joint strength. Compression stress applies force perpendicular to the substrate surfaces and toward the bond line. This type of stress is limited and calls for use of a resilient adhesive. Tension stress applies force perpendicular to the substrate surface and away from the bond line. Peel stress produces a loading at either 90 or 180°to the plane of the bondline, and represents the most severe challenge that can be placed on an adhesive. Cleavage stress is also hard on adhesive joints. Its prying forces are exerted 2.82 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts, ine ant acon TTS integrated Training System oometave sess © Copyright 2010 eee eee eemI t Co tt co om mn rn oS Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe ‘lubéépro.com question practca sid perpendicular and away from the plane of the bond line. Cleavage stress typically is concentrated on one edge. ova) fe oront paged ine ner Figure 2.68: Bonded joint stress types Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts 2.83 ‘TTS Integrated Treining System © Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association wih the csupra.cam question practice ald Intentionally Blank 2.84 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2010 evomedby te sateen: ‘oneal ie case eee a a ae !ie co feo eee ca co co co | u {cast oe Integrated Training System Dcigndin stele win he club66pr0.com question practice aid Surface Protection Many different surface protection methods are applied on aircraft structures, because of the variety of materials used. The processes of surface treatments, more formally surface engineering, tailor the surfaces of engineering materials to: Control friction and wear Improve corrosion resistance Change physical property, e.g., conductivity, resistivity, and reflection Alter dimension Vary appearance, e.g., colour and roughness Ultimately, the functions and/or service lives of the materials can be improved. Common surface treatments can be divided into two major categories: treatments that cover the surfaces and treatments that alter the surfaces. ‘* Inorganic Coatings: The inorganic coatings perform electroplating, autocatalytic platings {electroless platings), conversion coatings, thermal sprayings, hot dippings, hardfacings, furnace fusings, or coat thin films, glass, ceramics on the surfaces of the materials. * Organic Coatings: The organic coatings apply paints, cements, laminates, fused powders, lubricants, or floor toppings on the surfaces of materials. + Water Displacing Fluids: this are wax based Super penetrating, water displacing, heavy- duty, corrosion inhibiting compound. Forms a tack-free, more or less firm film which depends on the type. Some examples are Dinitrol AV8, AV15, AV3O, etc. Surface Cleaning: the most fundamental and important rule for corrosion control is to keep the aircraft clean. When itis clean and free of grease and dirt, there is nothing to hold the corrosion-forming moisture in contact with the aluminium alloy surface. Also, a clean aircraft is easy to inspect for the first indication of corrosion. Inorganic Coatings Electroplating Electroplating is an electrochemical process by which metal is deposited on a substrate by passing a current through the bath. Usually there is an anode (positively charged electrode), which is the source of the material to be deposited; the electrochemistry which is the medium through which metal ions are exchanged and transferred to the substrate to be coated; and a cathode which is the substrate (the negatively charged electrode) to be coated. Plating is done in a plating bath which is usually a non-metallic tank (usually plastic). The tank is {filled with electrolyte which has the metal, to be plated, in ionic form. amen Module 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts 2.85 Sreege 2 scrap ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System we Designed in association vith the lub68pr0:com question practice eid Electrolysis The anode is connected to the positive terminal of the power supply. The anode is usually the metal to be plated (assuming that the metal will corrode in the electrolyte). For ease of operation, the metal is in the form of nuggets and placed in an inert metal basket made out non- corroding metal (such as titanium or stainless stee)). The cathode is the workpiece, the substrate to be plated. This is connected to the negative terminal of the power supply. The power supply is well regulated to minimize ripples as well to deliver a steady predictable current, under varying loads such as those found in plating tanks. As the current is applied, positive metal ions from the solution are attracted to the negatively charged cathode and deposit on the cathode. As replenishment for these deposited ions, the metal from the anode is dissolved and goes into the solution and balances the ionic potential. In the case of materials such as gold, the anode is not sacrificial (gold does not dissolve easily!), but it is made out of material that does not dissolve in the electrolyte, such as titanium. The deposited gold comes out of the solution. Plating is an oxidation-reduction reaction, where one material gives up electrons (gets oxidized) and the other material gains electrons (gets reduced). The anode is the electrode at which oxidation occurs, and the cathode is the electrode at which reduction occurs. Figure 2.69: Electrolysis Bath Hydrogen Embrittlement Hydrogen is released at the cathode in any electrolysis process, and the cathode is the job being plated. This can lead to a problem called hydrogen embrittlement due to some of the hydrogen being absorbed into the surface of the metal, This is particularly the case with the very high tensile steels, used in undercarriage parts. As a result the metal becomes very brittle after a period in service resulting in the risk of cracking. Special plating processes and stress relieving heat treatments are required for these steels - or better still processes not involving electrolysis. 2.86 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts (ereaarboaa TTS Integrated Training System crore e tet © Copyright 2010 oro lia epee oj ieee eee a 4 seco re cad See: oo aot in uu ee Integrated Training System 4 Deegndin ation wine cusp com gear oes Electroless Plating Autocatalytic plating, also known as electroless plating, is a plating process which involves deposition without any current applied. The process is a chemical reaction and is autocatalytic. The deposition rate is normally 12.5 - 25 jim (0.0005 - 0.001 in). Although, it has been done up to 650 Lim (0.026 in) in thickness, the coating is usually less than 50 um (0.002 in) in practice due to the slow deposition rate. The plating thickness tends to be uniform compared to electroplating due to the absence of electric fields and the associated problems in making them uniform. Typically nickel and copper are used in electroless platings. In the case of nickel, the deposits are dense, relatively hard (43 - 55 HRC, increase to 65 HRC after 2 hr. at 343 T (650 F) and brittle. Electroless Nickel is not as bright as electro-plated, easy to solder and braze, but difficult to weld. For aircraft parts aluminium is extensively used. It forms a non-porous film, which affords high protection once painted. Combustion chambers may also be spray coated with aluminium. The metal to be sprayed is fed into a special spray gun as a wire or powder, and is melted in the gun. Compressed air is fed into the gun to atomize the metal and to blow it onto the surface to be treated in the form of tiny globules. Careful control of the spraying operation ensures a thick even plating. Thermal Spraying Processes Popular in the 1990s, thermal spraying processes form a continuous coating by melting the consumable material (target) into droplets and impinging these droplets on the substrate. The mechanism of bonding to surface in thermal sprayings is the same as platings, both mechanical interlocking and atomic interaction, with the shear strength around 7 MPa (10 PSI). The thickness of the coatings may range from 25 um to 2.5 mm (0.001 - 0.1 in). In practice, the thermal sprayings are capable of competing with platings and paintings for atmospheric cottosion resistance. The thickness of the coating can be built up by successive operations. Old coatings can be removed and new ones applied so that wom out components can be recovered. Used extensively on compressor and impeller blades, and on parts of pumps and hydraulic motors. Some common thermal spraying processes, including Flame Spraying (FLSP), Plasma Arc Spraying (PSP), Electric Arc Spraying (EASP), Detonation Gun (d-Gun), and High-velocity Oxy/Fuel (HVOF), are briefly discussed as follows: Flame Spraying (FLSP): FLSP was the first thermal spraying process, It uses a 27600 (000 F) oxyacetylene flame to melt the targets wh ich may be powders, rods, or wires. Plasma Arc Spraying (PSP): Similar to flame spraying, PSP however produces 16,850 C (30,000 F) heat for melting powders and yet the surface temperature of the substrate rarely exceeds 150 C (300 F). PSP is th us more suitable for spraying ceramics on metals and thermoset plastics for building up dimensions or wear sare acs Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.87 govraaby he aaonont SSoasedl me crane ‘TTS integrated Training Systom ‘® Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association wim to a ‘lubbepro.com quesbon pacien als ] resistance. The coatings are usually denser, contain less porosity, and have better = adhesion than FLSP. a Electric Arc Spraying (EASP): EASP uses electric arc to melt the motor driven target wires. The melted droplets are then injected into the substrate surface by gas. Detonation Gun (d-Gun): D-Gun melts target powders in a gun by spark ignition of explosive gas. High-velocity Oxy/Fuel (HVOF): Executed in a combustion chamber, HVOF uses a oxygen, hydrogen, and a fuel gas, e.g., methane, to melt the target powder. Resulting in better control in working environment, the HVOF serve the same function as plasma spraying and often has better quality control. ae Dipping A suitable prepared component is immersed in a bath of molten metal and when withdrawn has = a coating of that metal. i Applicable mainly to plating low melting temperature metals onto components with much higher melting temperatures. ~ | Cladding Aluminium alloy sheet is commonly protected by the application of pure aluminium to both sides of the sheet, The aluminium is pressure rolled on and the heat generated welds the aluminium to the sheet. Any cut edges need to be protected against corrosion either by paint or by the jointing compound squeezed out during wet assembly ol Conversion Coatings Common conversion coatings processes are briefly discussed in this section, including oxide coatings, phosphate coatings, and chromate coatings. oo 7 Oxide Coatings: The oxide coatings are in fact corrosion products which are a thin, a usually less than 2.5 ym (.0001 in) oxide with good adhesion. The oxide treatments are done by heat, chemicals, or electrochemical reactions. 5 Gun-bluing-type oxidations are done by heating the metals, generally steel, at 370°C (700) in a steam atmosphere. An oiled gun bluing provides some atmospheric corrosion resistance, but little protection on wear and other corrosion. Chemical baths produce coatings similar to a gun bluing coating by immersion techniques. d nm mn | 7 2.88 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts eee eeAG TTS intograted Trtnng Systom conmesty osama ©Copyright 2010 emoage Zoltoe rae LaIntegrated Training System Designed in etsociaton with the bsp com queston practice aid u ie Black oxide treatments are done by proprietary chemicals. Some pastes can be rubbed ai on surfaces to produce similar results. Black oxide can be applied on steel, copper, and Pt most stainless steel. 7 Anodizing, Probably the most important treatment for aluminium alloys. It is produced by electrochemical conversion, The anodizing process, usually performed on aluminium for protection and cosmetic purposes, builds up both on the surface as well as into the metal. Thin coatings, 2 1m to 25 uum (100 ulin to 1000 in) can be coated on most aluminium. Thick coatings from 25 to 75 um (1000 to 3000 ulin) are more durable and abrasion resistant than above chemical conversion oxide coatings. This oxide layer can be made in different colours depending on the post chemistries that are employed. q The anodized parts are quite durable and do not tamish and maintain their cosmetic U appearance for a long period of time. Anodized coatings are usually dielectric in nature. n There are three different anodizing processes commonly used. They are the sulphuric u acid, chromic acid and hard anodizing methods. * Sulphuric Acid Anodizing (SAA): Is the most common process giving a deep, almost transparent, film of oxide and a good surface finish. et ‘The tank is often lead-lined steel, the lead forming the cathode. The electrolyte, as the u name implies, is a weak solution of sulphuric acid, which is heated and agitated. a ‘* Chromic Acid Anodizing (CAA): process uses a weak chromic acid solution, which u is less corrosive than sulphuric acid, and is only used for anodizing components, which involve folded or riveted joints or crevices in which the electrolyte could be trapped. 0 However it produces only a very thin oxide film and is therefore not recommended very ! often. o * Hard Anodizing: is a sulphuric acid process in which the electrolyte is maintained at a oe low temperature. It produces a hard, abrasion resistant, as well as corrosion resistant surface, but at the expense of some fatigue resistance and an increase in dimensions. It leaves a dark grey surface. Incidentally the phenomenon of dimensional increase is sometimes used to advantage during manufacture in order to recover a component in ; aluminium alloy which has been machined beyond its minimum metal condition, In tt these cases all other surfaces are masked before treatment. Phosphate Coatings: Phosphate coatings are processes of chemical conversion on a metal surface to produce thin adherent phosphate compound coatings. The phosphate crystals formed on the surfaces of materials can be iron, zinc, or manganese phosphates. Among these phosphates, manganese phosphate is more suitable for wear applications. Phosphate coatings are usually applied to carbon steel, low-alloy steel, and cast iron. They can also be applied to zinc, cadmium, aluminium, and tin. Phosphate processes are hard to apply on high alloys for these alloys are likely immune to the phosphoric acid. In short, phosphating is one of the most useful non-metallic coatings. emi ancoreate Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.89 shore homer TIS Integrated Training Sytem ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association vith the eluegpra om question practice Chromate Coatings: Chromate coatings, similar to phosphate coatings, are processes of chemical conversion. But the chromate coatings are formed by the reaction of water solutions of chromic acid or chromium salts. The coatings can be applied to aluminium, zinc, cadmium, and magnesium. The coatings usually have good atmospheric corrosion resistance. Chromate coatings are widely used in protecting common household products, such as screws, hinges, and many hardware items with the yellow-brown appearance. Chromates are used extensively as corrosion inhibitors and are generally yellow in colour. Commercial names of such products are: Alodine 1200, Iridite 14E, etc. Paint Systems for Aeroplane Structures One painting system uses Chromatin, to protect the base metal then a two pack epoxy or polyurethane primer and then a top coat of two pack polyurethane or epoxy finish. Another painting system uses wash primer (two pack - filiform corrosion resistant), followed by a two pack polyurethane or epoxy primer and then a two pack polyurethane or epoxy top coat. There are also different types of primer specifications for components that are ferrous or contain ferrous elements. Nowadays, high-tech paints are used that are more environmentally friendly. For example, paint containing no solvents. This lowers the VOC (Volatile Organic Components) emissions. The newer trial paints are based on two pack water based paints. However, the latest technology does not include paint at all, rather a film of self adhesive plastic (similar to placards) that is removable simply with hot soapy water. It is currently on test on an F-16 fighter in the USA. There are several methods of applying the paint; spraying, rolling, brushing and dipping. Spraying Would be used to cover a complete aircraft or large panels. Special equipment is required to blow the paint onto the surfaces. Spray guns are used; they have adjustable nozzles to vary the spray pattem for large or small jobs. The dust and over-spray that spraying produces requires specially prepared bays or hangers with adequate ventilation. Protective clothing, masks and goggles must be wom, Rolling Paint rolling is also used on large areas, it is less messy than spraying but as the paint is. applied more thickly a weight penalty is incurred. The paint is applied using a lambs-wool roller. Brushing and Dipping Brushing and dipping are used to cover smaill or inaccessible areas. Dipping will require the components to be removed from the aircraft. 2.90 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts ad ae TTS tnogited Training System sonar © Copysght 2010, oo a J q 1BeBe et Hee eee eee co eee foe iin C ca Gi u u u foot Integrated Training System Designed in association with tha ‘luDsepre.com question practice aid Alrbue ProTrestmant (Cromating (Aldine 1200) ‘2024 oF 7075 (CLAD) Figure 2.70: Examples of Painting Systems Water Displacing Fluids These can be used in two ways: * To provide additional protection over protected surfaces. ‘+ To protect unprotected surfaces. Although they can be readily removed by the use of solvents some are as durable and protective as paints and are intended to have a long life. Control cables, for instance, are often protected throughout their lfe in this way. This is wax based, super penetrating, water displacing, heavy-duty, corrosion inhibiting compound. Forms a tack-‘free, more or less firm film which depends on the type. Some examples are LPS-3, Dinitrol, AV8, AV15, AV0, etc. Applied as a coating to protect metals commonly used in airframe structures and in aerospace components, from corrosion. They can be used in all areas of the airframe on painted and unpainted surfaces. It combines good penetration properties with excellent corrosion inhibiting characteristics and a low applied film weight. The viscosity of these products is optimized to ensure an effective protective coating and to promote penetration into otherwise inaccessible areas of the airframe, seas ace Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.91 Rpoge tl beter TTS Integrated Training System ©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Doeigned in association with the chungéprecom question practice sit Remember to observe these general precautions: ‘None of these should be allowed to come into contact with Perspex or natural rubber. * Use the correct type for each application. 