Chapter 4

Electrical
Fundamentals
DC Circuits and Resistance Glossary
Alternating current — A flow of quantity of electrically charged particles. watt-seconds or kilowatt-hours.
charged particles through a conductor, One coulomb is equal to 6.25 × 1018 elec- Joule — Measure of a quantity of
first in one direction, then in the other trons. energy. One joule is defined as one new-
direction. Direct current — A flow of charged ton (a measure of force) acting over a dis-
Ampere — A measure of flow of particles through a conductor in one direc- tance of one meter.
charged particles per unit time. One tion only. Ohm — Unit of resistance. One ohm is
ampere represents one coulomb of charge EMF — Electromotive Force is the defined as the resistance that will allow
flowing past a point in one second. term used to define the force of attraction one ampere of current when one volt of
Atom — The smallest particle of mat- between two points of different charge EMF is impressed across the resistance.
ter that makes up an element. Consists of potential. Also called voltage. Power — Power is the rate at which
protons and neutrons in the central area Energy — Capability of doing work. It work is done. One watt of power is equal
called the nucleus, with electrons sur- is usually measured in electrical terms as to one volt of EMF, causing a current of
rounding this central region. the number of watts of power consumed one ampere through a resistor.
Coulomb — A unit of measure of a during a specific period of time, such as Volt — A measure of electromotive force.

Introduction
The DC Circuits and Resistance section number of negative ions (or electrons) in proper polarity sign for many electronics
of this chapter was written by Roger Tay- another location, there is an attractive calculations. Conventional current is used
lor, K9ALD. force between the two collections of par- in much of the technical literature. The
The atom is the primary building block ticles. That force tries to pull the collec- arrows in semiconductor schematic sym-
of the universe. The main parts of the atom tions together. This attraction is called bols point in the direction of conventional
include protons, electrons and neutrons. electromotive force, or EMF. current, for example.
Protons have a positive electrical charge, If there is no path (conductor) to allow To measure the quantities of charge,
electrons a negative charge and neutrons electric charge to flow between the current and force, certain definitions have
have no electrical charge. All atoms are two locations, the charges cannot move been adopted. Charge is measured in cou-
electrically neutral, so they have the same together and neutralize one another. If a lombs. One coulomb is equal to 6.25 × 1018
number of electrons as protons. If an atom conductor is provided, then electric cur- electrons (or protons). Charge flow is
loses electrons, so it has more protons than rent (usually electrons) will flow through measured in amperes. One ampere repre-
electrons, it has a net positive charge. If an the conductor. sents one coulomb of charge flowing past
atom gains electrons, so it has more elec- Electrons move from the negative to the a point in one second. Electromotive force
trons than protons, it has a negative positive side of the voltage, or EMF is measured in volts. One volt is defined as
charge. Particles with a positive or nega- source. Conventional current has the the potential force (electrical) between
tive charge are called ions. Free electrons opposite direction, from positive to nega- two points for which one ampere of cur-
are also called ions, because they have a tive. This comes from an arbitrary deci- rent will do one joule (measure of energy)
negative charge. sion made by Benjamin Franklin in the of work flowing from one point to another.
When there are a surplus number of 18th century. The conventional current (A joule of work per second represents a
positive ions in one location and a surplus direction is important in establishing the power of one watt.)

Electrical Fundamentals 4.1

 Voltage can be generated in a variety of Then: Table 4.1
ways. Chemicals with certain characteris-
Relative Resistivity of Metals
tics can be combined to form a battery. E = 0.150 A × 20000 Ω = 3000 V
Mechanical motion such as friction (static Resistivity Compared
Material to Copper
electricity, lightning) and rotating con- When 150 V is applied to a circuit, the Aluminum (pure) 1.60
ductors in a magnetic field (generators) current is measured at 2.5 A. What is the Brass 3.7-4.90
can also produce voltage. resistance of the circuit? In this case R is Cadmium 4.40
Any conductor between points at dif- the unknown, so we will use equation 1: Chromium 1.80
ferent voltages will allow current to pass Copper (hard-drawn) 1.03
E 150 V Copper (annealed) 1.00
between the points. No conductor is per- R 60 ȍ
I 2.5 A Gold 1.40
fect or lossless, however, at least not at Iron (pure) 5.68
normal temperatures. Charged particles No conversion was necessary because Lead 12.80
such as electrons resist being moved and it the voltage and current were given in volts Nickel 5.10
requires energy to move them. The amount and amperes. Phosphor bronze 2.8-5.40
of resistance to current is measured in How much current will flow if 250 V is Silver 0.94
applied to a 5000-Ω resistor? Since I is Steel 7.6-12.70
ohms.
Tin 6.70
unknown, Zinc 3.40
OHM’S LAW
E 250 V
One ohm is defined as the amount of I 0.05 A
resistance that allows one ampere of cur- R 5000 ȍ
rent to flow between two points that have It is more convenient to express the tional area, the one with the larger area
a potential difference of one volt. Thus, current in mA, and 0.05 A × 1000 mA / A will have the lower resistance.
we get Ohm’s Law, which is: = 50 mA.
RESISTANCE OF WIRES
E RESISTANCE AND
R (1) The problem of determining the resis-
I CONDUCTANCE
tance of a round wire of given diameter
where: Suppose we have two conductors of the and length—or its converse, finding a suit-
R = resistance in ohms, same size and shape, but of different able size and length of wire to provide a
E = potential or EMF in volts and materials. The amount of current that will desired amount of resistance—can easily
I = current in amperes. flow when a given EMF is applied will be solved with the help of the copper wire
vary with the resistance of the material. table given in the Component Data and
Transposing the equation gives the The lower the resistance, the greater the References chapter. This table gives the
other common expressions of Ohm’s Law current for a given EMF. The resistivity of resistance, in ohms per 1000 ft, of each
as: a material is the resistance, in ohms, of a standard wire size. For example, suppose
cube of the material measuring one centi- you need a resistance of 3.5 Ω, and some
E=I×R (2) meter on each edge. One of the best #28 wire is on hand. The wire table in the
conductors is copper, and in making Component Data and References chap-
and resistance calculations it is frequently ter shows that #28 wire has a resistance of
convenient to compare the resistance of 66.17 Ω / 1000 ft. Since the desired resis-
E tance is 3.5 Ω, the required wire length is:
I (3) the material under consideration with that
R of a copper conductor of the same size and
All three forms of the equation are used shape. Table 4.1 gives the ratio of the R DESIRED 3.5 ȍ
often in radio work. You must remember resistivity of various conductors to the Length
R WIRE 66.17 ȍ
that the quantities are in volts, ohms and resistivity of copper.
amperes; other units cannot be used in the 1000 ft 1000 ft
The longer the physical path, the higher
equations without first being converted. the resistance of that conductor. For direct 3.5 ȍ u1000 ft
For example, if the current is in milliam- current and low-frequency alternating 53 ft (4)
peres you must first change it to the currents (up to a few thousand hertz) the 66.17 ȍ
equivalent fraction of an ampere before resistance is inversely proportional to the As another example, suppose that the
substituting the value into the equations. cross-sectional area of the path the cur- resistance of wire in a circuit must not
The following examples illustrate the rent must travel; that is, given two con- exceed 0.05 Ω and that the length of wire
use of Ohm’s Law. The current through a ductors of the same material and having required for making the connections totals
20000-Ω resistance is 150 mA. See Fig the same length, but differing in cross-sec- 14 ft. Then:
4.1. What is the voltage? To find voltage,
R WIRE R 0.05 ȍ
use equation 2 (E = I × R). Convert the ¢ MAXIMUM (5)
current from milliamperes to amperes. 1000 ft Length 14.0 ft
Divide by 1000 mA / A (or multiply by ȍ 1000 ft
10 -3 A / mA) to make this conversion. 3.57 u10 3 u
ft 1000 ft
(Notice the conversion factor of 1000 does
not limit the number of significant figures R WIRE 3.57 ȍ
¢
in the calculated answer.) 1000 ft 1000 ft
150 mA Find the value of RWIRE / 1000 ft that is
I 0.150 A
mA Fig 4.1 — A simple circuit consisting of less than the calculated value. The wire
1000 table shows that #15 is the smallest size
A a battery and a resistor.

4.2 Chapter 4
having a resistance less than this value. Fig 4.2 — Examples
(The resistance of #15 wire is given as of various resistors.
At the top left is a
3.1810 Ω / 1000 ft.) Select any wire size
small 10-W
larger than this for the connections in your wirewound resistor.
circuit, to ensure that the total wire resis- A single in-line
tance will be less than 0.05 Ω. package (SIP) of
When the wire in question is not made resistors is at the top
of copper, the resistance values in the wire right. At the top
center is a small PC-
table should be multiplied by the ratios board-mount
shown in Table 4.1 to obtain the resulting variable resistor. A
resistance. If the wire in the first example tiny surface-mount
were made from nickel instead of copper, (chip) resistor is also
the length required for 3.5 Ω would be: shown at the top.
Below the variable
R DESIRED resistor is a 1-W
Length carbon compo-sition
R WIRE (6) resistor and then a ½-W composition unit. The
1000 ft dog-bone-shaped resistors at the bottom are ½-W
and ¼-W film resistors. The ¼-inch-ruled graph
3.5 ȍ paper background provides a size comparison.
66.17 ȍ The inset photo shows the chip resistor with a
u 5.1 penny for size comparison.
1000 ft

3.5 ȍ u1000 ft
66.17 ȍ u 5.1

3500 ft
Length 10.37 ft
337.5 rent through a resistance causes the In addition, special material or construc-
conductor to become heated; the higher tion techniques may be used to provide
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS the resistance and the larger the current, temperature compensation, so the value
The resistance of a conductor changes the greater the amount of heat developed. does not change (or changes in a precise
with its temperature. The resistance of Resistors intended for carrying large cur- manner) as the resistor temperature
practically every metallic conductor rents must be physically large so the heat changes. There is more information about
increases with increasing temperature. can be radiated quickly to the surrounding the electrical characteristics of real resis-
Carbon, however, acts in the opposite air. If the resistor does not dissipate the tors in the Real-World Component
way; its resistance decreases when its tem- heat quickly, it may get hot enough to melt Characteristics chapter.
perature rises. It is seldom necessary to or burn.
consider temperature in making resistance The amount of heat a resistor can safely CONDUCTANCE
calculations for amateur work. The tem- dissipate depends on the material, surface The reciprocal of resistance (1/R) is
perature effect is important when it is nec- area and design. Typical carbon resistors conductance. It is usually represented by
essary to maintain a constant resistance used in amateur electronics ( 1/8 to 2-W the symbol G. A circuit having high con-
under all conditions, however. Special resistors) depend primarily on the surface ductance has low resistance, and vice
materials that have little or no change in area of the case, with some heat also being versa. In radio work, the term is used
resistance over a wide temperature range carried off through the connecting leads. chiefly in connection with electron-tube
are used in that case. Wirewound resistors are usually used for and field-effect transistor characteristics.
higher power levels. Some have finned The unit of conductance is the siemens,
RESISTORS cases for better convection cooling and/or abbreviated S. A resistance of 1 Ω has a
A package of material exhibiting a cer- metal cases for better conductive cooling. conductance of 1 S, a resistance of 1000 Ω
tain amount of resistance, made up into a In some circuits, the resistor value may has a conductance of 0.001 S, and so on. A
single unit is called a resistor. Different be critical. In this case, precision resistors unit frequently used in connection with
resistors having the same resistance value are used. These are typically wirewound, electron devices is the μS or one millionth
may be considerably different in physical or carbon-film devices whose values are of a siemens. It is the conductance of a
size and construction (see Fig 4.2). Cur- carefully controlled during manufacture. 1-MΩ resistance.

Series and Parallel Resistances

Very few actual electric circuits are as row) down through the first resistance, R1, resistors and then divides, one part of it
simple as Fig 4.1. Commonly, resistances then through the second, R2 and then back flowing through R1 and the other through
are found connected in a variety of ways. to the source. These resistors are con- R2. At the lower connection point these
The two fundamental methods of connect- nected in series. The current everywhere two currents again combine; the total is
ing resistances are shown in Fig 4.3. In in the circuit has the same value. the same as the current into the upper com-
part A, the current flows from the source In part B, the current flows to the com- mon connection. In this case, the two
of EMF (in the direction shown by the ar- mon connection point at the top of the two resistors are connected in parallel.

Electrical Fundamentals 4.3

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
In a circuit with resistances in parallel,
the total resistance is less than that of the
lowest resistance value present. This is
because the total current is always greater
than the current in any individual resistor.
The formula for finding the total resistance Fig 4.4 — An example of resistors in
of resistances in parallel is: parallel. See text for calculations.

1 Fig 4.5 — An example of resistors in

R series. See text for calculations.
1 1 1 1 (7) Ohm’s Law, as shown below. The current
    ...
R1 R2 R3 R4 through R1 is I1, I2 is the current through
R2 and I3 is the current through R3.
where the dots indicate that any number of For convenience, we can use resistance
in kΩ, which gives current in milliam- connected to a source of EMF as shown in
resistors can be combined by the same
peres. Fig 4.5. The EMF is 250 V, R1 is 5.00 kΩ,
method. For only two resistances in paral-
R2 is 20.0 kΩ and R3 is 8.00 kΩ. The total
lel (a very common case) the formula E 250 V
I1 50.0 mA resistance is then
becomes: R1 5.00 kȍ
R1u R2 RTOTAL R1 R2  R3
R (8) E 250 V
R1  R2 I2 12.5 mA R 5.00 kȍ  20.0 kȍ  8.00 kȍ
R2 20.0 kȍ
Example: If a 500-Ω resistor is con- R = 33.0 kΩ.
nected in parallel with one of 1200 Ω, what E 250 V
I3 31.2 mA The current in the circuit is then
is the total resistance? R3 8.00 kȍ
E 250 V
R1u R2 500 ȍ u1200 ȍ Notice that the branch currents are I 7.58 mA
R R 33.0 kȍ
R1  R2 500 ȍ  1200 ȍ inversely proportional to the resistances.
The 20000-Ω resistor has a value four times (We need not carry calculations beyond
2 larger than the 5000-Ω resistor, and has a three significant figures; often, two will
600000 ȍ
R 353 ȍ current one quarter as large. If a resistor suffice because the accuracy of measure-
1700 ȍ
has a value twice as large as another, it will ments is seldom better than a few percent.)
KIRCHHOFF’S FIRST LAW have half as much current through it when
they are connected in parallel. KIRCHHOFF’S SECOND LAW
(KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW) (KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW)
The total circuit current is:
Suppose three resistors (5.00 kΩ, Ohm’s Law applies in any portion of a
20.0 kΩ and 8.00 kΩ) are connected in I TOTAL I1  I2  I3 (9)
circuit as well as to the circuit as a whole.
parallel as shown in Fig 4.4. The same Although the current is the same in all
I TOTAL 50.0 mA  12.5 mA  31.2 mA
EMF, 250 V, is applied to all three resis- three of the resistances in the example of
tors. The current in each can be found from I TOTAL 93.7 mA Fig 4.5, the total voltage divides between
This example illustrates Kirchhoff’s them. The voltage appearing across each
Current Law: The current flowing into a resistor (the voltage drop) can be found
node or branching point is equal to the sum from Ohm’s Law.
of the individual currents leaving the node Example: If the voltage across R1 is
or branching point. The total resistance of called E1, that across R2 is called E2 and
the circuit is therefore: that across R3 is called E3, then
E 250 V E IR1 0.00758 A u 5000 ȍ 37.9 V
R 2.67 kȍ
I 93.7 mA E IR2 0.00758 A u 20000 ȍ 152 V
You can verify this calculation by com- E IR3 0.00758 A u 8000 ȍ 60.6 V
bining the three resistor values in parallel,
Notice here that the voltage drop across
using equation 7.
each resistor is directly proportional to the
RESISTORS IN SERIES resistance. The 20000-Ω resistor value is
four times larger than the 5000-Ω resistor,
When a circuit has a number of resis-
and the voltage drop across the 20000-Ω
tances connected in series, the total
resistor is four times larger. A resistor that
resistance of the circuit is the sum of the
has a value twice as large as another will
individual resistances. If these are num-
have twice the voltage drop across it when
bered R1, R2, R3 and so on, then:
they are connected in series.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law accurately de-
RTOTAL R1 R2  R3  R4 ... (10) scribes the situation in the circuit: The sum
of the voltages in a closed current loop is
where the dots indicate that as many resis- zero. The resistors are power sinks, while
Fig 4.3 — Resistors connected in series tors as necessary may be added. the battery is a power source. It is common
at A, and in parallel at B. Example: Suppose that three resistors are to assign a + sign to power sources and a

4.4 Chapter 4
– sign to power sinks. This means the volt- This resistance in series with R1 forms E
I (12)
ages across the resistors have the opposite a simple series circuit, as shown in Fig R1  R2
sign from the battery voltage. Adding all 4.6B. The total resistance in the circuit is:
the voltages yields zero. In the case of a and the voltage between terminals A and
single voltage source, algebraic manipula- R TOTAL R1 R EQ 5.00 kȍ 5.71 kȍ B (EAB) is:
tion implies that the sum of the individual
voltage drops in the circuit must be equal RTOTAL 10.71kȍ
to the applied voltage. E AB I u R2 (13)
E TOTAL E1  E2  E3 (11) The current is:
By substituting the first equation into
E TOTAL 37.9 V  152 V  60.6 V E 250 V
I 23.3 mA the second, we can find a simplified
R 10.71 kȍ
expression for EAB:
E TOTAL 250 V
(Remember the significant figures rule The voltage drops across R1 and REQ are: R2
E AB uE (14)
for addition.) R1  R2
In problems such as this, when the cur- E1 I u R1 23.3 mA u 5.00 kȍ 117 V
rent is small enough to be expressed in
milliamperes, considerable time and E2 I u R EQ 23.3 mA u 5.71 kȍ 133 V
trouble can be saved if the resistance is
expressed in kilohms rather than in ohms. with sufficient accuracy. These two volt-
When the resistance in kilohms is substi- age drops total 250 V, as described by
tuted directly in Ohm’s Law, the current Kirchhoff’s Current Law. E2 appears
will be milliamperes, if the EMF is in volts. across both R2 and R3 so,
RESISTORS IN SERIES-PARALLEL
A circuit may have resistances both E2 133 V
I2 6.65 mA
in parallel and in series, as shown in R2 20.0 kȍ
Fig 4.6A. The method for analyzing such
a circuit is as follows: Consider R2 and R3 E3 133 V
I3 16.6 mA
to be the equivalent of a single resistor, R3 8.00 kȍ
REQ whose value is equal to R2 and R3 in where:
parallel. I2 = current through R2 and
I3 = current through R3.
R2 u R3 20000 ȍ u 8000 ȍ
R EQ
R2  R3 20000 ȍ  8000 ȍ The sum of I2 and I3 is equal to 23.3 mA,
conforming to Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.
1.60 u10 8 ȍ 2
28000 ȍ THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Thevenin’s Theorem is a useful tool
R EQ 5710 ȍ 5.71 kȍ for simplifying electrical networks.
Thevenin’s Theorem states that any two-
terminal network of resistors and voltage
or current sources can be replaced by a
single voltage source and a series resistor.
Such a transformation can simplify the
calculation of current through a parallel
branch. Thevenin’s Theorem can be
readily applied to the circuit of Fig 4.6A,
to find the current through R3.
In this example, R1 and R2 form a volt-
age divider circuit, with R3 as the load
(Fig 4.7A). The current drawn by the load
(R3) is simply the voltage across R3,
divided by its resistance. Unfortunately,
the value of R2 affects the voltage across
R3, just as the presence of R3 affects the
potential appearing across R2. Some
means of separating the two is needed;
hence the Thevenin-equivalent circuit. Fig 4.7 — Equivalent circuits for the
The voltage of the Thevenin-equivalent circuit shown in Fig 4.6. A shows the
battery is the open-circuit voltage, mea- load resistor (R3) looking into the
circuit. B shows the Thevenin-
sured when there is no current from either equivalent circuit, with a resistor and a
Fig 4.6 — At A, an example of resistors terminal A or B. Without a load connected voltage source in series. C shows the
in series-parallel. The equivalent circuit between A and B, the total current through Norton-equivalent circuit, with a
is shown at B. See text for calculations. the circuit is (from Ohm’s Law): resistor and current source in parallel.

Electrical Fundamentals 4.5

 Using the values in our example, this B, there will be current through R THEV, through terminals A and B. In the case of
becomes: causing a voltage drop across RTHEV and the voltage divider shown in Fig 4.7A, the
reducing EAB. The current through R3 is short-circuit current is:
20.0 kȍ
E AB u 250 V 200 V equal to E
25.0 kȍ I SC (17)
R1
when nothing is connected to terminals A E THEV E THEV
I3 (16) Substituting the values from our ex-
or B. With no current drawn, E is equal to R TOTAL R THEV  R3 ample, we have:
EAB.
The Thevenin-equivalent resistance is Substituting the values from our example: E 250 V
I SC 50.0 mA
the total resistance between terminals A 200 V R1 5000 ȍ
and B. The ideal voltage source, by defini- I3 16.7 mA
4000 ȍ  8000 ȍ The resulting Norton-equivalent circuit
tion, has zero internal resistance. Assum- consists of a 50.0-mA current source placed
ing the battery to be a close approximation This agrees with the value calculated
earlier. in parallel with a 4000-Ω resistor. When
of an ideal source, put a short between R3 is connected to terminals A and B, one-
points X and Y in the circuit of Fig 4.7A. third of the supply current flows through
R1 and R2 are then effectively placed in NORTON’S THEOREM
Norton’s Theorem is another tool for R3 and the remainder through RTHEV. This
parallel, as viewed from terminals A and B.
gives a current through R3 of 16.7 mA,
The Thevenin-equivalent resistance is analyzing electrical networks. Norton’s
again agreeing with previous conclusions.
then: Theorem states that any two-terminal net-
A Norton-equivalent circuit can be
R1u R2 work of resistors and current or voltage
R THEV transformed into a Thevenin-equivalent
(15) sources can be replaced by a single cur-
R1  R2 circuit and vice versa. The equivalent
rent source and a parallel resistor.
resistor stays the same in both cases; it is
Norton’s Theorem is to current sources
5000 ȍ u 20000 ȍ placed in series with the voltage source in
R THEV what Thevenin’s Theorem is to voltage
5000 ȍ  20000 ȍ the case of a Thevenin-equivalent circuit
sources. In fact, the Thevenin resistance and in parallel with the current source in
calculated previously is also used as the
1.00 u10 8 ȍ2 the case of a Norton-equivalent circuit.
R THEV 4000 ȍ Norton equivalent resistance. The voltage for a Thevenin-equivalent
25000 ȍ The circuit just analyzed by means of source is equal to the no-load voltage ap-
This gives the Thevenin-equivalent cir- Thevenin’s Theorem can be analyzed just pearing across the resistor in the Norton-
cuit as shown in Fig 4.7B. The circuits of as easily by Norton’s Theorem. The equivalent circuit. The current for a
Figures 4.7A and 4.7B are equivalent as equivalent Norton circuit is shown in Fig Norton-equivalent source is equal to the
far as R3 is concerned. 4.7C. The current I SC of the equivalent short-circuit current provided by the
Once R3 is connected to terminals A and current source is the short-circuit current Thevenin source.