9 + Keep solvents and cleaning fluids away unless it is intended to remove the protective. j Ht sat u 5 y 2.92 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts Rotarian pee TS Integrated Training System opened einer ‘© Copyright 2010 osondl ieee saan u co co Se eee ei ee ta Cc cee et n ue Integrated Training System Designed in association wit the ‘lubé8pro.com question practice aid Aircraft Cleaning Before commencing cleaning operations all panels and covers should be in place and apertures sealed off. Thick mud, grease or oil should be removed by, first, hand scraping using wood or soft plastic scrapers and then lint-free cloth soaked in solvent. Care should be taken to avoid damage to paint or other anti-corrosive treatment. Cleaning should then be carried out using a recommended solvent. These solvents are usually used diluted in hot water. Application to the aircraft surface is best made with spraying ‘equipment but care should be taken to ensure that the solution does not become atomised. After allowing the solution to penetrate, the dirty surface should be washed thoroughly with clean water until all traces of the solution are removed. Care should be exercised when using water hoses or pressure washers for rinsing as too high a pressure may cause damage or ingress of moisture. Undiluted solvents should never be allowed to come into contact with acrylic windows, etc., as crazing is likely to ensue. In all cases the recommended solvent manufacturer's instructions should be adhered to. Re-lubrication of mechanical parts may be necessary after washing, and application onto sealed bearings, etc., should be avoided. Certain areas of an aircraft may become heavily contaminated by exhaust gas deposits, the areas varying with different types of aircraft. This contamination, if not removed, could cause severe corrosion and require expensive repairs. Stronger cleaners recommended for the particular aircraft or part should be used with extreme care. Dilution may be required with either water or white spirit and application can be made with a non-atomising spray. In all cases, the solvent manufacturer's instructions must be sirictly complied with. The solution, when applied, should be allowed to soak for a given period and care taken to avoid areas becoming dried out. After soaking, further application is usually required and agitation or scrubbing with a soft brush may be advantageous. Very thorough rinsing, preferably with clean warm water, is necessary. Painted surfaces as well as acrylic windows may become damaged f these stronger solutions are allowed to come into contact with them. Snow and Ice Chemical salts and other melting agents are often used on runways during the winter months. This slush will inevitably become splashed or sprayed onto the aircraft and could be detrimental. The contaminated areas should be washed down with clean water as soon as possible after exposure. The use of a wetting agent may prove helpful. Salt Air Operating Environments Aircraft operated in salt air marine environments will be more susceptible to associated detrimental effects caused by salt deposits and salt contaminant corrosion. Aircraft cleaning and protection programmes should be tailored accordingly for these operating environments and may include increased frequency of aircraft washing and lubrication procedures, engine compressor washing, etc, Acrylic Windows After aircraft washing, the windows should be washed with soap or a mild detergent in warm water. Polishing minor scratched surfaces may be accomplished with an approved plastics polish and finally finished with an anti-static polish or cloth. Danse decenrate Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.93 Grane 2e moan TTS Integrated Training System {© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with tho clubsopro.com question practice aid Radioactive Contamination This is usually confined to aircraft regularly flying above the stratosphere. Regular monitoring of high fiying aircraft with a Geiger counter should be made. Normal regular cleaning will in most cases keep contamination within acceptable limits. - After cleaning of windows has been completed, the aircraft should be inspected for signs of damage, deterioration of protective treatment, cracks, corrosion, etc. A careful check shouldbe ~ made to ensure that all blanks and sealing fitted have been removed and that cleaning ‘equipment such as rags, sponges, etc., are not left in the intakes, flying controls or other susceptible places. Vents and drain holes, etc., should be checked and cleared if necessary. = SEER eee HS 4 SEH tet eee J 2.94 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts Retaceeastied ‘TTS integrated Training System evened by ta satanent (© Copyright 2010 ooedcnecnrerIntegrated Training System Designed in association with tha ‘luDS6pr0.com question practice ald Aircraft Symmetry Checks Levelling the Aircraft The position or angle of main components is related to a longitudinal datum line parallel to the aircraft centre line and a lateral datum line parallel to a line joining the wing tips. Before these Li positions or angles are checked, the aircraft should (generally) be brought to the rigging position (i.e. with the lateral and longitudinal datum lines horizontal) by means of jacks or trestles, depending on the particular aircraft type, with the wheels just clear of the ground. o LONGITUDINAL DATUM PEGS LATERAL DATUM BRACKETS. rt ° G C t 7 ae LATERAL DATUM 0 u LONGITUDINAL DATUM an Figure 1.71: Datum Lines and Levelling Points {} ‘For the purpose of checking the level of smaller types of aircraft, fixed or portable datum pegs =; of blocks, on which can be rested a straight-edge and spirit level and which are generally [attached to the fuselage parallel to or co-incident with the datum lines, are used, although in some instances parts of the structure which run parallel with the datum lines (e.g. top longerons fr) Or canopy rails of some aircraft) may be utilised. A typical levelling arrangement is shown in U2 Figure 1.71. (7) Another method of levelling the aircraft is the ‘grid! method illustrated in Figure 1.72. The grid L! plate is a permanent fixture on the floor of the aircraft and, when the aircraft is to be levelled, a plumb bob is suspended from a predetermined position in the roof of the aircraft over the grid [7 _ Plate. The adjustments necessary to the iting gear to bring the aircraft to the level position are Li ewe saccgya Module 41.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.95 Srpage i ener ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Dosignsiin association wan the clubespro.com question practice at indicated by the grid scale, true level being obtained when the plumb bob is immediately over the centre point of the grid. RAISE STARBD JACK LOWER STARBD JACK RAISE NOSE JACK I ‘SCALE READING ONE UNIT PER INCH OF JACK MOVEMENT | Figure 1.72 Typical Grid Plate The method of bringing the aircraft to the rigging position depends largely on the size and type of aircraft and whether a nose wheel or tail wheel configuration applies. A level site capable of bearing the load to be applied should be selected for the operation otherwise, where trestles are used, it may not be possible to level the aircraft and where jacks are used, the danger of the jacks toppling and dropping the aircraft would exist. Rigging checks should not normally be undertaken in the open, but if this is unavoidable the aircraft should be positioned nose into wind. In any case the aircraft should not be lifted in strong winds or gusts. The weight and loading of the aircraft for the rigging check should be exactly as described in the manual or as quoted on the original rigging chart supplied by the manufacturer. Variations from this condition, especially in the case of larger aircraft, will prohibit a comparison with the original figures. In any case the aircraft should not be lifted until it is ensured that the maximum jacking weight (if any) specified by the manufacturer will not be exceeded. All equipment which may cause damage to the aircraft during the lifting operation should be moved away before lifting is commenced and no personnel other than those directly connected 2.96 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts ieaacaee ‘TTS integrated Training System nena teint {© Copyright 2010 Sine oe oJ ee Bae eee eee ee tanEe |Integrated Training System Dasignedin scciton nh the lubé6pr0.com queston practice ald 4 wit the rigging check should be permitted on or around the aircraft for the duration of the {1 complete operation. 77 For most aircraft the brakes should be OFF and the wheels chocked prior to lifting but for aircraft fitted with levered suspension undercarriage units the wheels should be left unchocked. Tail Wheel Aircraft The tail should be raised to an approximately level position by means of the appropriate jacks or adjustable trestle accurately positioned under the rear lifting position. Where single-engine | aircraft in particular are concerned, it may be necessary to weight down the tail to prevent the (aircraft nosing over due to the weight of the engine. This weight must not be allowed to swing but must touch the ground and be secured by a taut rope to that part of the aircraft specified by 7). the manufacturer. The appropriate jacks or adjustable trestles should be accurately positioned under the main (lifting points and the aircraft raised evenly by operating both jacks or trestle gears together until L. the wheels are just clear of the ground and the aircraft is in the (approximate) rigging position. [7 The lateral and longitudinal levels should be checked and adjusted as necessary by means of LL the lifting gear. Where hydraulic jacks are used, the locking devices provided must be applied immediately the aircraft has been correctly positioned and, to ensure the safety of personnel, at any time when the jack is not actually being operated during the lifting of the aircraft. If steady trestles are placed under the wings after the aircraft has been supported in the rigging position, it must be ensured that they are not in contact with the wings when incidence or dihedral checks are being made, that no adjustments are made to the lifting gear with the steady trestles in position and that the trestles are removed before any attempt is made to lower the aircraft. {esas ft Nose Wheel Aircraft The appropriate trestles or jacks should be accurately positioned under the main, nose and (if applicable) tail positions. The main and nose lifting gear should be operated simultaneously and evenly until the aircraft is just clear of the ground and the operation completed. pee eee Cc Rigging Checks Although the dihedral and incidence angles of conventional modem aircraft cannot be adjusted (with the possible exception of adjustable tallplanes) they should be checked at specified periods and after heavy landings or abnormal flight loads (see Module 7 Study Notes) to ensure that the components are not distorted and that the angles are within permitted limits. The relevant figures together with permitted tolerances are specified in the appropriate manual for the aircraft concemed, but the actual figures relevant to an individual aircraft are recorded in the. aircraft log book. cate The usual method of checking rigging angles is by the use of special boards (or the equivalent) in which are incorporated or on which can be placed an instrument for determining the angle, i.e. a spirit level or clinometer as appropriate. On a number of aircraft the rigging can be checked by means of sighting rods and a theodolite. Cc seen acosres Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.97 (evry a atert Sree 2s TTS Integrated Training System {© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association wih tha clubsopre.com question pracoe ald Sequence of Rigging Checks Assuitable sequence for checking the rigging is as follows; it is essential that the checks should be made at all the positions specified in the relevant manual. ‘* Wing dihedral angle(s) | © Wing incidence angle(s) ‘* Engine alignment 7 * Tailplane lateral level or dihedral © Tailplane incidence angle * Verticality of fin n © Symmetry check ! a 7 | 71 7 | 7 q 5 u Ay il (] 7 2.98 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts eect Trees raring Sytem "apagedt isc i7 poe mm cy rm Sete eee c eee @ Integrated Training System 1 Desgedinateion wt ho ‘lubs6pr0.com question practice ald Checking Aircraft with Rigging Boards Dihedral The dihedral angle should be checked in the specified positions with the special boards provided by the aircraft manufacturer or, if no such boards are provided, with a straight-edge and clinometer. The methods of checking with both types of board are shown in Figure 1.73. NOTE: Certain portions of the wings or tailplanes may sometimes be horizontal or, on rare occasions, anhedral angles may be present. SPECIAL DIHEDRAL BOARD WITH SPIRIT LEVEL INCORPORATED STRAIGHT EDGE AND ‘ADJUSTABLE LEVEL va Figure 1.73 Checking Dihedral Incidence The incidence |s usually checked in at least two specified positions, inboard and outboard, on the component to ensure that it is free from twist. a) There are a variety of types of incidence boards, some having stops at the forward edge which must be placed in contact with the leading edge of the wing, whilst others are provided with location pegs which fit into some specified part of the structure, but the main purpose in each case is to ensure the board is fitted in exactly the position intended and, if the rigging is correct, that a clinometer on the top of the board will register zero or within a permitted tolerance about zero. In most instances the boards are kept clear of the wing contour (so that the incidence check is not influenced by any irregularities which may occur in the contour) by means of short feet attached to the board. A typical wooden incidence board is shown in Figure 1.74 although, of course, some are manufactured of metal. b) It must be bome in mind that modifications in areas where incidence boards are located may affect results. For example, if leading-edge de-icing shoes were fitted this might seriously affect the position taken up by a board having a leading edge stop as shown in Figure 1.74. STRAIGHT EDGE AND ADIUSTABLE LEVEL |. INCIDENCE BOARD so | CHORD LINE ay acces Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.99 Simooed voce ‘TTS infograted Training System ©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System a ; Designed in easocation withthe 7 ‘lubgépro.com question practice aid Figure 1.74 Typical Incidence Board ©) Where possible, the verticality of the incidence board should be checked with a plumb bob. Where the checks are being taken in the open and it is difficult to steady the plumb ~~ bob due to wind, the suspension of the plumb bob in a container of oil or water will be of assistance. Verticality of Fin 5 After the rigging of the tailplanes has been checked, the verticality of the fin relative to a lateral datum can be checked from a given point on either side of the top of the fin to a given point on the port and starboard tailplanes respectively; the measurements should be similar within a prescribed limits. When the verticality of the fin stern post has to be checked, it may be j necessary to remove the rudder and drop a plumb bob through the rudder hinge attachment ~ holes, when the cord should pass centrally through all the holes. It should be noted that some aircraft have the fin offset to the longitudinal centre line to counteract engine torque. See om) n ud 70 } panes Seetanad | J Figure 1.75 Symmetry Check oo eo 2.100 ‘Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts ieee ‘TTS intograted Training System evrned yt saber © Copyright 2010 ceneaedal tector |Integrated Training System Designed in association wth the ‘lubBGpr0.com quoston practice aa ., _ Engine Mountings {| Engines attached to the wings are usually mounted with the thrust line parallel to the horizontal longitudinal plane of symmetry but not always parallel to the vertical longitudinal plane, since, due to their disposition along the wing, the outboard engines are often offset a degree or so to enable the slipstream from the propellers to converge on the tailplane. The check to ensure that the position of the engine, including the degree of offset, is correct depends largely on the type of mounting, but usually entails a measurement from the centre line of the mounting to the LU longitudinal centre line of the fuselage at a point specified in the relevant manual. (See also Figure 1.75). Symmetry Check Figure1 76 illustrates the principle of a typical symmetry check, the relevant figures and [1 tolerances for which will be found in the appropriate manual, although the actual measurements Ls telating to the aircraft concerned are given in the aircraft log book. n a) For the smaller types of aircraft the measurements between points are usually taken by means of a steel tape. It is recommended that a spring balance should be used on the longer distances to obtain an equal tension, Sib usually being sufficient. b) Where the larger types of aircraft are concemed, it is more usual to chalk the floor locally under the positions where the dimensions are to be taken, to drop plumb bobs from the checking points, marking the floor with an 'X' immediately under the point of each plumb bob and then to measure the distance between the centre of the markings. This method has the advantages of ensuring more accurate measurement and reducing the amount of walking necessary on main planes and tailplanes. ee ce n LU Rigging Checks on Biplanes In general the rigging checks applicable to single-engined biplanes during reassembly after [overhaul are as follows, but specific requirements relating to a particular type of aircraft should be ascertained from the relevant approved manual. {| The centre-section should be placed on suitable trestles and the centre-section struts and wires LU (complete with fork-ends) attached, { NOTE: Itis important that the fork-ends should be screwed the same number of tums on each U end of the wire to provide for subsequent adjustment. [} The centre-section should be erected onto the fuselage and the stagger and lateral symmetry checked. The stagger should be checked by dropping plumb bobs from the leading edge of the _. Upper portion of the centre-section (or other defined position) and measuring the distance from {| the plumb bobs to the leading edge of the lower portion of the centre-section (or other defined U position). If necessary, the stagger can be adjusted by means of the front centre-section struts _, on most aircraft of this type. The symmetry about the centre line should be checked by |] measuring from plumb bobs to the sides of the fuselage and can be adjusted, if necessary, by U means of the bracing wires. [| NOTE: Itis essential that the centre-section rigging checks should be accurately carried out, ‘since small errors in the centre-section bracing can result in large errors in the general rigging. n u n Li vpeatecnaacat Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts 2.101 Sipe ees” TTS integrated Taining System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in asociaton wih tho csubspro.com question preatica ald The port (or starboard) top main plane should be attached to the centre-section, care being taken to ensure that the main plane is adequately supported during the assembly. The landing wires should then be attached to the centre-section, the port (or starboard) lower main plane attached to the centre section, the interplane struts, flying wires and incidence wires fitted and the whole assembly lightly tensioned up. The completed side of the aircraft should be steadied with a trestle whilst the opposite side is assembled in the same order. NOTE: Although usually of similar appearance, front and rear interplane struts are usually of slightly different lengths to compensate for wing contour, thus it is important to ensure that the correct strut has been fitted in the correct position. After assembly the fuselage level should be re-checked and adjusted as necessary, after which the main planes should be trued-up by adjustments to the appropriate wires, the aim being to achieve the correct dihedral first and then to work the incidence and stagger together. Care must be taken during rigging to ensure that the main flying and landing wires are not over- tensioned to the extent of bowing the main plane spars or interplane struts. NOTE: The specified lengths and permitted tolerances applicable to all wires are given in the rigging diagrams appropriate to the aircraft type, but the actual figures to which the aircraft had previously been rigged is recorded in the aircraft log book. if using the same components it is advisable to re-rig to the log book figures, since these may have been determined specifically to counteract a flying fault. After the rigging of the main planes has been completed, it should be ensured that all fork- ends, etc., are in safety, are not ‘butting’ against the ends of the fitting and have been correctly locked, that the wires are in streamline and that anti-chafing discs and spreader bars are correctly fitted to prevent vibration of the wires. Empennage The empennage should be attached in accordance with the instructions contained in the relevant manual and adjusted (where this is possible) to within the limits specified in the relevant rigging diagram. It should be noted that the tailplane struts are usually handed and, unless these are correctly positioned, the fairings will not be in line of flight. NOTE: Tailplanes provided with an adjustment mechanism must be set to the neutral position before checking is commenced. Twin-Engine Biplanes The general procedure for rigging twin-engined biplanes is basically similar to that described above for single-engined biplanes but it must be ensured that the weight of the engines is taken up on the appropriate struts before completing the general rigging Checking Rigging with Sighting Rods This method of checking rigging is used mainly on the larger types of aircraft and consists basically of sighting with a theodolite the positions of datum marks on a series of rods of graduated lengths, each of which is inserted into a specified jigged position on the underside of the aircraft. 2.102 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts ‘TTS Integrated Trang Systom rena eet © Copyright 2010 eda ch a iJ aaa}ee fo U m= Se co n Integrated Training System Designedin stociaton with ho cunsspro.com guson practice aid For the initial check, the airoraft should be brought to the rigging position and the sighting rods inserted at the appropriate stations. NOTE: Since any rod can be fitted into any socket, it is important to ensure that the rods are inserted in their correct positions, A theodolite, erected at an appropriate distance and position from the aircraft should be levelled up with the datum mark on the master sighting rod (usually the shortest rod fitted under the fuselage) and then readings should be taken from this sighting line at each rod station and recorded. A typical method of taking the readings is illustrated in Figure 1.76. NOTES: 1) A method which provides accurate vertical adjustment and rigidity for a theodolite is to mount it on a hydraulic jack. 2) It may not be possible in every instance to obtain a reading on every sighting rod from one theodbolite position, in which case the theodolite should be appropriately repositioned, realigned on the master rod and the check continued in the same manner as before. THEODOLITE |] ACTUAL SIGHTING LINE q dutta le >< THEORETICAL SIGHTING LINE 3 RULER 4 Figure 1.76 Typical Method of Taking Readings The readings thus obtained must be within the tolerances permitted by the manufacturer (details of which are usually included in the rigging drawing) and entered in the aircraft log book for permanent record. There are two basic methods applicable to the use of sighting rods and these are described below. a) On some types of aircraft the sockets into which the sighting rods are inserted are adjustable in the vertical direction so that once variations from nominal figures have been fecorded, the rods can be ‘zeroed’ and permanently locked. Thus the sighting line on all ae cnn Module 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts 2.103 Roopeed nacuper 7S Intersting Syston ‘@ Copyright 2010Integrated Training System & =< Designed in association with the ‘lubéépro.com question practice ald subsequent checks should in fact coincide with the datum marks on all the rods if the rigging is correct. Rods used for this method have the single datum as illustrated in Figure1.76. b) The second method is to use sighting rods on which are marked the datum line, on either side of which is also marked graduations indicating the permissible tolerance on the nominal figure in increments of 1/4 degrees. With this method the sockets into which the rods are inserted are not adjustable and subsequent readings should give the actual figures recorded on the initial check. NOTE: When rods of the ‘screw-in’ type are used it should be ensured that they are fully screwed home before the check is commenced. When a component (e.g. wing or tailplane) is changed, it will be necessary to again carry out the initial check to ascertain actual figures. Large Aeroplane Symmetry Check Procedure To check larger types of aircraft, it is usual to chalk the floor locally under the positions where the dimensions are to be taken, to drop plumb bobs from the checking points, marking the floor with an X immediately under the point of each plumb bob and then to measure the distance between the centre of the markings. This method has the advantages of ensuring more accurate measurement and reducing the amount of walking necessary on main planes and tail- planes. Chapter ATA 05 of the AMM gives the instructions for the levelling, measurement and alignment operations of the aircraft. It gives measurement instructions to find possible structural deformations after hard landings, too much turbulence, after the replacement or major repair of a part of the structure, etc. Tables give information about the measurements recorded on the first three aircraft at zero flight hours. They can be used as a guide in appraising the structural and aerodynamic condition of an aircraft after major repairs or after an aircraft has been subjected to manoeuvres requiring an alignment check. Deviations from given values do not automatically mean that the aircraft is not serviceable. These deviations must be appraised from the structural and aerodynamic points of view in order to determine their effects on flight safety. In the event of important deviations, visually check for presence of the following failures: 1. Localized structural failures such as: * Buckled or cracked skins, stiffener, machined parts. Peeled-off paint. «Tore or tom fasteners. 2. Structural failures resulting in: © Fuel leaks in tank areas * After the replacement or major repair of a part of the structure * Airleaks in pressurized areas 2.104 TTS integrated Training System © Copyright 2010 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures ~ General Concepts seman caaesee evonod ye saest ceedel erate BLE 7 aera oe a }Integrated Training System Designed in ascociation with the ‘lub68p°0.com quoston practice as Interference of moving parts of a mechanism Leaks in air conditioning, hydraulic or fuel systems Short circuits 1 Refusal to closure of doors and access panels due to surrounding structure Gj distortion + Required excessive control surface trim limiting control range. rm Ul cr Variation Point x | ¥ Z| Angle ql x v [| z [ange 7 1 | 6245.9 | 9289.6 iq 2 | 8061.3 | 15275:3 u B | 3 [111395] 206155 f 5 | 4 | so0az | soos | 8 | 7o0s. | 14773.8 Ha 6 | 10468 | 20902.6 uU 9 | 142055] 0 : {lef | wl oo a ine S| 14 | s0a82| 0 n 3 | 1 [210832] 0 UG © | 47 | 255802] 0 n 21 | «12016 A _ | 2 | -9386 5 23 | ~4896 LU 26 | 2776 $ | 2 | ors n 8 | 26 | saz L © | ar | 12604 4 28 | 18854 if at | 220724 y BB 22 | osers U E8) 33 |z7s077 9) 94 | 206836 7 Table 2.4: Example of Aircraft Dimension Chart (A310) i U mares ara Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.105 Sapa TTS integrated Training Systm fa ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe cuvedpro.com question pacte aid 4a SEE J Graduated Column Aligned ‘wlth Points 11 and 16, 5 2 - 0. as Tpit ‘ eae [aaa 2.106 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts FAEISeaasesir TTS Integrated Training System omnacty teams © Copyright 2010 |FH | fo i u ca Integrated Training System Desionedin stocaton ith tho cumsspo.com question ractee aid Figure 2.77: Example of Aircraft Measurement Points Lowering the Aircraft Before any attempt is made to lower the aircraft to the ground it must be ensured that wing supports and any other equipment which might foul and damage the aircraft are moved clear. The aircraft should be lowered evenly and, when the aircraft weight is accepted on the undercarriage, the jacks should be further lowered to ensure that they can be removed without fouling the aircraft structure. Definitions Anhedral - An inclination outwards and downwards relative to the lateral datum. Dihedral - The angle (or angles) at which the wings and tailplanes are inclined outward and upward relative to the lateral datum. Flying Wires - Wires the principal function of which is to transfer the lift of the main planes to the main structure, These wires are sometimes termed ‘lift wires'. Landing Wires - Wires which brace the main plane against forces opposite in direction to the direction of lift, as occur, for example, in landing. These wires are sometimes termed ‘anti-lift wires’. Incidence - The angle between the chord line of the wing or tailplane and the longitudinal datum. Incidence Wires - Wires bracing the main plane structure in the plane of a pair of front and rear struts. Stagger - The distance between the leading edge of the lower plane and the projection of the leading edge of the upper plane on the chord of the lower plane. ganas cecave e Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts 2.107 Sousa neous TTS integrated Training System © Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe lueopre.com question pracioe aid eee Het oo Intentionally Blank J J 2.108 Module 11.2 Airframe Structures — General Concepts ‘TTS integrated Training Systom (© Copyright 2010 =SS] eerepe eee eee a frece-t eee ceed @ SS EEE ee eee ee eee Heer Peeee Ca ct ro ea Eee eee HeEeea Pee eee ieeeer European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Aircraft Maintenance Licence Programme Module 11A Licence Category B1 Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Structures and Systems 11.3 - Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 34 TTS Integrated Training System ‘©Copyright 20104 Integrated Training System oe Designein association nt the Shuneépre.com quaston pactos aid Copyright Notice © Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e. photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of Total Training Support Ltd. cq 1 Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2 and C Aircraft Maintenance Licence (aaa f Basic knowledge for categories A, B1 and B2 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1, 2 or 8) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2 rn basic knowledge levels. ] The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows: i LEVEL 1 7 + A tamiliarisation with the principal elements of the subject. ee Objectives: The applicant should be familiar with the basic elernents of the subject. + The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and examples. J ‘+ The applicant should be able to use typical terms. LEVEL 2 ‘+ A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject. + _Anabilty to apply that knowledge. Objectives: The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject. ‘+The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical examples. a ‘©The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the subject. ‘+ The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics deseribing the 7 subject. ‘+ The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures. J LEVEL 3 4 + A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects ofthe subject. : ‘+ Acapacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive manner. Objectives: The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects. + The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals, and specific examples. a The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject. i ‘The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple crawings and schematics describing the subject. ‘+ The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturers instructions. Ld + The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply corrective action where appropriate. nq Jj 32 Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplenes icaamsaat “TTS Integrated Training System SSnon? oir eanae © Copyright 2010 7moo ca fo ca TS = Cc c co Co Integrated Training System Designed in association wth tha ‘lubS6pr0.com question practice ald Table of Contents Module 11,3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 11.3.1 Fuselage (ATA 52/53/56) Fuselage Construction. Primary Structine ete eee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee ea eee ere Stringers and Other Longitudinal Members 10 Doublers and Waffles, Blowout panels a eee ee ee ee ee Stringer and Skin Materials and Shapes 18 Pressure Sealing 21 Wing-to-Body Fairings 2t Fuselage Fire Zones 22 Design Features for Pressurized Airframes 23 Nose Radome 26 Wing to Fuselage Attachment 27 Landing Gear Attachment to the Fuselage 30 Horizontal Stabilizer to Fuselage Attachment 32 Vertical Stabilizer to Fuselage Attachment 33 Doors 35 Cockpit Windows 45 Cabin windows. 51 Seats 55 13.3.2 Wings (ATA 57). 57 Introduction 57 Cantilever and Non-Cantilever. 58 Truss-type Wing Construction 59 Stressed-Skin Wing Construction 59 Wing Torsion Box. 61 Wing Spars 65 Wing Skin 73 Wing Ribs 77 Wing Tips. 78 Wing Attached Components 79 Wing Engine Pylon Attachment Flight Control to Wing Attachment 86 Storage of Fuel 88 13.3.3 Stabilisers(ATA55)—— lt GeneralArrangement_ 13.3.4 Flight Control Surfaces (ATA 55/57) 95 General Features. 95 Balancing, 99 14.3.5 Nacelles and Pylons(ATA54) OF General Features. 101 Pe hyn Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.3 Spore ewe TTS intogate Training Sytem ‘© Copyrght 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe {su66pro.com question practice aid Nose Cowl Hinged Cowling Pylons Firewalls, Engine Mounts. > eee n u 4 7 3.4 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes sitar ECE “TS Integrated Training Systom Srpuoe tance © Copyrignt 2010 omc Integrated Training System Designed in association with te ‘lub68070.com question practice as ca Module 11.3 Enabling Objectives m3 Objective’ EASA 66 Reference _| Level L Fuselage (ATA 52/53/56) 11.3.1 et ae Construction and pressurisation sealing | | Wing, stabiliser, pylon and undercarriage attachments ~ Seat installation and cargo loading system z Doors and emergency exits: construction, mechanisms, | operation and safety devices Windows and windscreen construction and mechanisms +> [Wings (ATA 57) 1132 2 \ Construction aH Fuel storage fn Landing gear, pylon, control surface and high lifvdrag u attachments Stabilisers (ATA 55) 11.3.3 2 Construction Control surface attachment Flight Control Surfaces (ATA 55/57) 113.4 2 i Construction and attachment u Balancing — mass and aerodynamic Nacelles/Pylons (ATA 54) 11.35 2 al Construction u Firewalls Engine mounts cc Li mand dco Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.5 Roope 2a he oper ‘TTS integrated Training System © Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association wih the club66pr0.com question practice ald 3.6 TTS integrated Training System © Copyright 2010 Intentionally Blank Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 4 ul ony taza, petiIntegrated Training System Designed in association with the ‘clubsepre.com question practice aid _ Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 11.3.1 Fuselage (ATA 52/53/56) eae Fuselage Construction The fuselage is the body of the aircraft, to which the wings, tail, engine and landing gear attach. Because of the tremendous loads that are imposed upon the fuselage structure, it must have maximum strength and, as with all of the parts of an aircraft, it must also have minimum weight. Stressed-skin-type fuselages are used in modem transport aircraft. Eeeeeeee C The main limitation of a stressed-skin structure is that it cannot tolerate any dents or deformation in its surface. We have all seen this characteristic demonstrated with a thin aluminium beverage can. When the can is free of dents, it will withstand a great amount of force applied to its ends, but if we put only a slight dent in its side, it can be crushed very easily from top or bottom. en ae CC Most fuselages of transport aircraft are semi-monocoque structures. It is shaped by a number of frames and stringers that keep each other at the correct distance (see Figure 3.1), The skin ¥)_ panel is attached to these stringers by means of rivets or glue. Sheets of different thicknesses are used. The big advantage of these fuselage constructions is that an area is created that is not blocked anywhere by extra means of strengthening. Extra means of strengthening are only necessary at those places where large forces are transmitted. This is the case at places where wings, tail surfaces, engines and landing gears are attached to the fuselage. In addition, this occurs at those places where weak spots are created in the construction as a result of missing frames and stringers, as at doors, windows and hatches. Special strengthening is used at those places in the fuselage where the area is used for stowing the retracted landing gears. C L ‘The fuselage is made of separate assemblies which are riveted together. C The cabin floor structure divides the fuselage into two areas, the main deck and the lower deck. The main deck includes the cockpit and the cabin. The lower deck normally includes the avionics compartments, the landing gear bays and the fwd, aft and bulk cargo compartments. Support struts and crossbeams support the cabin floor structure. q U Lamar cea Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 37 Sioped nbouse TIS Intograts Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designadin association wth the lubsopro.com question pracoe aid ‘Section IV Rear Pressure Bulkhead Front Fuselage Figure 3.1: Typical Sections of a Fuselage (Fokker 100) 38 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes ‘TTS Integrated Training System owned Sassi © Copyright 2010 Pa ieerie 3 qn c tC Ss ete {yaa} Zr Integrated Training System 5 Designed in absocaion wth tho cubs com question practes aid Primary Structure The frames and the forward and aft pressure bulkheads are primary structural components of the fuselage. Each frame is a 'Z' or other sectioned circumferential member carrying pressure loads in hoop tension. The frames are generally spaced at approximately twenty-inch intervals along the fuselage. The bulkheads consist of webs that fit the sectional contours of the aeroplane. These bulkheads are reinforced by beams attached to the webs. The floor beams are primary structural components of the fuselage. Each floor beam carries a tension load and is attached at its ends to a frame. The stringers are primary structural members. They are hat- or ‘Z'-section which extend longitudinally along the fuselage. Other longitudinal members considered primary are the crease beams and the keel beams. Skin and reinforcing structure around opening is primary. Basic structure associated with the wheel wells is primary. STRINGER FRAME, CONTINUOUS SEAT TRACK Z ‘TRANSVERSE FLOOR BEAM Figure 3.2: Fuselage Primary Structure elements ean ees Module 11.9 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.9 Seed omens “TTS intograted Training System © Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Sy J Designed in association with the S elub6spro.com question pracice ed Stringers and Other Longitudinal Members Stringers are multiple failsafe (as a result of their multiplicity) longitudinal members designed to provide siiffness to the skin and help to provide the longitudinal strength to the fuselage. Intercostals (or webs) are short longitudinal members which may span between only two adjacent frames, to provide some local structural reinforcement at or around windows and doors for ‘example, A horizontal beam extends along each side of the fuselage level with the top of the floor. These beams are known as the crease beams because they are attached to the fuselage skin at the "crease" formed by the intersection between the upper and lower lobes of the fuselage cross-section. Figure 3.3: Fuselage stringers, skin and frame The keel beams comprise the beam between the main landing gear wheel wells and the beam which passes beneath the centre wing box. The beam between the wheel wells is a reinforced box structure which carries pressurization loads originating on the sealed floor structure across the wheel well area, Both of the beams carry the bending loads acting along the lower fuselage across the cavities for the centre wing box and the wheel well. Longerons are any longitudinal structural component of an aircraft's fuselage which are larger than the stringers. 