Power and Energy

Regardless of how voltage is generated, P IuE (18) E2
energy must be supplied if current is drawn P (19)
R
from the voltage source. The energy where:
supplied may be in the form of chemical P = power in watts and
energy or mechanical energy. This energy I = current in amperes
is measured in joules. One joule is defined E = EMF in volts. P I2 u R (20)
from classical physics as the amount of
energy or work done when a force of one When current flows through a resistance,
the electrical energy is turned into heat. These formulas are useful in power cal-
newton (a measure of force) is applied to culations when the resistance and either
an object that is moved one meter in the Common fractional and multiple units for
power are the milliwatt (one thousandth of the current or voltage (but not both) are
direction of the force. known.
Power is another important concept. In a watt) and the kilowatt (1000 W).
Example: The plate voltage on a trans- Example: How much power will be con-
the USA, power is often measured in verted to heat in a 4000-Ω resistor if the
horsepower in mechanical systems. We mitting vacuum tube is 2000 V and the
plate current is 350 mA. (The current must potential applied to it is 200 V? From equa-
use the metric power unit of watts in elec- tion 19,
trical systems, however. In metric coun- be changed to amperes before substitution
tries, mechanical power is usually in the formula, and so is 0.350 A.) Then: E2
P
expressed in watts also. One watt is R
defined as the use (or generation) of one P IuE 2000 V u 0.350 A 700 W
joule of energy per second. One watt is 40000 V 2
also defined as one volt of potential push- By substituting the Ohm’s Law equiva- 10.0 W
4000 ȍ
ing one ampere of current through a resis- lent for E and I, the following formulas are
tance. Thus, obtained for power: As another example, suppose a current

4.6 Chapter 4
of 20 mA flows through a 300-Ω resistor.
Then: The Ohm’s Law and Power Circle
During the first semester of my Electrical Power Technology program, one of
P I 2 u R 0.020 2 A 2 u 300 ȍ the first challenges issued by our dedicated instructor—Roger Crerie—to his new
freshman students was to identify and develop 12 equations or formulas that
P 0.00040 A 2 u 300 ȍ
could be used to determine voltage, current, resistance and power. Ohm’s Law is
P 0.12 W expressed as
E
R
Note that the current was changed from I
and it provided three of these equation forms while the basic equation relating
milliamperes to amperes before substi-
power to current and voltage (P = I×E) accounted for another three. With six
tution in the formula. known equations, it was just a matter of applying mathematical substitution for his
Electrical power in a resistance is turned students to develop the remaining six. Together, these 12 equations compose the
into heat. The greater the power, the more circle or wheel of voltage (E), current
rapidly the heat is generated. Resistors for (I), resistance (R) and power (P)
radio work are made in many sizes, the shown in Fig A. Just as Roger’s
smallest being rated to dissipate (or carry previous students had learned at the
safely) about 1/16 W. The largest resistors Worcester Industrial Technical Institute
commonly used in amateur equipment will (Worcester, Massachusetts), our Class
dissipate about 100 W. Large resistors, of ’82 now held the basic electrical
such as those used in dummy-load anten- formulas needed to proceed in our
nas, are often cooled with oil to increase studies or professions. As can be seen
their power-handling capability. in Fig A, we can determine any one of
If you want to express power in horse- these four electrical quantities by
power instead of watts, the following rela- knowing the value of any two others.
tionship holds: You may want to keep this page
bookmarked for your reference. You’ll
probably be using many of these
1 horsepower = 746 W (21)
formulas as the years go by—this has
certainly been my experience—Dana
This formula assumes lossless transfor- G. Reed, W1LC, ARRL Handbook
mation; practical efficiency is taken up Fig A—Electrical formulas. Editor
shortly. This formula is especially useful
if you are working with a system that con-
verts electrical energy into mechanical
energy, and vice versa, since mechanical tures are characteristics of resistance, so it PO
power is often expressed in horsepower, Eff (22)
can be said that any device that “dissipates PI
in the US. power” has a definite value of resistance.
This discussion relates to direct current This concept of resistance as something
in resistive circuits. See the AC Theory that absorbs power at a definite voltage- where:
and Reactive Components section of this to-current ratio is very useful; it permits Eff = efficiency (as a decimal)
chapter for a discussion about power in ac substituting a simple resistance for the PO = power output (W)
circuits, including reactive circuits. load or power-consuming part of the PI = power input (W).
device receiving power, often with con- Example: If the dc input to the tube is
GENERALIZED DEFINITION OF siderable simplification of calculations. 100 W, and the RF power output is 60 W,
RESISTANCE Of course, every electrical device has the efficiency is:
Electrical energy is not always turned some resistance of its own in the more
into heat. The energy used in running a narrow sense, so a part of the energy sup- PO 60 W
motor, for example, is converted to plied to it is converted to heat in that resis- Eff 0.6
PI 100 W
mechanical motion. The energy supplied tance even though the major part of the
to a radio transmitter is largely converted energy may be converted to another form.
into radio waves. Energy applied to a loud- Efficiency is usually expressed as a
speaker is changed into sound waves. In EFFICIENCY percentage — that is, it tells what percent
each case, the energy is converted to other In devices such as motors and vacuum of the input power will be available as
forms and can be completely accounted tubes, the objective is to convert the sup- useful output. To calculate percent effi-
for. None of the energy just disappears! plied energy (or power) into some form ciency, just multiply the value from equa-
This is a statement of the Law of Conser- other than heat. Therefore, power con- tion 22 by 100%. The efficiency in the
vation of Energy. When a device converts verted to heat is considered to be a loss, example above is 60%.
energy from one form to another, we often because it is not useful power. The effi- Suppose a mobile transmitter has an RF
say it dissipates the energy, or power. ciency of a device is the useful power out- power output of 100 W with 52% effi-
(Power is energy divided by time.) Of put (in its converted form) divided by the ciency at 13.8 V. The vehicle’s alternator
course the device doesn’t really “use up” power input to the device. In a vacuum- system charges the battery at a 5.0-A rate
the energy, or make it disappear, it just tube transmitter, for example, the objec- at this voltage. Assuming an alternator
converts it to another form. Proper opera- tive is to convert power from a dc source efficiency of 68%, how much horsepower
tion of electrical devices often requires into ac power at some radio frequency. must the engine produce to operate the
that the power must be supplied at a spe- The ratio of the RF power output to the dc transmitter and charge the battery? Solu-
cific ratio of voltage to current. These fea- input is the efficiency of the tube. That is: tion: To charge the battery, the alternator

Electrical Fundamentals 4.7

must produce 13.8 V × 5.0 A = 69 W. The that electricity does for you, not the rate at eventually result in a power bill that is just
transmitter dc input power is 100 W / 0.52 which that work is done. Work is equal to as large as if a large amount of power had
= 190 W. Therefore, the total electrical power multiplied by time. The common been used for a very short time.
power required from the alternator is 190 unit for measuring electrical energy is the One practical application of energy
+ 69 = 260 W. The engine load then is: watt-hour, which means that a power of units is to estimate how long a radio (such
1 W has been used for one hour. That is: as a hand-held unit) will operate from a
PO 260 W certain battery. For example, suppose a
PI 380 W W hr = P T fully charged battery stores 900 mA hr of
Eff 0.68
energy, and a radio draws 30 mA on re-
where:
We can convert this to horsepower ceive. You might guess that the radio will
W hr = energy in watt-hours
using the formula given earlier to convert P = power in watts receive 30 hrs with this battery, assuming
between horsepower and watts: T = time in hours. 100% efficiency. You shouldn’t expect to
Actually, the watt-hour is a fairly small get the full 900 mA hr out of the battery,
1 horsepower and you will probably spend some of the
380 W u 0.51 horsepower energy unit, so the power company bills
746 W time transmitting, which will also reduce
you for kilowatt-hours of energy used.
Another energy unit that is sometimes the time the battery will last. The Real-
ENERGY World Component Characteristics and
useful is the watt-second (joule).
When you buy electricity from a power Energy units are seldom used in ama- Power Supplies chapters include addi-
company, you pay for electrical energy, teur practice, but it is obvious that a small tional information about batteries and
not power. What you pay for is the work amount of power used for a long time can their charge/discharge cycles.

Circuits and Components

SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS Resistors can also be used to limit the
Passive components (resistors for dc current through a device from a fixed volt-
circuits) can be used to make voltage and age source. A typical example is shown in
current dividers and limiters to obtain a Fig 4.8C. Here a high-voltage source feeds
desired value. For instance, in Fig 4.8A, a battery in a battery charger. This is typi-
two resistors are connected in series to cal of nickel cadmium chargers. The high
provide a voltage divider. As long as the resistor value limits the current that can
device connected at point A has a much possibly flow through the battery to a
higher resistance than the resistors in the value that is low enough so it will not dam-
divider, the voltage will be approximately age the battery.
the ratio of the resistances. Thus, if E =
10 V, R1 = 5 Ω and R2 = 5 Ω, the voltage SWITCHES
at point A will be 5 V measured on a high- Switches are used to start or stop a
impedance voltmeter. A good rule of signal (current) flowing in a particular
thumb is that the load at point A should be circuit. Most switches are mechanical
at least ten times the value of the highest devices, although the same effect may be
resistor in the divider to get reasonably achieved with solid-state devices. Relays
close to the voltage you want. As the load are switches that are controlled by another
resistance gets closer to the value of the electrical signal rather than manual or
divider, the current drawn by the load mechanical means.
affects the division and causes changes Switches come in many different forms
from the desired value. If you need pre- and a wide variety of ratings. The most
cise voltage division from fixed resistors important ratings are the voltage and cur-
and know the value of the load resistance, rent handling capabilities. The voltage
you can use Kirchhoff’s Laws and rating usually includes both the break-
Thevenin’s Theorem (explained earlier) down rating and the interrupt rating. Nor-
to calculate exact values. mally, the interrupt rating is the lower
Similarly, resistors can be used, as value, and therefore the one given on (for)
shown in Fig 4.8B, to make current divid- the switch. The current rating includes
ers. Suppose you had two LEDs (light both the current carrying capacity and the
emitting diodes) and wanted one to glow interrupt capability.
twice as brightly as the other. You could Most power switches are rated for alter-
use one resistor with twice the value of the nating current use. Because ac voltage
other for the dimmer LED. Thus, approxi- goes through zero with each cycle,
mately two-thirds of the current would switches can successfully interrupt much
Fig 4.8 — This circuit shows a resistive
flow through one LED and one-third more alternating current than direct cur- voltage divider at A, a resistive current
through the other (neglecting any effect of rent without arcing. A switch that has a divider at B, and a current-limiting
the 0.7-V drop across the diode). 10-A ac current rating may arc and dam- resistor at C.

4.8 Chapter 4
 Fig 4.10 — This
photo shows
examples of
various styles
of switches. The
¼-inch-ruled graph
paper background
provides for size
Fig 4.9 — Schematic diagrams of comparison.
various types of switches. A is an
SPST, B is an SPDT, and C is an SPDT
switch with a center-off position.