3.10 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes Ree TTS Integrated Training System ent tater {© Copyright 2010 wed oe che eee oe 5Integrated Training System Designs in sbbcciaton wth the ‘epre.com question pracice id FEE co BEEBE eee ees eine eee - _ { <3 C Figure 3.4: Stringers, frames and skin on the BAe 146 i vapeseaemgan Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes. 3.11 Stage 2c mscare TTS Integrated Training System ©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System QS Designed in association with the lubegpo.com question practice ald Doublers and Waffles Doublers and waffles are sometimes bonded to the inside of fuselage skins, or integrally machined, or the skin between the doubler/waffle is thinned by acid etching. Their purpose is to stop or retard the growth of a crack that may begin to propagate in the skin. This ‘tear stopper’ function provides some fail safe element to the fuselage skin. L/LHN_it_N OUTER SKIN- ROLLED —) << [=~ ‘STRINGER Ui No rye) t [If WINDOW FRAME EXTRUDED cTvP) STRINGERS {__| |i BONDED SS SS WAFFLE DOUBLER. =) ==]! = JO at { f—10-men ¢s109 Figure 3.5: A bonded waifle doubler on a B737 fuselage structure 3.12 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes iain TTS integrated Training System Scopuped bie cat © Copyright 2010 eo dl J 2 alIntegrated Training System Designed in association withthe ‘lubéépro.com question practice alt | en STRINGER FRAME Figure 3.6: A bonded doubler on a B737 fuselage structure a { | vets tera Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.13 Sepa cope TTS inlegrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System DDesignadin association withthe oe subpre.com question prance aid Blowout panels Blowout panels are provided wherever there is a danger of an excessive pressure differential across a structural membrane causing structural damage. They are, for example, provided in = the cabin floors should there be a sudden decompression in a cargo hold (due to a cargo hold door coming open during flight for example. The blowout panels ‘blow out’ in such a situation to release the excess pressure in the cabin and thus safeguard the structural integrity of the floor = 5 (which may also hold the flight control cables). BEE Blowout panels can also be found on cockpit doors and other doors to prevent a differential 5 pressure causing the door to be jammed or damaged. | The fitting and maintenance of blowout panels and their seals is critical, and procedures and n figures such as retaining bolt torque loading must be applied in strict accordance with the } applicable AMM. 48 SECTION ACCESS AND BLOWOUT DOOR 3701 PRESSURE AND RELIEF VALVE «o0R) NACELLE PRESSURE RELIEF DOORS: n (GOTH NACELLES) RELIEF PANEL a (BOTH WINGS) a WINe-to-B0oY FALRING KEEL BEAM 4 BLOWOUT PANEL en Figure 8.7 Extemal blowout panels on the B737 : 3.14 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes cuaeaaa “TTS Integrated Training System serena a {© Copyright 2010 =Integrated Training System Designed in atsaciaon vith the clubéepr.cem question pastes Junction Nose FWD. Fuselage/FWO Fuselage Stringers and Skin Stitfeners Soe ¢ oc mn U ft fd Stringer cc tc facet os co Ce Figure 3.8: Cockpit Selection are cscs Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.15 ‘pape tel caper ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System B= Designed in association with ho cy eluetpr.com question pacts ald y 6 Figure 3.9: Mid Fuselage 3.16 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes TTS Intagtated Training Systom aeverosty hessament © Conynignt 2010 Usemoorascowes ** copagedeltnecurerDesigned in association with th ‘lub6p20.com question practice ad P= 1 e2 a 3B > n oD g & & baa iS 8B menamsimeton /fY | g i > 2 a 3 coc Figure 3.10: Aft Fuselage 3.17 TTS Integrated Trining System ‘© Copyright 2010 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - AeroplanesIntegrated Training System Designed in association with the 7 PeeeeS orn sean pacioe sd i Stringer and Skin Materials and Shapes 7 The following table provides the materials and stringer sections used by some common 4H transport category aircraft. = i ; Radius Ton, Material iol su, | FrameDeptty |“ Meat | wey | aces omer thems} | | hens n 3707 14" 004 | 2024-73/7075-16 9 = 38/20 a 3727 ae 0.04 | 2024-73/7075-76 =~ | 3a720 i BT37 4* 0.036 (2024-T3/7075-T6 aamLce 3.8/20 ‘B7S7 4 0.04 otae 3.8/20, i BT47 128+} oom | 2024-73/7075-76 | 75-95 | TTT | 63/20 B67 | 998 zs 2 n 1649 696 0.032 = | saris aH 1-188 68 0.04 (2024-T3/7075-T6 6 — 375/19 nm 130 85 0032 | 2024-13/7075-76 — | Longerons | e141 8s oss | 7079-76/7075-76 6 ae 3720 iff os 143 | 004s | 7079-76/7075-16 3 | > ano q L-1011 117.5 0.075 202A-T3/7075-T6 9 eee 3-6/20 : Des 735* | 00S | 202arer7075-76 m2 | To] asa = pes 658° 2014-16/7075-76 7 aa ns DC-10 nB5 0.071 (2024-3/7075-T6 65~8 Tt 4.5-5.5/20 yo-1s 108 0s | 2024-73/7075-176 oe 64 7 cveso | 69s oos7 | 20zers/7075-76 | 6-10 | —— ang ‘ cv900 | 69" 0967 | 2024-73/7075-76 a ang a A300 12 0.063 = 720 | A310 11 0.963 — 720 o A320 77° 7 120 = BACI | 77 0.960 | 2024-737 ame 720 | ‘Trident 72.15 0.048 (2014-3/2014-T 65 eee /20 ‘Concord 565* 0.055 | RRS58/RR5S [tr As 7 The following table provides some of the advantages and disadvantages of the aluminium alloys quoted in the table above. 3.18 ‘TTS integrated Training System © Copyright 2010 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes eer easton naga et aneeIntegrated Training System Designed in association with the lub66pr0.com question practice ald Material Recommended Application 2024-73, 742, ‘Use for high strength tension application; has best fracture toughness and slow ‘735i, Tet Sek gop godin Thea he lower stg then -T3. Thick hort transverse properties and low stress corrosion resistance. Use. -T81 forhigh temperature applications. 2224-73 ‘8%improvement strength over 2024-T3; fatigue and toughness better than 2324-13 2024-73, 1075-76, 7651, Has higher than 2024, lower fracture t sseforteason T7351 ‘opti eee nga cot Thick plate hes iow shor aa properties and low stress corrosion resistance (16) -T7351 has excellent stress cortosion resistance and better fracture toughness. 7079-76 Similar to 7075 but has better thick section (> 3 in) properties than 7075, Fracture toughness, between 7075 and 2024, Thick plate has low stress corrosion resistance. 7150-16 11% improvement strength over 7075-T6. Fatigue and toughness beter tran 7075-76, 7178-76, 7651 Use: forcompresionnplixton Has ihe smengih tan, 7075, lower fracture toughness and 4 Aluminum-Lithium | Compared to conventional aluminum alloys: 10% lighter, 10% stiffer, and superior fatigue performance. | PM Aluminum Compared to conventional aluminum allo Higher srenplh good tage igi i gd gh higher enpera capability and superior corrosion resistance. frome 2cina cee” Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.19 TTS intogratod Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association wth the clibeopre.com question procicn aid ae eee Intentionally Blank a 2 ee co 3 3.20 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes ‘em aes ‘TTS Intogated Training Systom onedetsecapa © Copyright 2010 5Integrated Training System Designedin s2ociaon wih he chivsgpro.com queton ractee aid Pressure Sealing To make it possible to use pressurized cabins, the front and rear of the fuselage construction and the landing gear areas are closed off by a pressure bulkhead. The cockpit, the cabin, the avionics compartment and the cargo compartments are normally pressurized. The radome, the wing centre box, the landing gear bays, the belly fairing and the cone/rear fuselage are normally not pressurized (see Figure 3.4), It would be impractical to build the pressure vessel of an aircraft that is airtight, as pressurization is accomplished by flowing more air into the cabin than is needed and allowing the excess air to leak out. There are two types of leakage in an aircraft pressure vessel; controlled and uncontrolled. The uncontrolled leakage is that in which air escapes around door and window seals, control cables and other openings in the sealed portion of the structure, and the controlled leakage through the outfiow valve and the safety valve. This controlled leakage is far more than the uncontrolled and it determines the amount of pressure in the cabin. Pressurization control systems can be of the pneumatic or electronic type, with the electronic type incorporating electtically controlled outflow valves. Wing-to-Body F: ‘The wing-to-body fairings serve as aerodynamic fairings, are made of aluminium alloy or a honeycomb composite lay-up, and are secondary structure. ‘The wing-to-body fairings are attached to the wing surface and the fuselage skin. A cut-out in the fairing allow for the passage of the main landing gear. Other cut-outs with panels or doors are provided as access to equipment within the fairing. A blowout panel on each wing-to-body lower fairing protects the aeroplane skin in that area from excessive pressure build-up. Each panel is held by a hinge and secured by shear rivets, with an energy absorbing retaining strap to limit panel opening. An aerodynamic deflector is included to hold panel open and prevent uncontrolled buffeting, if the panel opens. are aac Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.21 Sanezd nce ‘TIS Integrated Training Syetem ‘©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with the cSungepro.com question prac aid Fuselage Fire Zones a oe For the purposes of fire protection and extinguishing, all compartments of an aeroplane are classified A, B, C, D or E, as follows: 3.22 a Class A — Visual detection of smoke and have an accessible in-flight fire extinguisher available Class B — Crew can move all contents by hand, and reach all parts of the compartment with a hand fire extinguisher. Class C — Smoke or fire detectors are installed and a built in fire extinguisher system controlled from the cockpit. Class D - A fire will be completely confined without endangering safety of the aircraft or occupants. Must be completely lined with fire-resistant material. Class E — Cargo-only aircraft. Separate smoke or fire detector installed, and meansto = shut-off airflow to, or within, the compartment. Must be completely lined with fire resistant material, and window shades closed. Figure 3.11: A class E compartment Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes umenarararoe —? TTS integrated Training System ay ee © Copyright 2070 nIntegrated Training System Oosignod in absociaton with the ‘elub6pr0.com question practce ald Design Features for Pressurized Airframes Butt Joint f) The construction of this type of joint is such that a forward skin panel and aft skin panel are \L__ joined together by an internal butt strap. When this joint is assembled, there is a gap between the forward skin panel and aft skin panel. This gap is filled with what is commonly referred to as. {7 afillet seal. This type of joint allows for the expansion and contraction of the fuselage and at the ‘same time providing adequate pressurization sealing. This kind of connection is used to join the fuselage sections together. ° i 1 ‘Skin Panel Woluet esa ‘Skin Panel u nm 4 u ee n Butt Strap a Riveting u co Lu Figure 3.12: Example of Butt Joint cm fee co fi sant dees Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.23 Sisegead nacuea ‘TTS Integrated Training System aus ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe engbpre com question practic sia Lap Joint The construction of this type of joint is such that the upper skin panel overlaps the lower skin panel. During the assembly of the joint the upper skin and lower skin area of contact has a faying surface seal applied to it. The joint is then made while the sealant is still wet. This kind of connection is used to join the skin panels together at the longitudinal edge. ‘Skin Panel Doubler Riveting ‘Skin Panel ‘Stringer Doubler Figure 3.13: Examples of Lap Joint 3.24 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes TTS Intogratod Training System © Copyight 2010 pvoradty fe sate orpagezel becca J IIntegrated Training System Designedin aszocaton wih the clubsre.com question practee a Ait Pressure Bulkhead coal co Mid Fuselage Pressure Bulkhead (J To Cc Unpressurlzed Area ca ca f5 Fwd Pressure Bulkhead Figure 3.14: Typical Pressurized Zone { u eo sedi Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.25 FRoomszd ecu TTS Intogratod Training Syetorn ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in essociation wth the _ub6bpr.com queston pracie aid Nose Radome The nose radome extends forward from the forward pressure bulkhead. The two main functions of the radome are to serve as a fairing and to house the weather radar antenna and the glide slope antenna director bar. The radome is a cone-shaped structure of fibreglass and is hinged at two places, usually to the top side of the forward bulkhead. Further 3 attachment of the radome is by fasteners which screw into clips on the bulkhead, In the open position, the radome is supported by rods, The weather radar antenna is cantilevered from the forward bulkhead. The nose of the radome is equipped with erosion protection and a layer of conductive spray paint provides static dissipation, but is not enough to interfere with the operation of the weather radar or any other antenna which may be mounted inside the radome. The radome is provided with lightning diverter strips on the exterior surface. Figure 3.15: B737 Radome showing clearly the lightning diverter strips +’ 4 is] 7 3.26 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes hace omen ete: TIS Intogratad Training Systom Scapnged ct nce © Copyright 2010 4Integrated Training System Designed in assocaiion with the ‘tube6pre.com question practice ad Wing to Fuselage Attachment One method that can be used to support the wing is a simple four-pin attachment method, | However, because of the thrust and drag loads (fore and aft loading) this simple four-pin design U may not be sufficient for big airliners. Another way of overcoming the fore and aft loads imposed by the wing is to attach the fuselage frames to the wing spars, mainly used for bigger aircraft. This is known as integral wing attachment. Wing to Fuselage Frame Lower Fuselage Pressure Bulkhead Figure 3.16: Wing to Fuselage Attachment | Bolted Wing Attachment - This kind of attachment is mainly used in smaller aeroplanes. The following description belongs to the Saab 2000, n 1H Use sito asctosuo ts Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.27 Sroeednecaom ‘TTS intogratod Training Syetom n ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe luaGpre.dom question practice aid There are eight wing-to-fuselage attachment fittings on the mainframe. They transmit the load to the fuselage during flight for multiple load path redundancy. The aluminium attach fittings are 7 put in position on the front and the rear spar to engage the related fuselage attach fittings j us OX 4 | Rear Upper a Beam 1 5 Rear Lower 7 Beam A Figure 3.17: Example of Centre Wing Box Attachment (82000) } Integral Wing Attachment 7 Most big aeroplanes are designed with this kind of wing attachment. There are also some J ‘smaller aeroplanes like the Embraer 145, which also use this kind of design. The following description is of airbus aeroplanes. EEE The wing centre box structure extends across the width of the fuselage and is a continuation of the wing cantilever box. The wing box is usually attached to two primary frames of the fuselage; they are also part of the wing centre-box structure. These frames are normally made of ly aluminium alloy and of integral kind (machine milled). The wing box distributes the wing loads in the fuselage and can form an optional integral fuel tank. 5 a a rn 3.28 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes. us nia cn a TIS negated Tenia System metre © Copyright 2010 ees afee eee U Integrated Training System Desionedin sociation wh the ctlb6gpo.com question pracsce id Aft Main Frame Upper Skin Figure 3.18: Example of Centre Wing Box Attachment (A330) Use denen Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.29 Seemed oe TTS intogratod Training System ‘© Copynght 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe n clbe6pr0.com question practice ald dd Landing Gear Attachment to the Fuselage 7 The landing gear loads are the largest loads on the aircraft, For this reason, the transfer of : these loads to the fuselage shell requires extensive local reinforcement. 5 The wing spars along with additional structural members, support and attach the main landing gear to the wings on larger transport aircraft. The retractable landing gear system is requiredto move, the upper shock strut is supported by trunion fittings. These are shafts that fit to the u shock strut and pass through fittings, which are bolted to the fuselage. Center Box Aft Pressure Bulkhead ' i 4 Genter Landing J Gear Hinge Points A Figure 3.19: Example of Fuselage Landing Gear Attachment (A340-200) a 3.30 Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes Reece TS integrated Training System oneal test © Copyright 2010 _ ‘on page’? ofthis chapterIntegrated Training System Desionadin association wh the clubéspro.com question practi ad Figure 3.20: Example of Nose Landing Gear Support (Saab 2000) u uy u u nate nen Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.31 Srpmpe2 cs capa “TTS Integrated Training System mn ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System (osigned in association with ho csubSepro.com question prate ad mi Horizontal Stabilizer to Fuselage Attachment Modem high-speed transport category aeroplanes have adopted the use of an adjustable stabilizer. The aft portion of the stabilizer incorporates hinge assembles that are attached tothe > fuselage structure. The forward section of the stabilizer has a drive mechanism, which changes the pitch of the stabilizer. Figure 3.21 shows the attachment fittings at the fuselage. Figure 3.21: Example of Horizontal Stabilizer Attachment > 3,32 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes ‘TTS integrated Training System & Copyright 2010 asx aeonave cevomaday he aaanert ‘hom Zo hechaeee Integrated Training System Designed n seein whe ‘lubéEpr0.com question practice aid Vertical Stabilizer to Fuselage Attachment One method of construction is to attach the vertical stabilizer fore and aft spars to the fuselage using fittings. These fittings may be permanent or allow for the vertical stabilizer to be removed. Vertical Stabiliser Front Auxiliary Spar Vertical Stabiliser Rear Auxiliary Spar Vertical Stabiliser Front Spar Vertical Stabiliser Rear Spar APU Cowling Frame 81 Figure 3.22: Vertical Stabilizer Attachment Another method used is to make the vertical stabilizer an integral part of the aft fuselage. The vertical stabilizer spars enter the fuselage and become part of the aft fuselage frames. The skin panels of the vertical stabilizer tie directly onto the skin panels of the fuselage. sean eesaris Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.33 Sips 2a ieehatr ‘TTS Intograted Training System ‘© Copyrght 2010Integrated Training System Designad in association with the lubépr0.com question practice cid 3.34 ‘TTS Intagtated Training System © Copyrignt 2010 Tappered Joint (Bolt Brushing) [Al Figure 3.23: Vertical Stabilizer Attachment Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes. (Longitudins fo / Fwd Left Vert. Fin Fitting / Unanderdbesee aya ora om cnpage atts cheer ape Coe coy ee mo{ c co Cc cc oe Integrated Training System Oesgredin zccdon vin ne clubéépr0.com question practoe ad Doors There are a number of different kinds of doors in an aeroplane. When talking about doors that are part of the pressurized cabin, the following are include cabin doors; * cargo compartment doors; * access doors to equipment compartments that are part of the pressurized cabin, WATER SERVICE ore eraser ourruow vive oor DOOR CABIN PRESSURE ‘CONTROL. SYSTEM TAIL CONE ACCESS DOOR: PRESSURE FUELING STATION ACCESS DOOR ‘APU ACCESS DOOR AFT TOILET SERVICE DOOR. PRESSURE RELIEF DOOR WATER SERVICE DooR HYDRAULIC SYSTEM SERVICE DOOR OXYGEN SYSTEM ‘CHARGING PANEL DOOR FORWARD GALLEY MAIN LANDING GEAR DOORS SERVICE DOOR FORWARD TOILET SERVICE DOOR EXTERNAL POWER RECEPTACLE DOOR LOWER NOSE ‘COMPARTHENT ACCESS. ‘CEORWARD NOSE LANDING ACCESS) DOOR ‘GEAR DOOR [GROUND AIR CONDITIONING ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT ACCESS pooR’ COMPARTMENT EXTERNAL ACCESS. DOOR Figure 3.24: Door locations on the B737 {from underside) TIRE BURST PROTECTOR SCREEN DOOR ‘AIR_CONOTTTONING ACCESS DOORS fet ane ‘COMPARTMENT DOOR ent deco Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.35 Sroeseanaowse ‘TTS integrated Tisining Syston ‘©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Decigned in association with the ‘lub6pre.som question practice sid eee oH ART GALLEY Seavige boon q Guten sioes J secrion 48 access EMERGENCY q enecciy, ame soir ce fa sie AFT ENTRY. D008 rcncencr = BUTT waren. encrcencr 1 ‘EXIT HATCH + Fpguneo exer SERVICE DOOR {RIGHT SIDE) CSD OTL RESERVOIR ‘SIGHT GAGE ACCESS DooR n ooR Funno, ENGINE OTL. TANK {ECESS DOOR DOOR # q Figure 3.25: Door locations on the B737 (from upper) These doors should meet the following requirements: J the doors must be opened and closed from the inside and the outside; instructions for closing and opening them must be easy to read and simple to understand; io * there must be an indication on the cockpit as well as a mechanical indication near the ] door itseff that the door is properly closed. 