age the contacts if used to turn off more allowable contact temperature rise. On percentage over the rated value. The melt-
than an ampere or two of dc. larger ac switches, or most dc switches, ing value depends on the type of material,
Switches are normally designated by the interrupt capability may be lower than the shape of the element and the heat dis-
the number of poles (circuits controlled) the current carrying value. sipation capability of the cartridge and
and positions (circuit path choices). The Rotary/wafer switches can provide very holder, among other factors. Some fuses
simplest switch is the on-off switch, which complex switching patterns. Several poles (Slo-blo) are designed to carry an over-
is a single-pole, single-throw (SPST) (separate circuits) can be included on each load for a short period of time. They typi-
switch as shown in Fig 4.9A. The off wafer. Many wafers may be stacked on the cally are used in motor starting and
position does not direct the current to an- same shaft. Not only may many different power-supply circuits that have a large
other circuit. The next step would be to circuits be controlled at once, but by wir- inrush current when first started. Other
change the current path to another path. ing different poles/positions on different fuses are designed to blow very quickly to
This would be a single-pole, double-throw wafers together, a high degree of circuit protect delicate instruments and solid-
(SPDT) switch as shown in Fig 4.9B. Add- switching logic can be developed. Such state circuits. A replacement fuse should
ing an off position would give a single- switches can select different paths as they have the same current rating and the
pole, double-throw, center-off switch as are turned and can also “short” together same characteristics as the fuse it replaces.
shown in Fig 4.9C. successive contacts to connect numbers of Fig 4.11 shows a variety of fuse types and
Several such switches can be “ganged” components or paths. They can also be sizes.
to the same mechanical activator to pro- designed to either break one contact The most important fuse rating is the
vide double pole, triple pole or even more, before making another, or to short two nominal current rating that it will safely
separate control paths all activated at once. contacts together before disconnecting the carry. Next most important are the timing
Switches can be activated in a variety of first one (make before break) to eliminate characteristics, or how quickly it opens
ways. The most common methods include arcing or perform certain logic functions. under a given current overload. A fuse also
lever, push button and rotary switches. In choosing a switch for a particular task, has a voltage rating, both a value in volts
Samples of these are shown in Fig 4.10. consideration should be given to function, and whether it is expected to be used in ac
Most switches stay in the position set, but voltage and current ratings, ease of use, or dc circuits. While you should never
some are spring loaded so they only stay in availability and cost. If a switch is to be substitute a fuse with a higher current rat-
the desired position while held there. These operated frequently, a slightly higher cost ing than the one it replaces, you can use a
are called momentary switches. for a better-quality switch is usually less fuse with a higher voltage rating. There is
Switches typically found in the home costly over the long run. If signal noise or no danger in replacing a 12-V, 2-A fuse
are usually rated for 125 V ac and 15 to contact corrosion is a potential problem, with a 250-V, 2-A unit.
20 A. Switches in cars are usually rated (usually in low-current signal applications) Fuses fail for several reasons. The most
for 12 V dc and several amperes. The it is best to get gold plated contacts. Gold obvious reason is that a problem develops
breakdown voltage rating of a switch, does not oxidize or corrode, thus providing in the circuit, which causes too much cur-
which is usually higher than the interrupt surer contact, which can be particularly rent to flow. In this case, the circuit prob-
rating, primarily depends on the insulat- important at very low signal levels. Gold lem needs to be fixed. A fuse may just fail
ing material surrounding the contacts and plating will not hold up under high-current- eventually, particularly when cycled on
the separation between the contacts. Plas- interrupt applications, however. and off near its current rating. A kind of
tic or phenolic material normally provides metal fatigue sets in, and eventually the
both structural support and insulation. Ce- FUSES fuse goes. A fuse can also blow because of
ramic material may be used to provide Fuses self-destruct to protect circuit a momentary power surge, or even turning
better insulation, particularly in rotary wiring or equipment. The fuse element something on and off several times
(wafer) switches. that melts is a carefully shaped piece of quickly when there is a large inrush cur-
The current carrying capacity of the soft metal, usually mounted in a cartridge rent. In these cases it is only necessary to
switch depends on the contact material and of some kind. The element is designed to replace the fuse with the same type and
size and on the pressure between the con- safely carry a given amount of current and value. Never substitute a fuse with a larger
tacts. It is primarily determined from the to melt at a current value that is a certain current rating. You may cause permanent

Electrical Fundamentals 4.9

 (A)

Fig 4.13 — Various uses of

potentiometers.

Coaxial relays are specially designed

to handle RF signals and to maintain
a characteristic impedance to match cer-
tain values of coaxial-cable impedance.
(B) They typically are used to switch an
antenna between a receiver and transmit-
Fig 4.11 — These photos show ter or between a linear amplifier and a
examples of various styles of fuses.
The ¼-inch-ruled graph paper
transceiver.
background provides a size
comparison. POTENTIOMETERS
Potentiometer is a big name for a vari-
able resistor. They are commonly used as
volume controls on radios, televisions and
stereos. A typical potentiometer is a cir-
damage (maybe even a fire) to the wiring cular pattern of resistive material, usually
or circuit elements if/when there is an in- a carbon compound, that has a wiper on a
ternal problem in the equipment. shaft moving across the material. For
(C) higher power applications, the resistive
RELAYS material may be wire, wound around a
Fig 4.12 — These photos show
Relays are switches that are driven by examples of various styles and sizes of core. As the wiper moves along the mate-
an electrical signal, usually through a relays. Photo A shows a large reed rial, more resistance is introduced between
magnetic coil. An armature that moves relay, and a small reed relay in a the wiper and one of the fixed contacts on
when current is applied pushes the switch package the size of a DIP IC. The the material. A potentiometer may be used
contacts together, or pulls them apart. contacts and coil can clearly be seen in primarily to control current, voltage or
the open-frame relay. Photo B shows a
Many such contacts can be connected to relay inside a plastic case. Photo C resistance in a circuit. Fig 4.13 shows sev-
the same armature, allowing many circuits shows a four-position relay with SMA eral circuits to demonstrate various uses.
to be controlled by a single signal. Usu- coaxial connectors. The ¼-inch-ruled Fig 4.14 shows several different types of
ally, relays have only two positions (open- graph paper background provides a potentiometers.
ing some contacts and closing others) size comparison. Typical specifications for a potentio-
although there are special cases. meter include maximum resistance, power
Like switches, relays have specific volt- dissipation, voltage and current ratings,
age and current ratings for the contacts. number of turns (or degrees) the shaft can
These may be far different from the volt- applications, but the coils may be de- rotate, type and size of shaft, mounting
age and current of the coil that drives the signed to be “current sensing” and oper- arrangements and resistance “taper.”
relay. That means a small signal voltage ate when the current through the coil Not all potentiometers have a linear
might control very large values of voltage exceeds a taper. That is, the resistance may not be
and/or current. Relay contacts (and hous- specific value. Fig 4.12 shows some typi- the same for a given number of degrees of
ings) may be designed for ac, dc or RF cal relays found in amateur equipment. shaft rotation along different portions of
signals. The control voltages are usually Relays with 24- and 28-V coils are also the resistive material. A typical use of a
12 V dc or 125 V ac for most amateur common. potentiometer with a nonlinear taper is as

4.10 Chapter 4
 a volume control. Since the human ear has
a logarithmic response to sound, a volume
control may actually change the volume
(resistance) much more near one end of
the potentiometer than the other (for a
Fig 4.14 — This given amount of rotation) so that the “per-
photo shows ceived” change in volume is about the
examples of same for a similar change in the control.
different styles of This is commonly called an “audio taper”
potentiometers. as the change in resistance per degree of
The ¼ -inch-ruled
graph paper
rotation attempts to match the response of
background the human ear. The taper can be designed
provides a size to match almost any desired control func-
comparison. tion for a given application. Linear and
audio tapers are the most common.

AC Theory and Reactance Glossary

Admittance (Y) — The reciprocal of the value of the peak voltage or current. average of the squares of the instanta-
impedance, measured in siemens (S). Period (T) — The duration of one ac neous values for one cycle of a waveform.
Capacitance (C) — The ability to store voltage or current cycle, measured in sec- A dc voltage or current that will produce
electrical energy in an electrostatic field, onds (s). the same heating effect as the waveform.
measured in farads (F). A device with ca- Permeability (μ) — The ratio of the For a sine wave, the RMS value is equal to
pacitance is a capacitor. magnetic flux density of an iron, ferrite, 0.707 times the peak value of ac voltage
Conductance (G )— The reciprocal of or similar core in an electromagnet com- or current.
resistance, measured in siemens (S). pared to the magnetic flux density of an Susceptance (B) — The reciprocal of
Current (I) — The rate of electron flow air core, when the current through the reactance, measured in siemens (S).
through a conductor, measured in amperes electromagnet is held constant. Time constant (τ ) — The time required
(A). Power (P) — The rate of electrical-en- for the voltage in an RC circuit or the cur-
Flux density (B) — The number of ergy use, measured in watts (W). rent in an RL circuit to rise from zero to
magnetic-force lines per unit area, mea- Q (quality factor) — The ratio of en- approximately 63.2% of its maximum
sured in gauss. ergy stored in a reactive component (ca- value or to fall from its maximum value
Frequency (f) — The rate of change of pacitor or inductor) to the energy 63.2% toward zero.
an ac voltage or current, measured in dissipated, equal to the reactance divided Toroid — Literally, any donut-shaped
cycles per second, or hertz (Hz). by the resistance. solid; most commonly referring to ferrite
Impedance (Z) — The complex combi- Reactance (X) — Opposition to alter- or powdered-iron cores supporting induc-
nation of resistance and reactance, mea- nating current by storage in an electrical tors and transformers.
sured in ohms (Ω). field (by a capacitor) or in a magnetic field Transducer — Any device that con-
Inductance (L) — The ability to store (by an inductor), measured in ohms (Ω). verts one form of energy to another; for
electrical energy in a magnetic field, mea- Resistance (R) — Opposition to cur- example an antenna, which converts elec-
sured in henrys (H). A device, such as a rent by conversion into other forms of trical energy to electromagnetic energy
coil, with inductance is an inductor. energy, such as heat, measured in ohms or a speaker, which converts electrical
Peak (voltage or current) — The maxi- (Ω). energy to sonic energy.
mum value relative to zero that an ac volt- Resonance — Ordinarily, the condition Transformer — A device consisting of
age or current attains during any cycle. in an ac circuit containing both capacitive at least two coupled inductors capable of
Peak-to-peak (voltage or current) — and inductive reactance in which the re- transferring energy through mutual induc-
The value of the total swing of an ac volt- actances are equal. tance.
age or current from its peak negative value RMS (voltage or current) — Literally, Voltage (E) — Electromotive force or
to its peak positive value, ordinarily twice “root mean square,” the square root of the electrical pressure, measured in volts (V).

Electrical Fundamentals 4.11

AC Theory and Reactive Components
AC IN CIRCUITS alternating current circuit or the opposing ponents for separate analysis or use. There
A circuit is a complete conductive route directions of force of an ac voltage. are also circuits that combine ac and dc
for electrons to follow from a source, If the current and voltage never change currents and voltages for many purposes.
through a load and back to the source. If direction, then from one perspective, we We can combine ac and dc voltages and
the source permits the electrons to flow have a dc circuit, even if the level of dc currents. Different ac voltages and cur-
in only one direction, the current is dc or constantly changes. Fig 4.16 shows a cur- rents also form combinations. Such
direct current. If the source permits the rent that is always positive with respect to combinations will result in complex wave-
current periodically to change direction, 0. It varies periodically in amplitude, how- forms. A waveform is the pattern of
the current is ac or alternating current. Fig ever. Whatever the shape of the variations, amplitudes reached by the voltage or cur-
4.15 illustrates the two types of circuits. the current can be called pulsating dc. If rent as measured over time. Fig 4.17
Drawing A shows the source as a battery, the current periodically reaches 0, it can shows two ac waveforms fairly close in
a typical dc source. Drawing B shows a be called intermittent dc. From another frequency, and their resultant combina-
more abstract source symbol to indicate ac. perspective, we may look at intermittent tion. Fig 4.18 shows two ac waveforms
In an ac circuit, not only does the current and pulsating dc as a combination of an ac dissimilar in both frequency and wave-
change direction periodically; the voltage and a dc current. Special circuits can sepa- length, along with the resultant combined
also periodically reverses. The rate of re- rate the two currents into ac and dc com- waveform. Note the similarities (and the
versal may range from a few times per sec- differences) between the resultant wave-
ond to many billions per second. form in Fig 4.18 and the combined ac-dc
Graphs of current or voltage, such as Fig waveform in Fig 4.16.
4.15, begin with a horizontal axis that rep- Alternating currents may take on many
resents time. The vertical axis represents useful wave shapes. Fig 4.19 shows a few
the amplitude of the current or the voltage, that are commonly used in practical cir-
whichever is graphed. Distance above the cuits and in test equipment. The square
zero line means a greater positive ampli-
tude; distance below the zero line means a
greater negative amplitude. Positive and
negative simply designate the opposing
directions in which current may flow in an

Fig 4.16 — A pulsating dc current (A)

and its resolution into an ac component
(B) and a dc component (C).

Fig 4.18 — Two ac waveforms of widely

different frequencies and amplitudes
form a composite wave in which one
wave appears to ride upon the other.

Fig 4.17 — Two ac waveforms of similar

frequencies (f1 = 1.5 f2) and amplitudes
form a composite wave. Note the points
where the positive peaks of the two
Fig 4.15 — Basic circuits for direct and waves combine to create high
alternating currents. With each circuit composite peaks: this is the phenom-
is a graph of the current, constant for enon of beats. The beat note frequency Fig 4.19 — Some common ac
the dc circuit, but periodically changing is 1.5f – f = 0.5f and is visible in the waveforms: square, triangle, ramp
direction in the ac circuit. drawing. and sine.