3.36 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes FsusanapneMinestat TTS integrated raining System soma Sere © Copyright 2010 0 meIntegrated Training System Designed in association with the ceubsspro.com quoston practice a + Inaddition, cargo doors must: i * be constructed in such a way that, in closed position, they are part of the total strength of the fuselage construction. “The doors in the pressurized cabin can be divided into two groups: u * plug-type doors; * non-plug-type doors. LATCH ROD LATCH AND STOP ASSEMBLY TOP HINGE OC ———~ HINGE i ‘SUPPORT u HANDLE MECHANISM Assist Le : HANDLE ri TORQUE TUBE ce CONTROL ROD ASSEMBLY Ei wares. Rop———— CONTROL. RoD BOTTOM HINGE n u WY fi PS HINGE . sh SUPPORT n <4 ~ BOTTOM GATE p Figure 3.26: Typical passenger door features of the B737 Ly aes cma Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.37 Soomedemonse ‘TTS Integrated Training System 1 ‘©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System @ Designed in association with ho ‘hboopre.com queston practice aid Door Safety Proximity sensors attached to the door for ‘Door Closed, ‘Door Locked’ and ‘Girt Bar Activated’ give an indication to the flight crew at time any one of these conditions is not met. eee cy Door Seals Usually a silicon rubber seal is installed around the door. When the door is closed, the seal is pushed against the door frame of the fuselage. The seal usually has holes at equal intervals, which lot the cabin airto the seal inside and vice versa, When the dooris closed and the cabin | is pressurized, the door seals inflate because of the pressure difference between inside and 7 outside. a 4 BI PRESSURE 7 SEAL ; STOP FITTING 7 EE sno q FUSELAGE Figure 3.27: Example of Door Seal (Boeing) oe ae a 3.38 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes iisdiweauie teal TTS intogratod Training Systom sea ene © Copyright 2010 ‘ongetetecotEERE ee ee Cece ca Co cS 7 oo om Section B-B Adjustable ‘ost he aateet ‘pop eh cape Stops Outer Skin Figure 3.28: Example of Door Seal (Airbus) Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes Integrated Training System Designed in association wth the ‘etuD669r0.com question practice alc 3.39 ‘TTS Integratod Tesining Syetom ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with he _useepro.com question pracice aid Plug-type Doors Doors that close the fuselage from the inside are called plug-type doors. Plug-type doors are a little bigger than the dimensions of the doorjamb in which they fit (see Figure 3.29). For this reason, the door in open position is sometimes kept inside the pressurized cabin. Another possibility is that the door has what is known as gates. They make the door smaller while ‘opening or closing so that it can be brought outside the pressurized cabin when itis in open position. The advantages of a plug-type door are: + the total load is distributed over the whole doorjamb; * the doors close tighter as the pressure increases. 1 | linge Door * ass Closed ge i Ae) it Door Handle Cau 7 Door SS ore } if eo | Side View Upper Gate ‘Upper Hinge Lower Hinge Figure 3.29: Plug-Type Door with Gates (Boeing) 3.40 Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes ‘TIS Intogratod Training Systom © Copyright 2010 seroratoy te stort onsapedet ns nantDesigned in association with the ‘lub66pre.com question practice aid Integrated Training System e1pue rua vonng (snauiv) ¥oog ODuvS Ina (snauty) Hood NIEvo sea 29 ‘ore, 2 8 ours uonzeuueg OC iano) feworgour Be 5 wary spun woddng) tenuog & cad 3 oun upyeoqun| tO. arpue 1009 100 —_ 3 4909 1240. fet ‘Guam 2 5 5 ues 2 Pow usng | foey ‘Bupjeo7 a a0 anus Buds. serunea x & @ WSINVHOSW JIONVH HOOG / VI ¥ ‘suny Spin, 00H Bup}007 oom ee oF Mw ea OP 3.41 TTS Integrated Training Systom ‘© Copyright 2010 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes Gremge2dlmscrarceIntegrated Training System Designed in association with he ‘hubsepro.com question practice aid Non-Plug-Type Doors Doors that close from the outside are called non-plug-type doors. The hinges and the closing mechanism of this type of door must carry all the forces that are caused by pressure differences. For the above mentioned reasons, the large cargo compartment doors have heavy locking mechanisms. These locks are at the exact locations where the frames in the fuselage q and the cargo door are broken. The lock forms the connection between these frames when the door is closed (Figure 3.31). In this way, non-plug-type doors add to the total strength of the 4 fuselage construction. Operation and Locking This kind of door is mainly used for cargo compartments. Depending on the dimensions of the doors, they are equipped with counterbalance mechanism for manual operation, electrical motor actuation or hydraulic actuation. oo mo The locking hooks keep each cargo door in the closed position. To show this condition there are indication windows in the access panel of the cargo door. The green mark shows that the safety mechanism locks each locking unit in its latched position. The red marks show that the locking units are not locked and satisfactory. When the cargo doors are locked, the door seal makes the related cargo compartment pressure-tight. To balance the difference in pressure on the ground and in the cargo compartments, there is a vent door in each cargo door. This spring-loaded vent _ door opens inboard and remains in this position until the cargo door is correctly locked. Drift Pins ul The drift pin mechanism is installed in the middle of the cargo door. It decreases the contour off- set between the fuselage and the door. The drift pin mechanism includes the linkage assembly and the drift pins with the related bellcranks and the connection links. The linkage assembly ! transmit the movement of the safety shaft to the bellcranks. They operate the connection links which retract or extent the drift pins. When the cargo door is correctly locked, the extended drift pins engage with the pockets of the fuselage frame. Door Seals The door seal made usually of silicone rubber integrated with fabric is a round hose-type seal with inflation holes. The door seal is installed in the retainers so that the inflation holes show to the inner side of the cargo compartment. When the cargo door is in the closed position, the door seal comes into contact with the fuselage profile. Due to the higher i ternal pressure of the 4 cargo compartment during the flight, the door seal is inflated via the inflation holes so that the cargo compartment is sealed air-tight. Door Indication and Warning Electrical switches (micro switches or proximity switches) of the door warning system monitor the closed and locked condition of the cargo door. They send a signal to the cockpit indication system when a cargo door is not locked. Then an indication warms the pilots about the unlocked condition of the door. 4] 3.42 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes Coed ‘TTS tegrated Teanng System sera fear © Copyight 2010 ost oefee cc ee eee en ca C2 ca co eo cc Cc m1 oc Integrated Training System Designed in association wth the club66pra.cem cuestin pacice ed Figure 3.31: Example of Non-plug-Type Door (A321) Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.43 TS Integrated Training Systom ‘Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe elubpre.com question pracice cid Pressure Door Warning System The door warning system is an electrical circuit which gives the crew a visual warning when a door is open or not latched. These doors are included in the door warning system: se ee eee The forward and aft entry doors The forward and aft galley service doors The forward and aft cargo compartment doors The lower nose compartment access (forward access) door The forward airstair door (if installed) Tire burst protector screens {if installed) The electronic equipment compartment external access door. The door waming system has these components: ‘A door warning module on the overhead panel in the control cabin The door warning module uses lights to watn the crew that doors are open of unlocked A miscellaneous switching module in the electronic equipment compartment Door waming sensors on the doors. A MASTER CAUTION light identifies a malfunction. A door warning light identifies the applicable door. Each door waming light has two bulbs. ‘One light continuously shows the words on the cap. One light illuminates the translucent cap as a waming. The illuminated colour is amber/opaque and the non-illuminated colour is white/gray. 3.44 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes asada TTS Integrated Treining System groresty tessioren © Copyright 2010 pagel a rapier n Pee REE fet Ee J oeft Pee EE Eee C Integrated Training System Designed in sociation vith the alubéepro.com question pactee ad Cockpit Windows The flight deck windows are again divided into two kinds: windshield (front windows) and side windows. The requirements that flight deck windows must meet are significantly more severe than the requirements for cabin windows, This is understandable because the safety of the flight crew must be guaranteed under all circumstances. Windshields consist of layers of toughened glass and plastics. There is a heating element between the outside window and the plastic layer (see figure 3.21). The heating element is made of gold, tin oxide or indium oxide. The outside window has a stif, hard, scratch resistant layer. The synthetic middle layer keeps splinters from being spread in the flight deck if the inside window breaks. Heating the windshields is necessary because: * it increases the flexibility of the windshields; + itkeeps the windows free of ice; * itkeeps the windows from fogging over. The construction of the cockpit window consists of a glass pane laminated to each side of a polyvinyl butyral (vinyl) interlayer or core. The inner glass pane is the thicker of the two and is the primary load carrying member. The vinyl interlayer, or core, acts as the “fail-safe" load carrying member and prevents the window from shattering if the inner pane should break. The outer pane has no structural significance, but provides rigidity and a hard, scratch resistant surface. The different layers of the windows expand and contract at different rates during a change in temperature. This can cause the layers to pull against each other at their interface with great force causing intemal glass chipping and viny! interlayer cracking, especially around the edges. To prevent this windows have thin layers of a slippery material around the edges, called parting material or slip planes, to allow the window layers to slide against each other during expansion and contraction. Some windows have soft material layers around the edges or across the whole window that will flex when the main structural layers pull against them. Uneven heating, expansion and shrinkage, careless installation, ultraviolet rays, pressure differences and seeping in of humidity via leaks in the window seals can all lead to delamination (the layers come loose), pealing, tearing or breaking. The side windows consist of layers of toughened glass and plastics just as the windshields. In windows that can be heated (against fogging), the heating element is between the inside window and the synthetic layer. awa acourele | Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.45 boob ot Som “7S iniopated raring System © Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with tho elubpo.cem question pracoe eid FRONT WINDOWS CwINOsMIELDS @ co 4 eh enon j tae ro s wu erromenren 7 ‘SLIDI IB ann ond AFT - woe reece rt . POLY VINYL -BUTYRAL (eva) AER FRONT WINDOWS OUTER FACE HYVIZ HEATING SYSTEM. Figure 3.32: Cockpit Windows (A310) 3.46 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures ~ Aeroplanes ‘TTS integrated Training System © Copyright 2010 SILICONE MOULDED SEAL SEMI ~TEMPERED GLASS ANTISTATIC. COATING | SAL 3 ‘GUASS. EPOXY PACKER INNER MAIN PLY FULL TEMPERED GLASS. ALUMINIUM ALLOY INSERT CENTRE MAINY PLY FULL TEMPERED GLASS, SILICONE SEAL NEOPRENE SEAL, STAINLESS STEEL, CLEATS nq POLYSULPHIDE WEATHER SEAL ‘outer pty. SEMI= TEMPERED GLASS oe] Hi i ensectorsecen evry te sxe nepal hourIntegrated Training System [Designed in absociaion vith the clubéepre.com question practice ad Sliding Windows ‘The cockpit of most transport category aeroplanes include two sliding windows (left and right) installed at both sides. The flight crew can use these sliding windows as emergency exits, outer { u f LOCKING FIN n u ‘CONNECTING ROD. EQUIPPED WITH IVERSAL, u conTAOL, 1 HANDLE u : OPEMATING LEVER { (UNLOCKING) LOCKING Leven Figure 3.33: Example of Sliding Window (Airbus) Inspection and Maintenance of Cockpit Windows } The information given in the following paragraph is of a general nature and should be read in L_ conjunction with the Maintenance Manuals and approved Maintenance Schedules for the aircraft concemed. Dama: Panels should be inspected for defects and any signs of damage such as delamination, | chipping and cracking of glass layers. The following brief descriptive details are intended as a LJ guide to this type of damage and other defects which may occur. Delamination This is a defect which can occur in laminated windscreens characterised by the separation of a glass layer from the vinyl interlayer. Delamination should not be confused with deliberate stress- | relieving edge separation of panels which is sometimes employed. In such cases a parting Li ear sao Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.47 Sobuge etme per ‘TTS integrated Training System rl © Copyright 2010Integrated Training System cy Designed in association with the lub66pro.com question practice aid medium is used, introducing a separation penetrating the edges of the panel assembly to a distance of 6 mm to 25 mm (0-25 inch to 1 inch) and giving a yellowish or brownish appearance at the edges. a) Defective delamination has characteristics that tend to divide it into the following main types and resulting from different types of stress at the glass/vinyl interface. i) Clear (or cloudy). Of the two types, delamination is apt to be clear. However cloudy delamination will result if moisture penetrates the delaminated area. In doubtful cases delamination can be confirmed by carrying out a reflection test by means of a flaw detector using a light beam. The beam is directed onto the surface of the windscreen and produces two sharply defined lines on a ground glass sereen representing the top and bottom surfaces of the windscreen. Any delamination present will produce an additional line and its proximity to either of the other lines is helpful in deciding which of the layers has separated. ii) Rough-edge. This is characterised by its irregular, sharp or jagged boundary. It may develop long finger-like projections if, during the course of delamination the parting between vinyl and glass is not uniform. iil) Smooth-edge. Smooth-edge delamination advances with a smooth boundary. It does not have rough or jagged areas within it, nor indications of internal cracks or chips. b) A small amount of delamination is permitted on most aircraft but details of the permissible extent and any limits concemed with aircraft fight operations, e.g, flights under pressurised conditions, should be obtained from the relevant aircraft Maintenance Manual and Flight Manual. Scratches Scratches are defects in the surface of a panel and every effort must be made to avoid them. They are normally more prevalent on the outer surface where windshield wipers are indirectly the primary cause. Any dust or grit trapped by a wiper blade can immediately become an extremely effective cutting device as soon as the wiper is set in motion. Wiper blades must therefore be maintained in a clean condition and should only be operated when the windscreens are wet. a) On the basis of severity, scratches may be classified as hairline, light and heavy. i) Hairline Scratches. A hairline scratch can be seen but is difficult to feel with a fingernail. It can be caused by wiping the glass with a dry cloth. To avoid hairline scratches, the glass should be cleaned with a mild detergent and water, using a soft brush or clean, soft cotton cloth, followed by drying with a clean, soft cotton cloth. li) Light Scratches. A light scratch is less than 0-254 mm (0-010 inch) deep and can be felt with a fingemail. This type of scratch ordinarily has few edge chips. 