4.12 Chapter 4
wave is vital to digital electronics. The tri- 0.707 times the maximum current. Similar cuits are many and varied. Most can be
angular and ramp waves — sometimes considerations apply to the variation of ac cataloged by reference to ac frequency
called “sawtooth” waves — are especially voltage over time. ranges used in circuits. For example, ac
useful in timing circuits. The sine wave is power used in the home, office and factory
both mathematically and practically the FREQUENCY AND PERIOD is ordinarily 60 Hz in the United States
foundation of all other forms of ac; the With a continuously rotating generator, and Canada. In Great Britain and much of
other forms can usually be reduced to (and alternating current will pass through many Europe, ac power is 50 Hz. For special
even constructed from) a particular col- equal cycles over time. Select an arbitrary purposes, ac power has been generated up
lection of sine waves. point on any one cycle and use it as a to about 400 Hz.
There are numerous ways to generate marker. For this example, the positive peak Sonic and ultrasonic applications of ac
alternating currents: with an ac power gen- will work as an unambiguous marker. The run from about 20 Hz up to several MHz.
erator (an alternator), with a transducer number of times per second that the current Audio work makes use of the lower end of
(for example, a microphone) or with an (or voltage) reaches this positive peak in the sonic spectrum, with communications
electronic circuit (for example, an RF any one second is called the frequency of audio focusing on the range from about
oscillator). The basis of the sine wave is the ac. In other words, frequency expresses 300 to 3000 Hz. High-fidelity audio uses
circular motion, which underlies the most the rate at which current (or voltage) cycles ac circuits capable of handling 20 Hz to at
usual methods of generating alternating occur. The unit of frequency is cycles per least 20 kHz. Ultrasonics — used in medi-
current. The circular motion of the ac gen- second, or hertz—abbreviated Hz (after the cine and industry — makes use of ac cir-
erator may be physical or mechanical, as 19th century radio-phenomena pioneer, cuits above 20 kHz.
in an alternator. Currents in the resonant Heinrich Hertz). Amateur Radio circuits include both
circuit of an oscillator may also produce The length of any cycle in units of time power- and sonic-frequency-range cir-
sine waves without mechanical motion. is the period of the cycle, as measured cuits. Radio communication and other
Fig 4.20 demonstrates the relationship from and to equivalent points on succeed- electronics work, however, require ac cir-
of the current (and voltage) amplitude to ing cycles. Mathematically, the period is cuits capable of operation with frequen-
relative positions of a circular rotation simply the inverse of the frequency. That cies up to the gigahertz range. Some of the
through one complete revolution of 360º. is, applications include signal sources for
Note that the current is zero at point 1. It transmitters (and for circuits inside receiv-
1
rises to its maximum value at a point 90º Frequency (f) in Hz ers); industrial induction heating; dia-
from point 1, which is point 3. At a point Period (T) in seconds thermy; microwaves for cooking, radar and
180º from point 1, which is point 4, the (23) communication; remote control of appli-
current level falls back to zero. Then the and ances, lighting, model planes and boats and
current begins to rise again. The direction 1 other equipment; and radio direction find-
of the current after point 4 and prior to its Period (T) in seconds ing and guidance.
Frequency (f) in Hz
return to point 1, however, is opposite the
direction of current from point 1 to point (24) AC IN CIRCUITS AND
4. Point 2 illustrates one of the innumer- TRANSDUCED ENERGY
able intermediate values of current Example: What is the period of a 400- Alternating currents are often loosely
throughout the cycle. hertz ac current? classified as audio frequency (AF) and
Tracing the rise and fall of current over radio frequency (RF). Although these des-
1 1
a linear time line produces the curve T 0.00250 s 2.5 ms ignations are handy, they actually repre-
accompanying the circle in Fig 4.20. The f 400 Hz sent something other than the electrical
curve is sinusoidal or a sine wave. The The frequency of alternating currents energy of ac circuits: They designate spe-
amplitude of the current varies as the sine used in Amateur Radio circuits varies cial forms of energy that we find useful.
of the angle made by the circular move- from a few hertz, or cycles per second, to Audio or sonic energy is the energy
ment with respect to the zero point. The thousands of millions of hertz. Likewise, imparted by the mechanical movement of a
sine of 90° is 1, and 90° is also the point of the period of alternating currents amateurs medium, which can be air, metal, water or
maximum current (along with 270°). The use ranges from significant fractions of a even the human body. Sound that humans
sine of 45° (point 2) is 0.707, and the value second down to nanoseconds or smaller. can hear normally requires the movement
of current at the 45° point of rotation is In order to express units of frequency, time of air between 20 Hz and 20 kHz, although
and almost everything else in electronics the human ear loses its ability to detect the
compactly, a standard system of prefixes extremes of this range as we age. Some
is used. In magnitudes of 1000 or 103, fre- animals, such as elephants, can apparently
quency is measurable in hertz, in kilohertz detect air vibrations well below 20 Hz,
(1000 hertz or kHz), in megahertz (1 mil- while others, such as dogs and cats, can
lion hertz or MHz), gigahertz (1 billion detect air vibrations well above 20 kHz.
hertz or GHz) and even in tera-hertz (1 Electrical circuits do not directly pro-
trillion hertz or THz). For units smaller duce air vibrations. Sound production
than one, as in the measurement of period, requires a transducer, a device to trans-
the basic unit seconds can become milli- form one form of energy into another form
seconds (1 thousandth of a second or ms), of energy; in this case electrical energy
microseconds (1 millionth of a second or into sonic energy. The speaker and the
μs), nanoseconds (1 billionth of a second microphone are the most common audio
Fig 4.20 — The relationship of circular
motion and the resultant graph of ac or ns) and picoseconds (1 trillionth of a transducers. There are numerous ultra-
current or voltage. The curve is second or ps). sonic transducers for various applications.
sinusoidal, a sine wave. The uses of ac in Amateur Radio cir- Likewise, converting electrical energy

Electrical Fundamentals 4.13

into radio signals also requires a trans- and energy spectrum of most interest to
ducer, usually called an antenna. In con- radio applications, frequencies have been
§ km · classified into groups and given names.
trast to RF alternating currents in circuits, 3.00 u 10 5 ¨ ¸
RF energy is a form of electromagnetic © s ¹ (28) Table 4.3 provides a reference list of these
O (m)
energy. The frequencies of electromag- f (kHz) classifications. To a significant degree, the
netic energy run from 3 kHz to above 1012 frequencies within each group exhibit simi-
GHz. They include radio, infrared, visible lar properties. For example, HF or high fre-
For frequencies in megahertz, use: quencies, from 3 to 30 MHz, all exhibit skip
light, ultraviolet and a number of energy
forms of greatest interest to physicists and or ionospheric refraction that permits regu-
§ Mm ·
astronomers. Table 4.2 provides a brief 300 ¨ ¸ lar long-range radio communications. This
f (MHz) © s ¹ (29) property also applies occasionally both to
glimpse at the total spectrum of electro-
Ȝ(m) MF (medium frequencies) and to VHF
magnetic energy.
All electromagnetic energy has one (very high frequencies).
thing in common: it travels, or propagates, and Despite the close relationship between
at the speed of light. This speed is approxi- RF electromagnetic energy and RF ac cir-
mately 300000000 (or 3.00 × 108) meters § Mm · cuits, it remains important to distinguish
300 ¨ ¸
per second in a vacuum. Electromagnetic- © s ¹ the two. To the ac circuit producing or
Ȝ(m) (30)
energy waves have a length uniquely f (MHz) amplifying a 15-kHz alternating current,
associated with each possible frequency. the ultimate transformation and use of the
The wavelength (λ) is simply the speed of electrical energy may make no difference
You would normally just drop the units to the circuit’s operation. By choosing the
propagation divided by the frequency (f)
that go with the speed of light constant to right transducer, one can produce either
in hertz.
make the equation look simpler. an audio tone or a radio signal — or both.
§m· Example: What is the wavelength of an Such was the accidental fate of many hori-
3.00 u 108 ¨ ¸ RF wave whose frequency is 4.0 MHz? zontal oscillators and amplifiers in early
f (Hz) © s¹ (25)
television sets; they found ways to vibrate
Ȝ(m) 300 300
O (m) 75 m parts audibly and to radiate electromag-
and f (MHz) 4.0 MHz netic energy.
§m· PHASE
3.00 u 108 ¨ ¸ At higher frequencies, circuit elements
Ȝ(m) © s¹ (26) act like transducers. This property can be When tracing a sine-wave curve of an
f Hz  put to use, but it can also cause problems ac voltage or current, the horizontal axis
for some circuit operations. Therefore, represents time. We call this the time
Example: What is the frequency of an wavelength calculations are of some domain of the sine wave. Events to the
80.0-m RF wave? importance in designing ac circuits for right take place later; events to the left
those frequencies. occur earlier. Although time is measurable
§m· Within the part of the electromagnetic- in parts of a second, it is more convenient
3.00 u 108 ¨ ¸
f (Hz) © s¹
Ȝ(m)

§m· Table 4.2

3.00 u 108 ¨ ¸
© s ¹ Key Regions of the Electromagnetic Energy Spectrum
80.0 m
Region Name Frequency Range
f (Hz) 3.75 u 10 Hz6 Radio frequencies 3.0 × 103 Hz to 3.0 × 1011 Hz
Infrared 3.0 × 1011 Hz to 4.3 × 1014 Hz
Visible light 4.3 × 1014 Hz to 7.5 × 1014 Hz
We could use a similar equation to cal- Ultraviolet 7.5 × 1014 Hz to 6.0 × 1016 Hz
culate the wavelength of a sound wave in X-rays 6.0 × 1016 Hz to 3.0 × 1019 Hz
air, but we would have to use the speed of Gamma rays 3.0 × 1019 Hz to 5.0 × 1020 Hz
sound instead of the speed of light in the Cosmic rays 5.0 × 1020 Hz to 8.0 × 1021 Hz
numerator of the equation. The speed of
propagation of the mechanical movement
of air that we call sound varies consider- Table 4.3
ably with air temperature and altitude. The
speed of sound at sea level is about 331 Classification of the Radio Frequency Spectrum
m/s at 0ºC and 344 m/s at 20ºC. Abbreviation Classification Frequency Range
To calculate the frequency of an elec-
VLF Very low frequencies 3 to 30 kHz
tromagnetic wave directly in kilohertz, LF Low frequencies 30 to 300 kHz
change the speed constant to 300,000 MF Medium frequencies 300 to 3000 kHz
(3.00 × 105) km/s. HF High frequencies 3 to 30 MHz
VHF Very high frequencies 30 to 300 MHz
§ km · UHF Ultrahigh frequencies 300 to 3000 MHz
3.00 u 10 5 ¨ ¸ SHF Superhigh frequencies 3 to 30 GHz
f (kHz) © s ¹ (27) EHF Extremely high frequencies 30 to 300 GHz
Ȝ(m)

4.14 Chapter 4
 to treat each cycle as a complete time unit just reaches its maximum value.
that we divide into 360°. The conventional In Part B, lines A and B are 180° out of
starting point for counting degrees is the phase. In this case, it does not matter
zero point as the voltage or current begins which one is considered to lead or lag.
the positive half cycle. The essential ele- Line B is always positive while line A is
ments of an ac cycle appear in Fig 4.21. negative, and vice versa. If the two wave-
The advantage of treating the ac cycle in forms are of two voltages or two currents
this way is that many calculations and in the same circuit and if they have the
measurements can be taken and recorded same amplitude, they will cancel each
in a manner that is independent of other completely.
frequency. The positive peak voltage or
current occurs at 90° along the cycle. Rela- MEASURING AC VOLTAGE,
tive to the starting point, 90° is the phase CURRENT AND POWER
Fig 4.21 — An ac cycle is divided into of the ac at that point. Thus, a complete
360° that are used as a measure of time Measuring the voltage or current in a dc
description of an ac voltage or current
or phase. circuit is straightforward, as Fig 4.24A
involves reference to three properties: fre-
demonstrates. Since the current flows in
quency, amplitude and phase.
only one direction, for a resistive load, the
Phase relationships also permit the com-
voltage and current have constant values
parison of two ac voltages or currents at
until the circuit components change.
the same frequency, as Fig 4.22 demon-
Fig 4.24B illustrates a perplexing prob-
strates. Since B crosses the zero point in
the positive direction after A has already lem encountered when measuring voltages
done so, there is a phase difference and currents in ac circuits. The current and
between the two waves. In the example, B voltage continuously change direction and
lags A by 45°, or A leads B by 45°. If A value. Which values are meaningful? In
and B occur in the same circuit, their com- fact, several values of constant sine-wave
posite waveform will also be a sine wave voltage and current in ac circuits are
at an intermediate phase angle relative to important to differing applications and
each. Adding any number of sine waves of concerns.
the same frequency always results in a sine
Fig 4.22 — When two waves of the Instantaneous Voltage and Current
wave at that frequency.
same frequency start their cycles at Fig 4.25 shows a sine wave of some
slightly different times, the time Fig 4.22 might equally apply to a volt-
difference or phase difference is age and a current measured in the same ac arbitrary frequency and amplitude with
measured in degrees. In this drawing, circuit. Either A or B might represent the respect to either voltage or current. The
wave B starts 45° (one-eighth cycle) voltage; that is, in some instances voltage instantaneous voltage (or current) at point
later than wave A, and so lags 45° will lead the current and in others voltage A on the curve is a function of three fac-
behind A. tors: the maximum value of voltage (or
will lag the current.
Two important special cases appear in current) along the curve (point B), the fre-
Fig 4.23. In Part A, line B lags 90° behind quency of the wave, and the time elapsed
line A. Its cycle begins exactly one quarter in seconds or fractions of a second. Thus,
cycle later than the A cycle. When one
wave is passing through zero, the other E inst E max sin (2ʌft) ș (31)

Fig 4.23 — Two important special cases

of phase difference: In the upper
drawing, the phase difference between
A and B is 90°; in the lower drawing,
the phase difference is 180°. Fig 4.24 — Voltage and current measurements in dc and ac circuits.

Electrical Fundamentals 4.15

 age ac power equivalent to a correspond-
ing average dc power is half the peak ac
power.

Ppk
Pave (35)
2
Since a circuit with a constant resistance
is linear — that is, raising or lowering the
voltage will raise or lower the current pro-
portionally — the voltage and current
values needed to arrive at average ac power
are related to their peak values by the
factor.
E pk E pk
E RMS E pk u 0.707 (36)
2 1.414

Fig 4.25 — Two cycles of a sine wave to illustrate instantaneous, peak, and peak-
to-peak ac voltage and current values. I pk I pk
I RMS I pk u 0.707 (37)
2 1.414

Considering just one sine wave, inde- E P P 2E pk (34) In the time domain of a sine wave, the
pendent of frequency, the instantaneous RMS values of voltage and current occur
value of voltage (or current) becomes Amplifying devices often specify their at the 45°, 135°, 225° and 315° points
input limits in terms of peak-to-peak volt- along the cycle shown in Fig 4.26. (The
E inst E max sin ș (32) ages. Operational amplifiers, which have sine of 45° is approximately 0.707.) The
almost unlimited gain potential, often absolute instantaneous value of voltage or
where θ is the angle in degrees through require input-level limiting to prevent the current is greater than the RMS value for
which the voltage has moved over time output signals from distorting if they half the cycle and less than the RMS value
after the beginning of the cycle. exceed the peak-to-peak output rating of for half the cycle.
Example: What is the instantaneous the devices. The RMS values of voltage and current
value of voltage at point D in Fig 4.25, if get their name from the means used to
the maximum voltage value is 120 V and RMS Voltages and Currents derive their value relative to peak voltage
the angular travel is 60.0°? The root mean square or RMS values of and current. Square the individual values
E inst 120 V u sin 60.0q voltage and current are the most common of all the instantaneous values of voltage
values encountered in electronics. Some- or current in a single cycle of ac. Take the
120 u 0.866 104 V times called the effective values of ac volt- average of these squares and then find the
age and current, they are based upon square root of the average. This root mean
Peak and Peak-to-Peak Voltage equating the values of ac and dc power square procedure produces the RMS value
and Current required to heat a resistive element to of voltage or current.
The most important instantaneous volt- exactly the same temperature. The peak ac If the RMS voltage is the peak voltage
ages and currents are the maximum or power required for this condition is twice divided by the 2 , then the peak voltage
peak values reached on each positive and the dc power needed. Therefore, the aver- must be the RMS voltage multiplied by
negative half cycle of the sine wave. In
Fig 4.25, points B and C represent the
positive and negative peaks of voltage or
current. Peak (pk) values are especially
important with respect to component rat-
ings, which the voltage or current in a cir-
cuit must not exceed without danger of
component failure.
The peak power in an ac circuit is sim-
ply the product of the peak voltage and the
peak current, or

Ppk E pk u I pk (33)

The span from points B to C in Fig 4.25

represents the largest voltage or current
swing of the sine wave. Designated the
peak-to-peak (P-P) voltage (or current),
this span is equal to twice the peak value Fig 4.26 — The relationships between RMS, average, peak, and peak-to-peak
of the voltage (or current). Thus, values of ac voltage and current.

4.16 Chapter 4
Table 4.4
Conversion Factors for AC Voltage or Current

From To Multiply By
Peak Peak-to-Peak 2
Peak-to-Peak Peak 0.5
Peak RMS 1/ 2 or 0.707
RMS Peak 2 or 1.414
Fig 4.27 — The peak envelope voltage
Peak-to-Peak RMS 1 / (2 × (PEV) for a composite waveform.
2 ) or 0.35355
RMS Peak-to-Peak 2× 2 or 2.828
Peak Average 2 / π or 0.6366
Average Peak π / 2 or 1.5708
RMS Average (2 × 2 ) / π or 0.90 Complex Waves and Peak-
Envelope Values
Average RMS π / (2 × 2 ) or 1.11
Complex waves, as shown earlier in Fig
4.18, differ from pure sine waves. The
Note: These conversion factors apply only to continuous pure sine waves.
amplitude of the peak voltage may vary
significantly from one cycle to the next.
Therefore, other amplitude measures are
required, especially for accurate measure-
the 2 , or E pk 120 V u 1.414 170 V ment of voltage and power with single
sideband (SSB) waveforms. Fig 4.27
Epk = ERMS × 1.414 (38) E pp 2 u 170 V 340 V illustrates a multitone composite wave-
form with an RF ac waveform as the basis.
Unless otherwise specified, unlabeled The RF ac waveform has a frequency
I pk I RMS u 1.414 (39) ac voltage and current values found in many times that of the audio-frequency ac
most electronics literature are normally waveform with which it is usually com-
Since circuit specifications will most RMS values. bined in SSB operations. Therefore, the
commonly list only RMS voltage and cur- resultant waveform appears as an ampli-
rent values, these relationships are impor- Average Values of Voltage and
tude envelope superimposed upon the RF
tant in finding the peak voltages or Current
waveform. The peak envelope voltage
currents that will stress components. Certain kinds of circuits respond to the (PEV), then, is the maximum or peak value
Example: What is the peak voltage on a average value of an ac waveform. Among of voltage achieved.
capacitor if the RMS voltage of a sinusoi- these circuits are electrodynamic meter Peak envelope voltage permits the cal-
dal waveform signal across it is 300 V ac? movements and power supplies that convert culation of peak envelope power (PEP).
ac to dc and use heavily inductive (“choke”) The Federal Communications Commis-
input filters, both of which use the pulsa- sion (FCC) uses the concept of peak enve-
E pk 300 V u 1.414 424 V ting dc output of a full-wave rectifier. The lope power to set the maximum power
average value of each ac half cycle is the standards for amateur transmitters. PEP is
The capacitor must be able to withstand mean of all the instantaneous values in that the average power supplied to the antenna
this higher voltage, plus a safety margin. half cycle. Related to the peak values of transmission line by a transmitter during
The capacitor must also be rated for ac voltage and current, average values are 2 / π one RF cycle at the crest of the modulation
use. A capacitor rated for 1 kV dc may (or 0.6366) times the peak value. envelope, taken under normal operating
explode if used in this application. In conditions. Since calculation of PEP
power supplies that convert ac to dc and E ave 0.6366 E pk (40)
requires the average power of the cycle,
use capacitive input filters, the output multiply the PEV by 0.707 to obtain the
I ave 0.6366 I pk (41)
voltage will approach the peak value of
RMS value. Then calculate power by
the ac voltage rather than the RMS value.
using the square of the voltage divided by
Example: What is the peak voltage and For convenience, Table 4.4 summarizes
the load resistance.
the peak-to-peak voltage at the usual the relationships between all of the com-
household ac outlet, if the RMS voltage is mon ac values. All of these relationships (PEV u 0.707)2
PEP (42)
120 V? apply only to pure sine waves. R

Electrical Fundamentals 4.17

Capacitance and Capacitors
Without the ability to store electrical
energy, radio would not be possible. One
may build and hold an electrical charge in
an electrostatic field. This phenomenon is
called capacitance, and the devices that
exhibit capacitance are called capacitors.
See Chapter 6 for more information on
practical capacitor applications and prob-
lems. Fig 4.28 shows several schematic
symbols for capacitors. Part A shows a
fixed capacitor; one that has a single value
of capacitance. Part B shows variable
capacitors; these are adjustable over a
range of values. Ordinarily, the straight
line in each symbol connects to a positive
voltage, while the curved line goes to a
negative voltage or to ground. Some
capacitor designs require rigorous adher-
ence to polarity markings; other designs
are symmetrical and non-polarized.
Fig 4.28 — Schematic symbol for a Fig 4.29 — A simple capacitor showing
CHARGE AND ELECTROSTATIC fixed capacitor is shown at A. The the basic charging arrangement at A,
ENERGY STORAGE symbols for a variable capacitor are and the retention of the charge due to
Suppose two flat metal plates are placed shown at B. the electrostatic field at B.
close to each other (but not touching) and
are connected to a battery through a
switch, as illustrated in Fig 4.29A. At the
instant the switch is closed, electrons are
attracted from the upper plate to the posi-
tive terminal of the battery, and the same
number are repelled into the lower plate
from the negative battery terminal.
Enough electrons move into one plate and
out of the other to make the voltage be-
tween the plates the same as the battery
voltage.
If the switch is opened after the plates
have been charged in this way, the top
plate is left with a deficiency of electrons
and the bottom plate with an excess. Since
there is no current path between the two,
the plates remain charged despite the fact
that the battery no longer is connected.
The charge remains due to the electro-
static field between the plates. The large
number of opposite charges exert an at-
tractive force across the small distance
between plates, as illustrated in Fig 4.29B.
If a wire is touched between the two
plates (short-circuiting them), the excess
electrons on the bottom plate flow through
the wire to the upper plate, restoring elec-
trical neutrality. The plates are dis-
charged.
These two plates represent an electrical
capacitor, a device possessing the prop-
erty of storing electrical energy in the
electric field between its plates. During
the time the electrons are moving — that
is, while the capacitor is being charged or
discharged — a current flows in the cir- Fig 4.30 — The flow of current during the charge and discharge of a capacitor. The
cuit even though the circuit apparently is charge graphs assume that the charge switch is closed and the discharge switch
broken by the gap between the capacitor is open. The discharge graphs assume just the opposite.