3.48 Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes ai TTS Integrated Training System serene et ©Copyright 2010 rae elie acerr c ee eee foe es Oe PES eee eee eee! Integrated Training System Designee insStociaon wih the cubégpro.com muoston pracice a Heavy Scratches. A heavy scratch is 0:254 mm (0-010 inch) or more in depth and can be readily felt with a fingernail. This type of scratch is apt to show extensive edge chipping. b) If the integrity of a panel is not suspected and provided visibility is not seriously affected, scratches are permissible within limits detailed in the relevant aircraft Maintenance Manual. ©) Scratches can be removed by polishing, but due to an uneconomic time factor, possible optical distortion and problems of assessing optical standards acceptable in the ultimate operational situations, it is recommended that a panel assembly be returned to the manufacturer and replaced by a serviceable assembly. Chipping Chips are flakes or layers of glass broken from the surface which can occur if the exterior surfaces of a panel are struck by a sharp object. The inner surfaces of a lamination of the panel may also chip in unheated areas, as a result of high intemal stresses. There are two types of chips: conchoidal and V-shaped. Conchoidal chips are usually circular or curved in shape with many fine striations that follow the outline of the outer edge. V-shaped chips are sharp and narrow, the 'V' appearing to propagate toward the interior of the glass. Visibility through chipped areas of a windscreen panel is usually poor. Chips occurring at the inner surfaces of glass panels are critical because the existing condition may result in cracking or shattering of a pane, or in the case of an electrically heated windscreen, destruction of the resistance heating film. These chips are usually associated with rough-edge delamination. Cracks These are serious defects which, depending on the type of glass and the formation and propagation of the cracks, may result in considerable strength reduction of the windscreen and effects on visibility varying from slightly impaired to complete obscurity. In annealed glass the damage may take the form of single cracks, or cracks forming an irregular criss-cross pattem. The more usual result of damage to strengthened glass is the formation of cracks spreading radially from the point of damage and in these cases, vision is impaired but not completely obscured. Cracks in a toughened glass form a pattern defined as shattering, a defect resulting in considerable reduction in strength and loss of vision. A windscreen having such a defect should be removed and replaced by a serviceable assembly. The extent to which cracks are permitted, limitations on aircraft operation and the action to be taken in order to rectify the defects, may vary between aircraft types. Details are given in the relevant aircraft Maintenance Manual and Flight Manual and reference must therefore always be made to these documents. Vinyl Rupture Vinyl rupture consists of a failure across the section of vinyl at the inner edge of the metal insert and necessitates changing the panel. sara cee Module 11.9 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.49 peo @cttho hele TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with ne ctubepro.cam question practice ad Vinyl ‘Bubbling’ Small bubbles occurring within the vinyl interlayer of electrically heated windscreens arenota delamination nor are they structurally dangerous. They are usually due to overheating u conditions, being formed by a glass liberated by the vinyl. They need not be a cause for windscreen replacement unless vision is seriously impaired. Their presence, however, may indicate a defective window heat control system which should be rendered inoperative pending rectification. Discolouration Electrically heated windscreens are transparent to direct light but they normally have a - distinctive colour when viewed by reflected light. This apparent discolouration is due to the resistance heating film and it may vary slightly between windscreens. Only black or brown discolouration, when viewed normal to the surface, should be regarded as a possible defect a necessitating removal of the windscreen and replacement by a serviceable one. The cause of | such discolouration may be a burnout of the heating film or a carbon deposit between a busbar and the heating film due to overheating. = Sealants Weather sealants provided around the periphery of windscreens must be inspected for evidence — of erosion, lack of adhesion, separation or holes. The obvious purpose of maintaining an ) effective weather sealant is to protect the windscreens against moisture entry and the delamination or electrical problems associated with moisture penetration. When new sealant is = required, the damaged material should be removed, the area cleaned and new material applied =| in the manner prescribed in the relevant aircraft Maintenance Manual. NOTE: Damaged material should always be removed with a plastic tool that will fit, without binding, in the gap between windscreen and frame. The use of a metal tool is inadvisable, as this could damage the glass or vinyl interlayer. n Cleaning of Cockpit Windscreens Windscreens should be washed regularly with warm water and mild detergent, using a clean, soft cloth or cotton wool pad; after washing the panels should be rinsed and dried with a clean, soft cotton cloth. Scratching of the glass must be avoided. om) Some aircraft manufacturers recommend the use of a proprietary detergent which is also suitable for the surrounding aircraft structure and therefore to some extent simplifies cleaning ‘operations; it is important that only the detergent specified is used and that the prescribed i proportion of detergent to water is observed. A Grit, dirt, ete., should be removed at regular intervals from recesses, for example, where the panel joins the frame, to prevent it being picked up by the cleaning cloths and causing scratching. The accumulation of cleaning and polishing materials in recesses must be avoided. EEE EEE Storage of Cockpit Windows Extreme care is necessary during transportation, storage and handling of windscreens to prevent damage. It is recommended that panels should be packed with both faces covered with adhesive polythene; they should then be wrapped in acid-free paper and cellulose wadding and Se eee 3.50 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes fiecsaaeaie ‘TTS intagrated Training System “Sasser chset © Copyright 2010 eeec EEE eee co c EE at C EEE HERS HE EEE eee eee Ree rere Cc BEEEEEE Eee 4 Integrated Training System Designed in association wih the ‘lube6pr0.00m question practice eid put into reinforced cartons, these being covered with waxed paper and secured with adhesive tape. The panel should be stored in their cartons on suitable racks, away from ‘sunlight or strong artificial light, at a controlled temperature of between 10T to 21T (50F to 70F) in well ventilated conditions. Itis important to ensure that during handling or storage the thicker glass ply of a laminated panel is kept uppermost to prevent delamination and that the polythene film is not removed until the panel is filted to the aircraft. Cabin windows Cabin windows (see figure 3.34) really consist of three windows. The outside and the middle window are installed in the construction of the fuselage, but are of no importance to the strength of the fuselage. The protective windows are installed in the wall panels. There is a small ventilation hole in the inside window to allow adjustment for pressure differences between the inside and the outside window. Cabin windows are made of a certain synthetic. The advantages are that is weather proof. A disadvantage of this material is that it is sensi compounds, ultraviolet rays and air pollution. extreme clearness and e to solvents, stripping Each window is made with two panes. Each of the two panes can carry the full differential cabin pressure on their own. The panes are made of stretched acrylic. Uesander dona Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.51 Renesas nearer ‘TTS integrated Training Systom © Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designad in association withthe ubdbpro.com question practice aid OUTER PASSENGER WIRDOWPANE WINDOW FRAME TN SEAL ALIGNMENT TAB I (& LOCATIONS) COMBINED SEAL/SPACER BREATHER HOLE WINDOW RETAINING cup (40 LOCATIONS) Figure 3.34: Cabin Window components Near the bottom of the inner pane, at the centre, there is a small vent hole to equalise the pressure between the panes in normal operating conditions, but is not large enough to cause significant pressure loss in the event of outer pane damage. It also helps to prevent condensation and misting between the two panes. In maintenance areas where fumes of solvents occur, all cabin windows within a radius of 5m from the work spot must be covered. In some types of aeroplanes (for example, the Boeing 747) the first few cabin windows are attached even more securely to lessen the effects of a possible bird strike. Windows are designed to preclude fogging and frosting by means of multiple pane construction with intervening cavities essentially isolated from cabin interior air conditions, 3.52 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes heuaneaoe TTS iniggratad Training System "onongedet tie ogee © Copyright 2010 fee oo ooIntegrated Training System Designed in association with the ‘lubéepro.com question practice ald A third pane known as the acoustic pane or scratch pane is a non-structural pane and is installed into the sidewall lining. It is made from polycarbonate. ‘ie Pane (aceouse) a Figure 3.35: Cabin window assemblies ey Figure 3.35: Cabin window assemblies Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.53 ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘® Copyright 2010Integrated Training System - Designed in association wih the elunsbpre.com queston practice sid Dummy Window In areas of the cabin where equipment and furnishings (e.g. galleys and lavatories etc.) are located, cabin dummy windows are installed. This are made of one layer of aluminium alloy = plate. oo Window Cleaning a ‘Transparent plastics panels (acrylic sheet), widely used for cabin window glazing, are affected =, by certain organic fluids and in some cases their vapours. Some of these fluids are in common . use during aircraft maintenance operations and cleaning procedures. See 1 oe pasa Beet co eee 3.54 Module 11.8 Airame Structures - Aeroplanes ieee TTS Intograted Trening System serenade cet ©Copyright 2010 ae iIntegrated Training System Designed in association wth the ‘lubeepra.com question practee ale Seats Passenger seats are attached to seat tracks in the floor, and may be rearranged for different passenger configurations by moving the seats forward or aft on seat tracks. Seat tracks are beams of special cross section and are bolted to the floor structure. Tracks are provided with circular cut-outs for seat studs and lock pins, which lock the seats in position. Cut-outs in the tracks are spaced one inch apart. The seats are triple or double passenger type Seat retention studs are mounted in the front and rear of each leg. At the rear of each leg is a pivoted double retaining stud. Seat retention and locking is by a spring loaded shear pin located at the rear of each leg. TURN LATCH TO RELEASE TABLE TABLE EXTENDED) LITERATURE POCKET Figure 3.36: Triple and double passenger seat assemblies nana eacos is Module 41.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.55 Semednecwe” ‘TTS integrated Training Syston ‘©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with ho ‘kibé6pro.com question pracice aid SEAT TRACK STUD ‘SEAT TRACK ANTI-RATTLE FITTING Figure 3.37: Seat anti-rattle fitting on rear legs 3.56 Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes TTS Integrated Trsning Syston © Copyright 2010 ‘ops dott co 4 pede zi peeIntegrated Training System Designed in association with the club66pr0.com quoston practice aid | 13.3.2 Wings (ATA 57) L Introduction . The lift, which produced by the wing, must be transmitted into the structure in such a manner | and in such a location that the aeroplane can be balanced in every condition of flight. And the structure must be built in such a way that it can support alll of the loads without any damaging deflection. The wing is mounted on the aeroplane in a location that places its centre of pressure just slightly behind the point at which all of the weight of the aeroplane is concentrated, the centre of gravity. The centre of pressure travel on the wing chord produces some rather large torsional, or >) _ twisting, loads on its structure, especially at the point where the wing attaches to the fuselage. f 1 EEE BEE ee SLATS. (SHOWN y LEADING: EDGE FLAPS A (SHOWN EXTENOED) EATEMCED) ee Figure 3.38: Wing description my Li Ureanai canta Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.57 Sree 2d mcrae TTS Integrated Training System r ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designodin association withthe eub66pro.com question pracioe ais fee In addition to the twisting loads imposed on the structure in flight, the wing is also subjected to bending loads. The weight is essentially concentrated at the fuselage, but the lift is produced all along the wing, The wing spars, which are the main span-wise members of the structure, are designed to carry these bending loads. eee EEE 1 Cantilever and Non-Cantilever Figure 3.39 shows a cantilever wing and a non-cantilever wing. A cantilever wing has no external n Supports and its structural strength is derived from its intemal design. The advantage ofthis kind || of wing is it eliminates drag caused by wing struts. Its disadvantage is the added weight required to give the wing its strength. eter A. WONCANTILEVER WING WITH EXTERNAL SUPPORTS. aan Eee ooo eee B. CANTILEVER WING WITH NO EXTERNAL SUPPORTS. Figure3.39: Non-cantilever and cantilever wing configurations u 3.58 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes aes TTS ntayetes Taina Seem ase {© Copyright 2010 7n c Hees n { E ni Integrated Training System Designas in astocialion with tho club6spro.com question praston id Truss-type Wing Construction Fabric-covered aeroplane wings have a truss-type structure that has changed very little throughout the evolution of the aeroplane. The main lengthwise members in a wing truss are the spars. In the past, these were all made of wood, but the more modem construction uses spars of extruded aluminium alloy. Figure 3.40: Truss Type Wing Stressed-Skin Wing Construction In the same manner as the fuselage, wings have generally evolved from the truss form of construction to one in which the outer skin carries the greatest amount of the stresses. Seri- monocoque construction is generally used for the main portion of the wing. One of the advantages of an all-metal wing is the ease with which it can be built to carry all of the flight loads within the structure so it does not need any extemal struts or braces. Such an internally braced wing is called a cantilever wing. This configuration has become standard for transport aircraft, cantilever low wing, with retractable landing gear. The aerofoil section of a cantilever wing is normally carries the stresses. Semi-monocoque construction is generally used for the main portion of the wing is quite thick, and the wing has a strong centre section built into the fuselage. The engines and landing gear attach to this centre section. Rather than using the familiar two-spar construction, most of these wings are of the multi-spar construction in which several spars carry the flight loads, and spanwise stiffeners run between the spars to provide even greater strength. Users cen Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes. 3.59 epage aii hee TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Hee ee eee eae Dee cee Dee te ee (eee Ussansir arcane sjeued upjs wonog seds quod} qu pue Burm 181NO qu pabioy Figure 8.41: Semi-monocoque Wing Construction Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes sq ssrup € x 2 an D £ & © E 3 £ © > £ — ee a B85 ge HW 3s TTS intogratod Training System © Copyright 2010 3.60Integrated Training System Designed in association with the lubsépro.com question practice aid Wing Torsion Box Itis critical that a wing can resist twisting forces, produced especially by the deflection of ailerons and the deployment of flaps and slats and changes in angle of attack. Such twisting would change the flight characteristics of the aircraft, and in extreme circumstances, usually at high speed can cause aileron reversal (a deflection of the aileron causes the wing to twist in the 1) opposite aerodynamic sense, creating lift changes in opposition to that intended by the pilot), Centre of Centre of u Pressure otWing Pressure of Alleron ft bi ui A fi u Figure 3.42: Aileron reversal stages This can also occur when an aileron goes into dynamic ‘flutter’ and can lead to ‘structural +> divergence’ and catastrophic failure of the wing. Consequently, most modem airliner wings consist of a ‘torsion box’ (or wing box’) made up from the front and rear spars, and capped by the upper and lower skins. Cc r i se andr dadoau ie Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes. 3.61 Stoupnad he cup TTS intogratod Training System aa ‘© Cony 2070Integrated Training System Designed in association with the lud6px0.com question practice ale es Figure 3.43: Torsion box principle The four components of this structure are primary structure. Other wing features such as leading edges and trailing edges and their associated devices, are secondary structure, and often made from a composite material construction. 8.62 ‘TTS Intograted Training System (© Copyright 2010 4 Figure 3.44: Torsion box wing structure Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes ower ‘onsagad el ie oa ce Seed eee eee eect m3 ee Poe fe Herr Integrated Training System : Designed in association with the ‘lubéepro.com question practcg aid See is Figure 3.45: Torsion box takes the primary wing loads Secondary Het Figure 3.46: Torsion box is primary structure eee <7 C co Lenten Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.63 Soernaeet “1S inte Trang Systm ‘ooo 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with tha ‘lubé6pr0.c0m question pracice ETAL A remcat section ar messcmrerminone Jou MAIN WING BOX STRUCTURE 3 Figure 3.47: Torsion box wing structure 3.64 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes cesar| am | ‘a Ct) C3 EEE SH-HLSeec) Eee Aca C oe Integrated Training System b Designed in association with he ctubepr.com question practice ad Wing Spars The spars are the principle structural members of the wing. The spars support all distributed loads as well as concentrated weights, such as fuselage, landing gear, and on mutti-engined aircraft, the nacelles or pylons. Most spars are built up from extruded 7075 aluminium alloy sections, with riveted aluminium alloy web sections to provide extra strength. More recent aircraft have machined spars. Spars usually taper from root to tip, because there is a greater amount of bending moment experienced towards the root whenever the wing bends. Wing Spar Layout Configurations Most manufacturers use a similar spar layout construction as shown in Figure 3.0. Some use a third (middle spar), sometimes called an auxiliary spar, to help carry the extra bending moments at the root and the engine and landing gear loads. Loads on the Wing Spar Awing spar is subject to two loads; shear force and bending moment. The loads applied to a wing in flight and during landing are complex, but can be simplified to a lift load during flight, decreasing from root to tip due to the decreasing wing section and sometimes a twist is applied to the wing also (washout). This results in a decreasing shear force and bending moment as shown in Figure 3.49. For both load types, the maximum is at the wing root. Effect of shear forces Figure 3.48: Effects of shear force loads and bending moment Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.65 ‘TTS Intograted Training System (©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with ho ‘lupé6pr0.c0m question pracice aid « 3 x n J BENDING MOMENT Figure 3.49: Shear force and bending moment diagrams for a cantilever beam with a reducing distributed load. The inclusion of fuel tanks, wing mounted engines and wing mounting landing gear will modify the diagrams considerably, with all those factors actually providing shear force and bending moment relief at the wing root during flight, but will aggravate the root loads on landing. Final aircraft design configuration is a compromise as a result. 7 i 4 Separating the wing tanks into multiple compartments will increase the bending moment relief even further as shown in Figure 3.51. a J sia: ee ia 3.66 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes eee TTS integrated Training Systom ssa i ret © Copyright 2010 pagezaltiecianesIntegrated Training System Designedin tociton wth tho cubogpo.com question practice eid Figure 3.50: Wing spar layouts C seen aceng Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.67 reonoay Sreapozd mican ‘TTS integrated Training Sytem ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Dosignad in association wits tha clubebpre.com question prac aid oe uy r] i q Tip Root Ht | Case A : zg Case C g n Case B é ud Case B Case A a i ! nq tH Cove C ‘i i Tip Root uf Figure 3.51: Effects wing tanks on bending moment relief ia q 3.68 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes eee ‘TTS Integrated Training System Prana oa hecho © Copyrgn2010,Integrated Training System Designedin ssociaton with tho csunspro.com questen rector id When a wing flexes upwards (known as ‘sagging’ due to the shape made when both wings are viewed from the front) the top surtace goes into compression and the bottom surface goes into compression. The two surfaces also compress together, a load which must be withstood by the wing ribs. The positions of the tensile and compressive loads are reversed when the moment the aircraft is touching down on landing and also during taxiing, (> Approximately halfway between the upper and lower surface of the wing (known as the ‘neutrat LL axis), the structure is under no bending induced loads whatsoever. The only load taken at that point is shear load. Figure 3.52: Compression and tension on the upper and lower wing surfaces when the wing is bending upwards (sagging) Upper boom Consequently, the ideal cross section of a wing spar is one which has most of its material at the upper and lower n extremities, such as the ‘I’ section. Such a wing spar is comprised of three components; the shear web, which takes only the shear load, and the upper fr u Shear web and lower books (or ‘spar caps’) which takes the ‘compressive and tensile forces caused by the bending 9 moment. tl Lower boom u (Figure 3.53: A typical ‘I'section spar ua r {\ ul i u Li reste tate Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.69 Sroomednacune TTS integrated Training Syetem ra ‘@ Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe chubgbpre.com question practice aid q a eee aa ca Figure 3.54: Three examples of ‘section spars. A- A fabricated spar 7 B — A fabricated spar with fails-safe provision at B-Amachined spar ‘Asa rule, a wing has two spars. One spar is usually located near the front of the wing andthe i | other about two thirds of the distance towards the wings trailing edge. Regardless of the type the spar is the most important part of the wing. When other structural members are placed 7 under load they pass most of the resulting stresses on to the wing spars. is In general, wing construction is based on one of three fundamental designs: 9 + Monospar, He * Multi-Spar, Ha + Box Beam. ul Monospar 7 The monospar wing incorporates only one main longitudinal member in its construction, Ribs or“ bulkheads supply the necessary contour or shape to the aerofol. This kind of construction has no application in transport category aeroplane wings, but is quit often used for flight control a surfaces : Multi-Spar i ‘The multi-spar wing incorporates more than one main longitudinal member in its construction. To give the wing contour, ribs or bulkheads are often included. 7 a 3.70 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes peer ‘TTS Integrated Training System congecotecane (© Copyright 2010rt hh C u (i ‘1 Integrated Training System a) Designed in association with the 2 ‘lube 6pro.com question practcg aid Box Beam The box beam type of wing construction uses two main longitudinal members with connecting bulkheads to fumish additional strength and to give contour to the wing, This is the most used construction design for wings with integral wing tanks. Integral Spar Figure 3.55: Examples of Spar Constructions Due to the critical nature of the spar, usually some form of fail-safe method is used in their design. This usually means the construction is made up of two halves, each half of the spar web {top and bottom) can carry the entire load by itself, and a crack in one half of the web will not propagate to the other half. A crack-stopper is also often employed. se enor acu Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes. 371 eveogby oa oatnert ‘page poe TTS Integrated raining System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association withthe ‘lbe6pre.com question practice aid eo aes | ae ‘Upper web a 9 Detail -B" Detail “Ar Wing skin ub i a a a ul a baie 5 @)Conftquration “4” ] Figure 3.56: Spar fail-safe systems oe A 3.72 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes eet TTS inegated Tining Sytem ey eer copie 2010 aotfee fa} \ ca Hy cm ey Uf uu Integrated Training System asignedin association with the ‘lubéépre.com question practice ald Upper ———— flange Vertical stiffener Shear web Faibsafe crackstopper Lower ___» fiange Figure 3.57: Airbus integrally machined spars Wing Skin The skin is part of the wing structure and carries part of the wing stresses. It is an essential load bearing part of the wing structure. The upper wing surface is usually made from aluminium alloy 7075; this material has a high resistance to compression loads. The lower wing surface is usually made from aluminium alloy 2024 as this material has excellent properties that withstand tension loads. As airspeeds increased with their higher flight loads, it became apparent that not only was more strength needed for the skins of all-metal wings, but more stiffness was also needed. And to gain the strength and stiffness needed and yet keep the weight down, at first the manufacturers of some of the high-speed military aircraft begin the construction of wing skins with thick slabs of aluminium alloy. Then they machine away some of the thickness but leaves enough material in the proper places to provide just exactly the strength and stiffness needed. Figure 3.58: Milled Wing Skin are sear Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.73 oopsed ms ope ‘TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed n association withthe ‘shuoe6re.Som question practice aid To provide some fail-safe effect, the wing skins are fitted in ‘planks’ as shown in Figure 3.59. a Acrack which starts in one crack will not normally propagate to the adjacent plank, thus “th providing more time for the crack to be found during the routine inspection programme of the a aircraft. I Fewer planks are required on the top skin due to that fact that it is in compression most of the time, and cracks are normally initiated by tensile cyclic loads it at a os oe us 4 PANELS BOTTOM a t ul Figure 3.59: Wing ‘planks’ on the upper and lower skins of the BAe 146 f} —J ul 374 Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes eet ‘TTS Intograted Training Systom “anon deltie apr © Copyright 2010 5{ oe Ree ee tee Cc te ee ee a2) C ‘Skin Materials Integrated Training System Designed in association with the ‘lub66pr0.com quoston practice ad No. of Spars; | “ge 7 i cians Smipe | eB spacing we ao == | ae. 7 = | tee Pere ar, ‘i er nmans a WeeBbew | SE | ges oe vee a =e | ao 105 ewe, ves ee mez | i a = | _ a a me ze cm - st! fom Pat i Porn 7 i Ein |e cw srs = | tee a = 8 ste | ae ee i i mse a ma = |e & om esse Sac oe jarsets 7 ze, 4 mewn | am |e 200008 — | Se 1075-176/7075-16 Seat eee eee | museum | magaee | = wo _— = a a apm | Se ae eer ees meer = i sina = En sila i a == | es ves ell ee = |e mae | EE | yee res wmaerine | —e— | dee naam | SE | aes i raocitaness | —r— | sate meee | | eer giz meee | | dee ag yeu | Se | aes greedy neater Sia 24 mbar Table 3.1: Skin materials used by various manufacturers Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.75 ‘TTS Intogratod Training System ‘©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designedinasseiaton wha clubs com questo pact as i 3 oe Intentionally Blank 7 co 3.76 ‘Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes: \ sean aeconrale ‘TTS integrated Training System Seno lien © Copyright 2010 | iJIntegrated Training System Designed in association with the clubsepro.com question practice aid Wing Ribs Ribs are the structural crosspieces that make up the framework of the wing. They usually ) extend from the wing leading edge to the rear spar or to the trailing edge of the wing and gives f LL the aerofoil shape. tr They maintain the correct contour of the cross section of the wing, and withstand the |) compressive force experienced between the upper and lower skins when the wing bends up or down in flightlanding. A short rib, known as a false rib, is often placed between the main ribs at the leading edge, to increase the strength at that part of the wing which is vulnerable to bird strikes etc. t Wing ribs may be pressed from sheet aluminium alloy in a hydropress, or they may be built up of sheet metal channels and hat sections riveted to the skin to give it both the shape and rigidity it needs. C3 Figure 3.60: Ribs ne ance aces Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.77 Sromed Recuner™ TTS intograted Training System ©Copyright 2010,Integrated Training System wo Desigredin asocaton wh ho lubGepo.com qlosbon precio ad : Wing Tips q The wing tip is often a removable unit, bolted to the outboard end of the wing panel. One reason *” for this is the vulnerability of the wing tips to damage, especially during ground handling and a taxiing. If damage does occur to the wing tip it can be replaced in a short time period. Another | factor to consider is if the wing tip should accidentally strike something then damage will be limited to the wing tip and not the whole wing. co > g ae eee eee 3 qe co co Figure 3.61: Example of Wing Tip with Fence eee eee cate J 3.78 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes Rae TIS Intogratod Training Syetom sone © Copyright 2010 eeIntegrated Training System Designed in association with the ‘lubsépra.com question practice ad {| Wing Attached Components 7 Leading and Trailing Edge Assemblies LL. Wing leading edge and trailing edge structures present a particular structural problem in that they do not flex at the same rate as the wing torsion box. This means that their attachment (points can create a stress point, leading to a crack in the spar caps. fo Several methods are used to overcome this, which include loating attachments’ such as piano hinges, sacrificial doublers and corrugated strips (wiggle plates) as shown in Figure 3.62 and 3.63, c u ‘Skin Removable fasteners, attach wants: u Figure 3.62: Cracks in the spar web or torsion box skin can be prevented by using more flexible corrugated (wiggle) plates or sacrificial doublers se ana dsc Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.79 TTS intogratad Training System ‘©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with the q ‘lubs3pro.com question practice alt Reor bottle Forward Hot sir intake opening atmo for ar channel around Nowe 2 The omer shin ofthe leading edge ations i cher Fiberglass panel Rivets Figure 3.64: Composite leading edge and trailing edge structures are generally more flexible and can be riveted or screwed directly to the skin or spar cap. 3.80 Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes eee “TS Intogated Training Systom nena sere Cepyigh 2010 one ooo = =“ J aaa | feet J oes eee co eee {ena coe {Figure 3.65: Hinge Points 3.81 ‘TTS integrated Training System, ©Copyright 2010 Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - AeroplanesIntegrated Training System Designed in association wis the ‘shibsepre.com questen practice ald For certain types of aircraft with engines attached to the wings, the wing also has a centre spar that continues to beyond the outside engine pylon. The connection to the main landing gear requires an extra heavy construction. This consists of one or more auxiliary spars, that are connected to the rear spar and sometimes || goes from the left side to the right side. u Flap/siat tracks or hinges and flight control surfaces are bolted to the spars or reinforced ribs. =) Landing Gear Attachment The wing support structure for the landing gear has to be strengthened in order to 7 accommodate the landing gear loads. The front trunion of the landing gear can be attached to the rear spar of the wing, If the landing gear is attached in this manner, a support structure for the landing gear rear trunion will be necessary; this may be a gear wing beam or may be an ij extra wing spar. This spar is called a false spar. n 4 Lateral brace L j A Up : (Wing box) eva yee q ‘Side brace 4 u 9 u n J Figure 3.66: Examples of Gear Attachment | nt id n is n 3.82 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes Recetas ereetel ‘TS integrated Training Systom sone i ret (© Copyright 2010 5 Jeee eee foe eee eee eee fee Hee eee aoa C ee ‘aan. e=covEee ieee Integrated Training System Designadin association wth the clubgpr.cem quoston pacice sd {Wing box} GS Gear wing beam Up ~ Figure 3.67: Examples of Gear Attachment wean econ Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.83 Stam2d neces ‘TTS integrated Training Syston © Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with tho ‘hioeBpre.com question practce sid Wing Engine Pylon Attachment Generally, there are three methods of wing pylon attachment: * Drag strut installation * Box beam installation * Upper support arm installation Drag Strut Installation The wing pylon structure as illustrated in Figure 3.68 is a cantilever box beam consisting of two upper and two lower longerons. Two side skins transmit the vertical shears and a lower skin primarily carties the lateral shear loads and also acts as a firewall, Forward and aft mount bulkheads are included to transfer the engine loads to the pylon structure and the bulkheads take the pylon loads onto the wing box structure via lug attachments to the wing front spar of the pylon upper longerons and utilizes a rear drag strut to transfer the pylon lower longeron loads to a point between the wing front and rear spars. Box Beam Installation In Figure 3.34 the pylon box beam design, which is to extend the box structure beyond the wing front spar fitting and ends at the aft pylon fitting, which is attached between the wing front and rear spars. This design puts more weight on the pylon, but saves weight on the wing box and minimizes some potential fatigue problems at the wing lower surface. The pylon is attached to the wing, through a fitting on the wing front spar for vertical and side loads, to a fitting beneath the front spar on the wing lower surface for thrust loads, and to a fitting attached to wing box structure on the wing lower surface at the end of the pylon for vertical and side bending loads. Upper Support Arm Installation This type of structure offers advantages such as: ‘* Itis the most efficient structure to react the moment loads due to the overhanging engine; the moment arm A-D is obviously greater than A-B and, therefore, a lighter structure is achieved. © The most efficient configuration transfers the engine moment loads into the wing box structure and therefore further weight saving is obtained. ‘* This benefits the design of engine position closer to the wing lower surface for the purpose of engine-to-ground clearance. It inherently has the structural fail-safe feature due to the redundant design. The engine position can be located further forward without severe structural weight penalty. The disadvantages are: © Complicated structural analysis due to its redundant design. ‘* More rigging problems to ensure the proper structural load distributions, * Interference with wing leading edge control systems such as control cables, rods, hydraulic tubes, heating ducts for de-icing, etc. 3.84 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes tee TTS integrates Training Sytem one ovact ©Copyright 2010 co Et aaa Ree SEEDesignad in ascocition with the club6épro.com question practoe id Integrated Training System (uoddne juepunpau) uoneneisuy uy woddng seddn, anas Beg uopenesuy wee xg x09 wOA\d uone|eSu) NS Beg sumy Sumy uw eae | | neste EE ee eee Figure 3.68: Engine Pylon Attachment eee 3.85 ‘TTS Intogratod Trsining System g e 2 8 3 & 6 3 z = = 2 a 3 2 ‘©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System ‘Designed in association ith the 7 clubegpr.com question practice ald a Flight Control to Wing Attachment 1 Figure 3.69 shows an aileron hinge fitting. This fitting is machined from aluminium alloy and is bolted to the rear spar of the wing. The fitting has a bushing to accommodate the nut and bolt assembly that passes through a bearing on the aileron hinge. The ailerons are usually hinged at || three places. Aileron Attachment Fitting ($2000) Aileron Attachment Fitting ul Figure 3.69: Example of Aileron Attachment ia u 3.86 Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes eee cece TTS Integrated Trining System seat tear ©Copyright 2010 reaisIntegrated Training System Designedin Beacon ih tho _euespre.com queston practi ad Qj rn A : UG fi u rh Outer Aileron Hinges , 4 Inner Aileron Hinges i Actuator Fitting TRAILING EDGE “TAILERON (A340) Figure 3.70: Example of Aileron Attachment | Use endo dgcaua Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.87 SFoopned Maou ‘TTS intograted Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with tho ‘hub6pro.com question practee sid Storage of Fuel Wings and in some cases also the horizontal stabilizer, are used for the storage of fuel. The area between the front spars and the rear spars is used. Various constructions are possible. The viscosity of the fuel used and the safety requirements that are set for the storage of the fuel require good sealing (see Figure 3.71). One problem when sealing is that wings and tail surfaces are constantly moving in flight. In an integral tank construction, the area between spars, ribs, upper and lower skin panels is completely sealed off by rivets and all seams are closed with sealant so that no fuel can leak through. Figure 3.71: Integral Tank Construction The ribs forming the ends of fuel tanks differ from other ribs in that their webs extend to join the inside surfaces of the wing skin panels between the stringers. The wing ribs in the integral tanks act as bafile plates to prevent excessive fuel surges. Some of the wing ribs contain a series of baffle check valves to prevent fuel flow away from the fuel boost pumps. 3.88 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes eae TTS intograted Training System senaty erat © Copyright 2010 metabo eee co eee eat co i pee Cc ao ae eee co peoEEE Coe Integrated Training System (ap Dalgodin amotio wi he Se clubéépr0.com question practice aid Access to some of the equipment located inside the fuel tanks is not directly possible through the fuel tank access panels. To obtain access to this equipment, personnel must enter the tank ‘through the nearest access panel and go through rib access openings into the areas between >) tibs where no access panel is provided. I] n u Hee u oe poet co EEE ese acemn Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.89 St TTS Integrates ening Systm 5 aca eS copyr an aoToIntegrated Training System Designod in association withthe ‘lub68pr0.00m question practos eid Lana) {aia} Eee eee a [aaa | oe oJ Intentionally Blank EE IEEE Eee eee Eee ee eet 7 u 3.90 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes eee ‘TTS Integrated Training System octal et © Copyright 2010aa Hee eee pee eee G : n Integrated Training System Designedinszocaon withthe ctub6spro.com question pracioe end 13.3.3 Stabilisers (ATA 55) General Arrangement The empennage of an aeroplane is the assembly of tail surfaces that are used both for control and for stability. Regardless of their location or configuration, they serve the same functions. Longitudinal stability and control are provided by the horizontal surfaces, while directional stability and control are provided by vertical surfaces. The location of the horizontal tail surfaces must be taken into consideration because of the turbulence produced by the airflow over the wings. Some aeroplanes have these surfaces located quite low on the fuselage. Figure 3.72: Typical Empennage Configuration A number of modem aeroplanes use the T-tall configuration. The horizontal tail surfaces are mounted on top of the vertical surfaces. This keeps them out of the turbulence caused by the wing and prevents the rudder being blanketed by the horizontal surfaces and losing its effectiveness in a spin. The stabilizers usually are two or multispar structures. ie are son Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.91 Spagna mecuper ‘TTS Integrated Training Syetom ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association wih he celvoabixo.com question prackce aid Elevator Tip Leading Edge Sections Bullet Fairing B i 3 f 2 3 Figure 3.73: T-tail Configuration 3.92 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes oe © Copyright 2010 Use andr scones neresty Noster naedet ecru SE ASE eee co ae fot oeef , Integrated Training System we enna rl he - _ As faras the construction is concemed, the wings, the stabilizers and the vertical stabilizers || have much in common. 