4.18 Chapter 4
plates. The current flows only during the
time of charge and discharge, however, Table 4.5
and this time is usually very short. There Relative Dielectric Constants of Common Capacitor Dielectric Materials
can be no continuous flow of direct cur-
(O)rganic or
rent through a capacitor. Material Dielectric Constant (k) (I)norganic
Fig 4.30 demonstrates the voltage and
Vacuum 1 (by definition) I
current in the circuit, first, at the moment Air 1.0006 I
the switch is closed to charge the capaci- Ruby mica 6.5 - 8.7 I
tor and, second, at the moment the short- Glass (flint) 10 I
ing switch is closed to discharge the unit. Barium titanate (class I) 5 - 450 I
Note that the periods of charge and Barium titanate (class II) 200 - 12000 I
Kraft paper ≈ 2.6 O
discharge are very short, but that they are
Mineral Oil ≈ 2.23 O
not zero. This finite charging and Castor Oil ≈ 4.7 O
discharging time can be lengthened and Halowax ≈ 5.2 O
will prove useful later in timing circuits. Chlorinated diphenyl ≈ 5.3 O
Although dc cannot pass through a Polyisobutylene ≈ 2.2 O
capacitor, alternating current can. As fast Polytetrafluoroethylene ≈ 2.1 O
Polyethylene terephthalate ≈3 O
as one plate is charged positively by the Polystyrene ≈ 2.6 O
positive excursion of the alternating cur- Polycarbonate ≈ 3.1 O
rent, the other plate is being charged nega- Aluminum oxide ≈ 8.4 I
tively. Positive charges flowing into one Tantalum pentoxide ≈ 28 I
plate causes a current to flow out of the Niobium oxide ≈ 40 I
other plate during one half of the cycle, Titanium dioxide ≈ 80 I
resulting in a negative charge on that plate. (Adapted from: Charles A. Harper, Handbook of Components for
The reverse occurs during the second half Electronics, p 8-7.)
of the cycle.
The charge or quantity of electricity that
can be held on the capacitor plates is pro-
portional to the applied voltage and to the
capacitance of the capacitor: dielectric. The larger the plate area
and the smaller the spacing between the
Q CE (43) plates, the greater the capacitance. The
capacitance also depends on the kind of
where: insulating material between the plates; it
Q = charge in coulombs, is smallest with air insulation or a vacuum.
C = capacitance in farads, and Substituting other insulating materials for
E = electrical potential in volts. air may greatly increase the capacitance.
The ratio of the capacitance with a
The energy stored in a capacitor is material other than a vacuum or air
also a function of electrical potential and between the plates to the capacitance of
capacitance: the same capacitor with air insulation is Fig 4.31 — A multiple-plate capacitor.
called the dielectric constant, or K, of that Alternate plates are connected to each
E2 C other.
W (44) particular insulating material. The dielec-
2 tric constants of a number of materials
where: commonly used as dielectrics in capaci-
W = energy in joules (watt-seconds), tors are given in Table 4.5. For example, obtain a fairly large capacitance in a small
E = electrical potential in volts (some if a sheet of polystyrene is substituted for space, since several plates of smaller indi-
texts use V instead of E), and air between the plates of a capacitor, the vidual area can be stacked to form the
C = capacitance in farads. capacitance will be 2.6 times greater. equivalent of a single large plate of the
The basic unit of capacitance, the abil- same total area. Also, all plates except the
The numerator of this expression can be
ity to store electrical energy in an elec- two on the ends are exposed to plates of the
derived easily from the definitions for
trostatic field, is the farad. This unit is other group on both sides, and so are twice
charge, capacitance, current, power and
generally too large for practical radio as effective in increasing the capacitance.
energy. The denominator is not so obvi-
work, however. Capacitance is usually The formula for calculating capacitance
ous, however. It arises because the volt-
measured in microfarads (abbreviated from these physical properties is:
age across a capacitor is not constant, but
is a function of time. The average voltage μF), nanofarads (abbreviated nF) or pico-
farads (pF). The microfarad is one mil- 0.2248 K A (n  1)
over the time interval determines the C (45)
lionth of a farad (10–6 F), the nanofarad is d
energy stored. The time dependence of the
capacitor voltage is a very useful prop- one thousandth of a microfarad (10–9 F)
erty; see the section on time constants. and the picofarad is one millionth of a where:
microfarad (10–12 F). C = capacitance in pF,
UNITS OF CAPACITANCE AND In practice, capacitors often have more K = dielectric constant of material
CAPACITOR CONSTRUCTION than two plates, the alternate plates being between plates,
A capacitor consists, fundamentally, of connected to form two sets, as shown in A = area of one side of one plate in
two plates separated by an insulator or Fig 4.31. This practice makes it possible to square inches,

Electrical Fundamentals 4.19

 d = separation of plate surfaces in KINDS OF CAPACITORS AND large compared to capacitors having other
inches, and THEIR USES dielectrics, because the film is so thin —
n = number of plates. The capacitors used in radio work differ much less than any thickness practical
considerably in physical size, construc- with a solid dielectric.
If the area (A) is in square centimeters tion and capacitance. Representative The use of electrolytic and oil-filled
and the separation (d) is in centimeters, kinds are shown in Fig 4.32. In variable capacitors is confined to power-supply fil-
then the formula for capacitance becomes capacitors, which are almost always con- tering and audio-bypass applications be-
structed with air for the dielectric, one set cause their dielectrics have high losses at
of plates is made movable with respect to higher frequencies. Mica and ceramic ca-
0.0885 K A (n  1) pacitors are used throughout the frequency
C (46) the other set so the capacitance can be
d range from audio to several hundred
varied. Fixed capacitors — those having a
If the plates in one group do not have the single, nonadjustable value of capacitance megahertz.
same area as the plates in the other, use the — can also be made with metal plates and New dielectric materials appear from
area of the smaller plates. with air as the dielectric. time to time and represent improvements
Example: What is the capacitance of 2 in capacitor performance. Silvered-mica
Fixed capacitors are usually con-
copper plates, each 1.50 square inches in capacitors, formed by spraying thin coats
structed from plates of metal foil with a
area, separated by a distance of 0.00500 of silver on each side of the mica insulat-
thin solid or liquid dielectric sandwiched
inch, if the dielectric is air? ing sheet, improved the stability of mica
between, so a relatively large capacitance
capacitors in circuits sensitive to tempera-
0.2248 K A (n  1) can be obtained in a small unit. The solid
C ture changes. Polystyrene and other syn-
d dielectrics commonly used are mica, pa- thetic dielectrics, along with tantalum
per and special ceramics. An example of a electrolytics, have permitted the size of
0.2248 u 1 u 1.50 (2  1) liquid dielectric is mineral oil. Electrolytic
C capacitors to shrink per unit of capaci-
0.00500 capacitors use aluminum-foil plates with tance.
C 67.4 pF a semiliquid conducting chemical com-
pound between them. The actual dielec- VOLTAGE RATINGS AND
tric is a very thin film of insulating material BREAKDOWN
that forms on one set of plates through When high voltage is applied to the
electrochemical action when a plates of a capacitor, considerable force is
dc voltage is applied to the capacitor. The exerted on the electrons and nuclei of the
capacitance obtained with a given plate dielectric. The dielectric is an insulator;
area in an electrolytic capacitor is very its electrons do not become detached from

(A)

(C)

(B) (D) (E)

Fig 4.32 — Fixed-value capacitors are shown in parts A and B. Aluminum electrolytic capacitors are pictured near the center
of photo A. The small tear-drop units to the left of center are tantalum electrolytic capacitors. The rectangular units are
silvered-mica, polystyrene film and monolithic ceramic. At the right edge is a disc-ceramic capacitor and near the top right
corner is a surface-mount capacitor. B shows a large “computer-grade” electrolytic. These have very low equivalent series
resistance (ESR) and are often used as filter capacitors in switch-mode power supplies, and in series-strings for high-voltage
supplies of RF power amplifiers. Parts C and D show a variety of variable capacitors, including air variable capacitors and
mica compression units. Part E shows a vacuum variable capacitor such as is sometimes used in high-power amplifier
circuits. The 1/4-inch-ruled graph paper backgrounds provide size comparisons.

4.20 Chapter 4
atoms the way they do in conductors. If It is not safe to connect capacitors
the force is great enough, however, the across an ac power line unless they are
dielectric will break down. Failed dielec- rated for such use. Capacitors with dc rat-
trics usually puncture and offer a low-re- ings may short the line. Several manufac-
sistance current path between the two turers make capacitors specifically rated
plates. for use across the ac power line.
The breakdown voltage a dielectric can For use with other ac signals, the peak
withstand depends on the chemical com- value of ac voltage should not exceed the
position and thickness of the dielectric. dc working voltage, unless otherwise
Breakdown voltage is not directly propor- specified in component ratings. In other
tional to the thickness; doubling the thick- words, the RMS value of ac should be
ness does not quite double the breakdown 0.707 times the dcwv value or lower. With
voltage. Gas dielectrics also break down, many types of capacitors, further derating
as evidenced by a spark or arc between the is required as the operating frequency
plates. Spark voltages are generally given increases. An additional safety margin is
with the units kilovolts per centimeter. For good practice.
air, the spark voltage or Vs may range from Any two surfaces having different elec-
more than 120 kV/cm for gaps as narrow trical potentials, and which are close
as 0.006 cm down to 28 kV/cm for gaps as enough to exhibit a significant electro-
wide as 10 cm. In addition, a large number static field, constitute a capacitor. The
of variables enter into the actual break- arrangement of circuit components and
down voltage in a real situation. Among leads sometimes results in the creation of
the variables are the electrode shape, the unintended capacitors. This is called stray
capacitance: It often results in the passage Fig 4.33 — Capacitors in parallel are
gap distance, the air pressure or density, shown at A, and in series at B.
the voltage, impurities in the air (or any of signals in ways that disrupt the normal
other dielectric material) and the nature of operation of a circuit. Good design mini-
the external circuit (with air, for instance, mizes stray capacitance.
the humidity affects conduction on the Stray capacitance may have a greater formula becomes:
surface of the capacitor plate). affect in a high-impedance circuit because
the capacitive reactance may be a greater C1 u C2
Dielectric breakdown occurs at a lower C total (49)
voltage between pointed or sharp-edged percentage of the circuit impedance. Also, C1  C2
surfaces than between rounded and pol- because stray capacitance often appears
ished surfaces. Consequently, the break- in parallel with the circuit, the stray The same units must be used through-
down voltage between metal plates of any capacitor may bypass more of the desired out; that is, all capacitances must be
given spacing in air can be increased by signal at higher frequencies. Stray capaci- expressed in either μF, nF or pF. Different
buffing the edges of the plates. With most tance can often adversely affect sensitive units cannot be used in the same equation.
gas dielectrics such as air, once the volt- circuits. Capacitors are usually connected in par-
age is removed, the arc ceases and the For further information about the physi- allel to obtain a larger total capacitance
capacitor is ready for use again. If the cal and electrical characteristics of vari- than is available in one unit. The largest
plates are damaged so they are no longer ous types of capacitors in actual use, see voltage that can be applied safely to a par-
smooth and polished, they may have to be the Real-World Component Character- allel-connected group of capacitors is the
polished or the capacitor replaced. In con- istics chapter. voltage that can be applied safely to the
trast, solid dielectrics are permanently one having the lowest voltage rating.
CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND When capacitors are connected in series,
damaged by dielectric breakdown, and
PARALLEL the applied voltage is divided between
often will totally short out and melt or
explode. When a number of capacitors are con- them according to Kirchhoff’s Voltage
A thick dielectric must be used to with- nected in parallel, as in Fig 4.33A, the Law. The situation is much the same as
stand high voltages. Since the capacitance total capacitance of the group is equal to when resistors are in series and there is a
is inversely proportional to dielectric the sum of the individual capacitances:
thickness (plate spacing) for a given plate
area, a high-voltage capacitor must have C total C1  C2  C3  C4  ...  C n (47)
more plate area than a low-voltage one of
the same capacitance. High-voltage, high- When two or more capacitors are con-
capacitance capacitors are therefore physi- nected in series, as in Fig 4.33B, the total
cally large. capacitance is less than that of the small-
Dielectric strength is specified in terms est capacitor in the group. The rule for
of a dielectric withstanding voltage finding the capacitance of a number of
(DWV), given in volts per mil (0.001 inch) series-connected capacitors is the same as
at a specified temperature. Taking into that for finding the resistance of a number
account the design temperature range of a of parallel-connected resistors.
capacitor and a safety margin, manufac- 1
turers specify dc working voltage (dcwv) C total
1 1 1 1 (48) Fig 4.34 — An example of capacitors
to express the maximum safe limits of dc    ...  connected in series. The text shows
C1 C2 C3 Cn
voltage across a capacitor to prevent how to find the voltage drops, E1
dielectric breakdown. For only two capacitors in series, the through E3.