1} The vertical stabilizer is normally bolted to the top centre of special reinforced frames of the tail [fuselage section. The vertical fin is bolted to fitting-brackets to facilitate removal and installation (see Figure 3.73), |] on modem aircraft such the Abus A320 primary structural components ofthe stabilizers (spars, ribs and skin panels) are made of laminations of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic 1) (CFRP). All other components are made of the same material or Glass-Fibre Reinforced Plastic 1 (GFRP) or of light alloy. [) _ The trimmable horizontal stabilizer (THS) is a single-piece structure mounted through, and LJ supported by the fuselage tail section. The horizontal stabilizer provides the supporting structure for the LH and the RH elevator. The angle of incidence of the THS can be mechanically adjusted by means of a trim control wheel located in the flight compartment. The THS is installed at the tail section in a large cut-out, and is attached to the fuselage at three points, by the THS actuator and by the two hinge points on either side of the fuselage. The THS comprises of a centre spar box, the LH and RH spar boxes, the LH and RH leading edges, the LH and RH trailing edges, the LH and RH stabilizer tips, the LH and RH stabilizer fi aprons and the stabilizer attach fittings, The main structural component of the THS is the Li stabilizer spar box, and all loads on the horizontal stabilizer are transmitted through the centre ‘spar box and its attachment fittings. The THS can be removed as a complete unit. ny \ 4 Lien tesonee Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.93 Srowoe 2c ns cepa TTS intogratod Training S) eter ‘©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System ain), Desigred in association with tho al SaoSGprose guvton provi od = a q Tip RH ie 4 ‘Trailing Edge RH : Spar Box RH Leading Edge RH i Attach Fittings RH iH q Apron Assembly u ‘Trailing Edge RH Attach Fittings LH j q 7] us Center Spar Box a q Leading Edge RH il Figure 8.74: Typical Horizontal Stabilizer The elevators and rudders are hinged to brackets bolted to the rear spar of the stabilizers. fs u y = 3.94 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes Rees TTS intograted Training System conmeda ecce © Conylght 2010eg Integrated Training System Designed in absociaton with the club6épr0.com question prastog id 13.3.4 Flight Control Surfaces (ATA 55/57) mh LU General Features _ _ The Monocoque construction form is often used for the control surfaces. Considering the (primary flight controls, the elevator normally consists of a spar, ribs and skinning panels. While the rudder and aileron normally consists of a spar, honeycomb core and skinning panels. , Actuators and hinge brackets on all primary control are normally attached to the spar. 1 = Static dischargers are installed near the tip of the trailing edge. They let static electricity discharge from the aircraft. ie | itt u c Figure 3.75: All Metal Control! Surface Lesa dnt Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.95 ‘Seoape 2a the chi TTS integrated Training System Ff t oe Conyraht 2010Integrated Training System Deeigned in association with ho ‘hipeBixo.som question prac aid Secondary control surfaces are normally constructed like rudders. 4 DRIVE LEVER SPIGOT t i i] q BALANCE WEIGHT 7 HINGE ATTACHMENTS Figure 3.76: Honey Comb Core Type Control Surface All-metal, riveted or bonded, control surfaces were traditionally used in transport aircraft. Sy However resin-flbre composite materials have become more popular in modem transport i aircraft. E q u 1 il i ] dl a } n 3.96 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes edad aaa ‘TTS Integrated Training Systom capers oh oar ©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designadin associa with tho clubpesem question past n u ca n n u a n Figure 3.77: Composite Control Surface u C i so arco ctor Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.97 Broo 2a he cea ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘© Gopyngnt 2070Integrated Training System Designed in assacation wih ha _lupro.com question practoe aid a coq poe oleae J Intentionally Blank peas ul ieee poeee 7 3.98 Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes Rae CECE TS Intagrates Training Systm onmnaly eet © Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designasin sBsoraton withthe tuv65prcom question pracice 3 Balancing To lessen the force required to operate the primary control surfaces control surfaces are usually balanced statically and dynamically. Aerodynamic Balancing f (Dynamic balance) A large control surface can be difficult to move with conventional controls. For this reason, some controls have a portion of the surface extending out ahead of the hinge line, like the overhang 1. rudder in Figure 3.78, When the rudder is deflected, air strikes the portion ahead of the hinge line and assists in deflecting it and holding it deflected. \ Abalance panel is used on some large aeroplanes to assist the pilot in moving the ailerons. The hinged balance panel forms a movable partition for the sealed space ahead of the aileron. When the aileron is deflected upward, as seen in figure 3.44, the air over its bottom surface LU speeds up and produces a low pressure through the vent gap below the balance panel. This low pressure pulls the balance panel down and puts a force on the leading edge of the aileron i such a direction that it assists the pilot in holding the aileron deflected upward. Such aerodynamic balancing will have no effect on hydraulically operated controls, since [7 aerodynamic loads are not passed back to the cockpit via a hydraulic system. Area forward n of hinge Me-109F ne (a) Horn balance. (a) Inset hinge balance. cm Figure 3.78: Types of aerodynamic Balancing ~ u fe i " uo fl u Use andor isclosure is Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.99 Ete “TT tegrated ing Sytem ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System - sas Designed in association with the: ) 7 clubebor.com quostonpacice aid ‘| Mass Balance (Static balance) q 7 Control surface flutter is one of the more serious problems high-speed aeroplanes have had in their design evolution. To eliminate flutter, it is extremely important that the control surfaces be balanced so that their centre of gravity does not fall behind their hinge line. This is done by attaching a carefully calculated mass-balance weight (usually of lead but sometimes made of depleted uranium) ahead of the hinge line as shown in Figure 3.79. Mass-balance weight 7 u q a iia : u Figure 3.79: Aerodynamic Balancing id 3.100 Module 11.8 Alrrame Structures - Aeroplanes ee TS Integrated Treining System cre et © Copyright 2010 a0 oo:itt we Integrated Training System i Designadinassosaion wit the ‘tud6Gpr0.com question practice aid 11.3.5 Nacelles and Pylons (ATA 54) General Features On turbo-jet engine installations, cowl panels are designed to provide a smooth airflow over the ‘engines and to protect them from damage. The entire engine cowling system includes a nose cowl, hinged removable cowl panels, exhaust nacelle and trust reverser. The primary functions of the nacelle are to: * Cause a smooth airflow both around and into the engine to decrease drag and give | better engine performance. «Prevent damage to the external surface of the engine and its accessories. * Give additional strength to the engine structure so it is more resistant to the forces that | can cause it to bend (cowl load sharing). « Permit service door access to the engine and its components. uu LH Fan ‘Cowl Door ro L LH Thrust Reverser Door m Inlet Cowl Figure 3.80: Nacelle Configuration Livesey duceaneie Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.401 Sooper ‘TTS intorated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System a Designed in association wth the clubéspr.com question practice ad = Upper Cowl Door lon Apron Nose Cowl ee Figure 3.81: Nacelle Cowls All the skin-panels of nacelles made of composite are provided with lightning protection strips. 3.102 Module 11.3 Alframe Structures - Aeroplanes eae eset vs ‘TTS Integrated Teining System Scnemm tts cet © Copyiiaht 2010 co cy 24 aa eee eee aaen | co. Integrated Training System { et Designed in associalion with the u clubéepro com question practi alc Nose Cowl The nose cowl is the foremost section of the engine nacelle and provides maximum airflow into 1) the engine compressor. It is normally bolted to the engine inlet case and its leading edge is |. supplied with anti-icing air. The main structure of nose cowls is normally made of conventional sheet metal structure, riveted or bonded. The skinning panels are usually made of composite sandwich acoustic structure. i ct L a u Figure 3.82; Nose Cowl Configuration i ae Li sana decor Module 11.9 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.103 Siogescmecape ‘TTS integrated Training System {© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association with the ‘lubéspr0.com question practice ad Hinged Cowling The hinged cowling (cow! doors) designed as large opening doors, usually provided with quick- release latches, facilitate access to the engine built up equipment. From structural point of view they can be divided into two categories: * Cold section doors (fan case) ‘* Hot section doors (core engine) ‘Cold section doors are normally a sandwich construction with a Honeycomb core and composite skin panels. 3.104 TTS inograted Training System ©Copyright 2010 (Graphite) Figure 3,83: Cold Section Door Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes ssa acne ered ya sateen ‘pag Zoster EEE Roce u oot =) oa A See toot ae fee eee nya cy Integrated Training System Designed in asociafon wth he cuebsprecom quoston pastes a Hot section door structure provides fire protection and support capability for aerodynamic, inertial and engine loads that occur in flight and ground operation. Very modern engine hot section doors are rather of composite than of metal sheet construction, but to provide fire protection are covered with stainless steel blankets and titanium alloys heat shields. | aaa py Hore Wap ye ine Pp pou i pas} Forward Frame (2024 Forging) Upper Corner External Panel (Graphite Skins/ Nomex Honeycomb) Latches Precooler Scoop (Glass Poly IM ID) g u & i ; = = u 2 g B i 3 5a gop OE 0 Hi oH 4 u Eg £98 O83 B ial Figure 3.84: Hot Section Cowl Door i Use andor isons is Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.105, Ersage ae ‘TTS integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System = Designed in aecociaton wit cubSbpro com quastonpractee id ae Pylons Jets and turbofans, if not buried in the fuselage, or wing-roots, need to be pylon mounted underwing or rear fuselage. The side pylons for rear fuselage mounting are sometimes called “stub-wings". Both must support the weight of the powerplant and transmit its thrust into the adjacent airframe. ool 7 a coer pee fi Figure 3.85: Pylon Configuration - Tail Mounted 4 al 5 I ib tml 3.106 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes csepaasereteicl ‘TTS integratod Training System Sosa © Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Dasigned in association with the ‘lubéspre.com question przotoe ald Figure 3.86: Pylon Configuration — Wing Mounted As turbo-jet engines develop very little torque, their mountings can be less robust than those required for turbo-prop engines. The latter have to be mounted in tubular sub-frames out in front _ ofeither the fuselage or wing, allowing plenty of vertical clearance between the propeller and the ground. The function of the engine pylons is: { ‘+ to support the engine ~ ‘+ to transmit the engine thrust to the aircraft ttt + to enable the routing and attachment of all the systems connected with the engine (electrical wiring, hydraulic, bleed air and fuel lines). + to serve as fire-barrier between engine and aircraft structure. Pylon structure, like whole aircraft structure, is divided into primary and secondary sections. Le amasconcns Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.107 ‘ap 2a cane TTS integrated Training System (© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association vith ho cuegbpre.com question practce aid Primary Structure (box) Secondary a Figure 3.87: Pylon Sections ie Since the box (primary structure) must carry all the loads and serve as a firewall, it is normally a titanium and steel alloy riveted sheet construction. i Secondary section of pylon which is not part of the firewalll is normally made of composite us panels. HH it ty | ic Eee eaeee 7 a 3.108 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes, TH “TTS Integrated Training System cnr ers copyright 2010 sods ts cooIntegrated Training System Designed in associaon with the ‘lubéepro.com question practice alc | Firewalls Powerplants together with their pylons are often divided into zones by fireproof bulkheads, [7 usually made of stainless steel, titanium or thermoplastics. Fire barriers divide the cavities \) located between the engine and nacelle into compartments in order to limit the propagation of fire. FUSELAGE Sk A] Primary frewall REAR SPAR | Figure 3.88: Firewall Configuration rc) Normally the hinged cowlings are also part of the firewall, but only effective when the doors are closed. Hinged cowlings are surrounded by airtight fire seals. (See Figure 3.89) p> The general function of fire seal are as follows: * prevent entry of combustible matter into areas where auto-ignition may occur and avoids n propagation of fire. confines effects of pneumatic duct and turbine rupture or major leaks. prevents air from the hot section of the engine core from circulating in the fan case area. facilitates the effective use of the fire detection system by containing the fire in one area Le oat doe Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.109 rape ei ctara TTS integrated Training System © Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association wth the ‘lubéépro.com question practice aid 3.110 ‘TTS intograted Training System ©Copyright 2010 Figure 3.89: Fire Seal Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes (lartadeeheedet sevonedty besten ‘ngage dol char SER erties Roe ao Eee eee aoe eee Jd aa a feeeoe eee comy u co u Integrated Training System Designed in eseacation wth tho club com question paca ai Engine Mounts The engine mount system serve as interface between the engine and the pylon. It is a fail-safe, damage tolerant design capable to transmit all the loads from the engine to the aircraft structure. There are basically three engine attachment configurations used for transport aircraft: * wing mounted * tail-side mounted * tail mounted (inside or on top of it) Most engines are attached to its pylon by two or three mounts. As the engine develops great heat while working the mounting system must allow expansion in all directions. Because of this, one of the mounts normally does not take thrust and allows the engine to expand in the longitudinal direction. send deere Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.411 Sewewmacase TTS integrated Trahing System (© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed n association wih the ‘shube6pre.dam question practice aid ne / | sam oucr com Figure 3.90: Wing mounted engine configuration 3.112 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes TiS negated rain Sytem ©Copyright AND THRUST -AFT MOUNT M co ct J oo ee eae eee ee oak eee eee eee ete eee eee eee eee See eeec 3 Srpmged ote erape eye eter Integrated Training System Designed in sssociion wth the cubogpr.com questen practice aid err isLATOR Figure 3.91: Engine Mounts Configurations Module 11.8 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 3.113 TTS Integrated Training System ‘© Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in ascacation with tha ‘lubeepre.som question practice aid eee See ae eee eer eee eee eee eee eee Settee Figure 3.92: Engine Mounts Configuration poe 3.114 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes TTS integrated Treining System ©Copyright 2010i = Integrated Training System 4 Designed in atsocaion wth the clubespr0.com question practice ad Loads The engine mount system must be capable of carrying side, vertical, thrust and torque loads. The system also provides vibration-dampening to soften engine vibrations. Aft Mount Li i y tT u { Q Figure 3.93: Engine Mount Loads U n { u t asa delaras Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes 8.115 Spare cas upar TTS intograted Training Systom ‘©Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association vith ha clubBpro.com question pracice ait ca J = ac Uy Intentionally Blank i ase 4 ul 3.116 Module 11.3 Airframe Structures - Aeroplanes. fagastananananazsa TTS Intagtated Training System serenade eet © Copyright 2010 aIntegrated Training System caeép.com quetin pases ad (ess eee R\ ii . European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) _ Aircraft Maintenance Licence Programme C Module 11A U Licence Category B1 ~ Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, ie Structures and Systems Appendix ( n TTS iterated Ting Sytem © Copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed injassociation with the ‘lubSpre.com question practice aid Intentionally Blank Module 11 Appendix ee ee oy Et i rE Seer ee eae eee eee J ‘ J TTS Integrated Training Systems © Copyright 2010(aees Integrated Training System Designed in association with the ‘lubépro.com question practice id Module 11 Appendix nq | Colour Diagrams The following diagrams from the main chapters of these notes have been reproduced here in full colour due to the essential nature of the colour-code information. cm Cc u Figure 1:35: A typical Airspeed Indicator showing the speed ranges. ‘The lower end of the green arc is the ‘no-flaps’ stall speed. The lower end of the white arc is the ‘with-flaps’ stall speed. : C_vs. Angle of Attack U Flaps & Siats| 4 i With Flaps i L ; & No Flaps (] Angle of Attack fi Figure 1.71: Effect of deployment of slats and flaps on stall angle u Module +1 Appendix 3 fo] TTS Integrated Treining System [| copyright 2010Integrated Training System Designed in association wih the chib6Spro.com question practice eid = co J ae oc eeaD, 4 Figure 1.112: A PED showing the two stall points on the speed tape (left side). The amber “barber pole” is the low speed stall margin. The red “barber pole” is the shock stall margin. As in the display indicates Indicated Airspeed (IAS), the low speed stall margin will remain constant Ld as the aircraft climbs, but the high speed stall margin will reduce as the aircraft climbs, thus reducing the speed range in which the aircraft can fly at high altitude, rm ta 4 J j PILOT'S. SEAT PRIMARY (waite) 5 aaant ae aaa) Figure 2.5: Primary, secondary and tertiary structure identifications et 4 Module 11 Appendix al ~ TTS Integrated Training System © Copyright 2010€23 G52 a Ors Bo £3 Bee \ : seer sraued sage § 3° woyog / #6pe 6ujpesy < © f 3 # = 2 ——— é : ee ER 3 qi sieued 1004 2 x dey pre04 : ~ 3 3 : "ont sure} Boy i g eued dor 4g. Fea6 Sumpuey uy 5 3 1206 Gurpues ueN 8 : soyenaja pue. . g 3 aueidieL g 3 °° 6 g suse) , 8 ypon dei ZL 3 bis sroued dot 3 : OB pros sayods, : 7 5 Buples aBeyeenjuly ose y ine aoa ; jeued UOiAd 2 6p Oumres i ‘@6pe Guipes) : < L eS : eV : Nes} : a! H Ne ce eee eee eee ee eee eee ee ee ee ee fIntegrated Training System Designed in association wit the club6pr0.com question practice ald Intentionally Blank Module 14 Appendix ‘TTS Integrated Treining System ‘@ Copyright 2010 fa il ul J eee J oH I et d