Electrical Fundamentals 4.21

voltage drop across each. The voltage that the circuit. With real capacitors, the leak- farads is called the time constant of the
appears across each series-connected age resistance of the capacitors may have circuit and is the time in seconds required
capacitor is inversely proportional to its more effect on the voltage division than to charge the capacitor to 63.2% of the
capacitance, as compared with the capaci- does the capacitance. A capacitor with a supply voltage. (The lower-case Greek
tance of the whole group. (This assumes high parallel resistance will have the high- letter tau [τ] is often used to represent the
ideal capacitors.) est voltage across it. Adding equalizing time constant in electronics circuits.)
Example: Three capacitors having resistors reduces this effect. After two time constants (t = 2τ) the
capacitances of 1, 2 and 4 μF, respectively, capacitor charges another 63.2% of the
are connected in series as shown in Fig RC TIME CONSTANT difference between the capacitor voltage
4.34. The voltage across the entire series Connecting a dc voltage source directly at one time constant and the supply volt-
is 2000 V. What is the total capacitance? to the terminals of a capacitor charges the age, for a total charge of 86.5%. After
(Since this is a calculation using theoreti- capacitor to the full source voltage almost three time constants the capacitor reaches
cal values to illustrate a technique, we will instantaneously. Any resistance added to 95% of the supply voltage, and so on, as
not follow the rules of significant figures the circuit as in Fig 4.35A limits the cur- illustrated in the curve of Fig 4.36A. After
for the calculations.) rent, lengthening the time required for the 5 RC time periods, a capacitor is consid-
voltage between the capacitor plates to ered fully charged, having reached
1 build up to the source-voltage value. Dur-
C total 99.24% of the source voltage.
1 1 1 ing this charging period, the current flow-
  If a charged capacitor is discharged
C1 C2 C3 ing from the source into the capacitor through a resistor, as indicated in Fig
gradually decreases from its initial value. 4.35B, the same time constant applies for
1 The increasing voltage stored in the the decay of the capacitor voltage. A
1 1 1 capacitor’s electric field offers increasing
  direct short circuit applied between the
1 ȝF 2 ȝF 4 ȝF opposition to the steady source voltage. capacitor terminals would discharge the
While it is being charged, the voltage capacitor almost instantly. The resistor, R,
1 4 ȝF between the capacitor terminals is an limits the current, so the capacitor voltage
C total 0.5714 ȝF exponential function of time, and is given
7 7 decreases only as rapidly as the capacitor
4 ȝF by: can discharge itself through R. A capaci-
The voltage across each capacitor is § 1 · tor discharging through a resistance
¨  ¸
proportional to the total capacitance V(t) E¨ 1  e RC ¸ (50)
¨ ¸
divided by the capacitance of the capaci- © ¹
tor in question. So the voltage across C1
is: where:
V(t) = capacitor voltage in volts at time t;
0.5714 ȝF E = potential of charging source in volts;
E1 u 2000 V 1143 V
1 ȝF t = time in seconds after initiation of
charging current;
e = natural logarithmic base = 2.718;
Similarly, the voltages across C2 and
R = circuit resistance in ohms; and
C3 are:
C = capacitance in farads.
0.5714 ȝF
E2 u 2000 V 571 V
2 ȝF Theoretically, the charging process is
never really finished, but eventually the
and
charging current drops to an unmeasurable
0.5714 ȝF value. For many purposes, it is convenient
E3 u 2000 V 286 V
4 ȝF to let t = RC. Under this condition, the
The sum of these three voltages equals above equation becomes:
2000 V, the applied voltage.
Capacitors may be connected in series V(RC) = E(1 – e –1) ≈ 0.632 E (51)
to enable the group to withstand a larger
voltage than any individual capacitor is The product of R in ohms times C in
rated to withstand. The trade-off is a
decrease in the total capacitance. As shown
by the previous example, the applied volt-
age does not divide equally between the
capacitors except when all the capaci-
tances are precisely the same. Use care to Fig 4.36 — At A, the curve shows how
ensure that the voltage rating of any the voltage across a capacitor rises,
capacitor in the group is not exceeded. If with time, when charged through a
you use capacitors in series to withstand a resistor. The curve at B shows the way
in which the voltage decreases across
higher voltage, you should also connect an a capacitor when discharging through
“equalizing resistor” across each capaci- the same resistance. For practical
tor. Use resistors with about 100 Ω per volt purposes, a capacitor may be
of supply voltage, and be sure they have Fig 4.35 — An illustration of the time considered charged or discharged after
sufficient power-handling capability for constant in an RC circuit. 5 RC periods.

4.22 Chapter 4
exhibits the same time-constant character- 0.001 s timing period, so we substitute that value
R
istics (calculated in the same way as 0.05 u 10 -6 F for t.
above) as a charging capacitor. The volt-
4.5 s
age, as a function of time while the capaci- 0.02 u 10 6 ȍ 20000 ȍ 20 kȍ RC 4.1 s
tor is being discharged, is given by: 1.10
In practice, a builder would likely
either experiment with values or use a
If we select a value of 10 μF, we can
ª  1 º variable resistor. The final value would
solve for R.
V(t) E « e RC » be selected after monitoring the waveform
(52) on an oscilloscope.
«¬ »¼ 4.1 s
Example 3: Many modern integrated cir- R 0.41 u 10 6 ȍ 410 kȍ
10 u 10  6 F
cuit (IC) devices use RC circuits to control
where t = time in seconds after initia- their timing. To match their internal cir-
tion of discharge. cuitry, they may use a specified threshold A 1% tolerance resistor and capacitor
Again, by letting t = RC, the time con- voltage as the trigger level. For example, a will give good precision. You could also
stant of a discharging capacitor represents certain IC uses a trigger level of 0.667 of use a variable resistor and an accurate
a decrease in the voltage across the ca- the supply voltage. What value of capaci- method to measure the time to set the cir-
pacitor of about 63.2%. After 5 time-con- tor and resistor would be required for a cuit to a 4.5 s period.
stant periods, the capacitor is considered 4.5-second timing period? As the examples suggest, RC circuits
fully discharged, since the voltage has First we will solve equation 50 for the have numerous applications in electron-
dropped to less than 1% of the full-charge time constant, RC. The threshold voltage ics. The number of applications is
voltage. is 0.667 times the supply voltage, so we growing steadily, especially with the
Time constant calculations have many use this value for V(t). introduction of integrated circuits con-
uses in radio work. The following trolled by part or all of a capacitor charge
ª t º or discharge cycle.
examples are all derived from practical- 
circuit applications. V (t) E «1  e RC »
« » ALTERNATING CURRENT IN
Example 1: A 100-μF capacitor in a ¬ ¼
CAPACITANCE
high-voltage power supply is shunted by a ª t º
 Everything said about capacitance and
100-kΩ resistor. What is the minimum 0.667 E E «1  e RC »
time before the capacitor may be consid- « » capacitors in a dc circuit applies to capaci-
¬ ¼ tance in an ac circuit with one major
ered fully discharged? Since full discharge
is approximately 5 RC periods,  t exception. Whereas a capacitor in a dc cir-
RC
e 1  0.667 cuit will appear as an open circuit except
3 -6 for the brief charge and discharge periods,
t 5 u RC 5 u 100 u 10 ȍ u 100 u 10 F ª  t º the same capacitor in an ac circuit will both
-3
50000 u 10 seconds ln « e RC » ln (0.333) pass and limit current. A capacitor in an ac
«¬ »¼ circuit does not handle electrical energy
t 50.0 s like a resistor, however. Instead of con-
t verting the energy to heat and dissipating
 1.10
Note: Although waiting almost a minute RC it, capacitors store electrical energy and
for the capacitor to discharge seems safe return it to the circuit.
in this high-voltage circuit, never rely We want to find a capacitor and resistor In Fig 4.37 a sine-wave ac voltage having
solely on capacitor-discharging resistors combination that will produce a 4.5 s a maximum value of 100 is applied to a ca-
(often called bleeder resistors). Be cer-
tain the power source is removed and the
capacitors are totally discharged before
touching any circuit components.
Example 2: Smooth CW keying without
clicks requires approximately 5 ms (0.005
s) of delay in both the make and break
edges of the waveform, relative to full
charging and discharging of a capacitor in
the circuit. What typical values might a
builder choose for an RC delay circuit in
a keyed voltage line? Since full charge and
discharge require 5 RC periods,

t 0.005 s
RC 0.001 s
5 5

Any combination of resistor and capa-

citor whose values, when multiplied
together, equal 0.001 would do the job. A
typical capacitor might be 0.05 μF. In that Fig 4.37 — Voltage and current phase relationships when an alternating current is
case, the necessary resistor would be: applied to a capacitor.

Electrical Fundamentals 4.23

pacitor. In the period OA, the applied volt- the applied voltage and the capacitance. The rate of change of voltage in a sine
age increases from 0 to 38; at the end of this This amount of charge moves back and wave increases directly with the fre-
period the capacitor is charged to that volt- forth in the circuit once each cycle; hence, quency. Therefore, the current into the
age. In interval AB the voltage increases to the rate of movement of charge (the cur- capacitor also increases directly with fre-
71; that is, 33 V additional. During this in- rent) is proportional to voltage, capaci- quency. Since, for a given voltage, an
terval a smaller quantity of charge has been tance and frequency. When the effects of increase in current is equivalent to a
added than in OA, because the voltage rise capacitance and frequency are considered decrease in reactance, the reactance of
during interval AB is smaller. Consequently together, they form a quantity that plays a any capacitor decreases proportionally as
the average current during interval AB is part similar to that of resistance in Ohm’s the frequency increases. Fig 4.38 traces
smaller than during OA. In the third interval, Law. This quantity is called reactance. the decrease in reactance of an arbitrary-
BC, the voltage rises from 71 to 92, an in- The unit for reactance is the ohm, just as in value capacitor with respect to increasing
crease of 21 V. This is less than the voltage the case of resistance. The formula for frequency. The only limitation on the
increase during AB, so the quantity of elec- calculating the reactance of a capacitor at application of the graph is the physical
tricity added is less; in other words, the av- a given frequency is: make-up of the capacitor, which may
erage current during interval BC is still favor low-frequency uses or high-fre-
1
smaller. In the fourth interval, CD, the volt- XC (53) quency applications.
age increases only 8 V; the charge added is 2ʌf C Among other things, reactance is a mea-
smaller than in any preceding interval and where: sure of the ability of a capacitor to limit
therefore the current also is smaller. XC = capacitive reactance in ohms, the flow of ac in a circuit. For some pur-
By dividing the first quarter cycle into a f = frequency in hertz, poses it is important to know the ability of
very large number of intervals, it could be C = capacitance in farads a capacitor to pass current. This ability is
shown that the current charging the ca- π = 3.1416 called susceptance, and it corresponds to
pacitor has the shape of a sine wave, just conductance in resistive circuit elements.
as the applied voltage does. The current is In an ideal capacitor with no resistive
Note: In many references and texts, the
largest at the beginning of the cycle and losses — that is, no energy lost as heat —
symbol ω is used to represent 2 π f. In such
becomes zero at the maximum value of the susceptance is simply the reciprocal of
references, equation 53 would read
voltage, so there is a phase difference of reactance. Hence,
90° between the voltage and the current. 1
XC 1
During the first quarter cycle the current is ȦC B (54)
flowing in the normal direction through XC
Although the unit of reactance is the
the circuit, since the capacitor is being where:
ohm, there is no power dissipated in reac-
charged. Hence the current is positive, as XC is the reactance, and
tance. The energy stored in the capacitor
indicated by the dashed line in Fig 4.37. B is the susceptance.
during one portion of the cycle is simply
In the second quarter cycle — that is, in
returned to the circuit in the next.
the time from D to H — the voltage The unit of susceptance (and conduc-
The fundamental units for frequency
applied to the capacitor decreases. During tance and admittance) is the siemens
and capacitance (hertz and farads) are too
this time the capacitor loses its charge. (abbreviated S). In literature only a few
cumbersome for practical use in radio cir-
Applying the same reasoning, it is evident years old, the term mho is also sometimes
cuits. If the capacitance is specified in
that the current is small in interval DE and given as the unit of susceptance (as well as
microfarads (μF) and the frequency is in
continues to increase during each succeed- of conductance and admittance). The role
megahertz (MHz), however, the reactance
ing interval. The current is flowing against of reactance and susceptance in current
calculated from the previous formula
the applied voltage, however, because the and other Ohm’s Law calculations will
retains the unit ohms.
capacitor is discharging into the circuit. appear in a later section of this chapter.
Example: What is the reactance of a
The current flows in the negative direction
during this quarter cycle. capacitor of 470 pF (0.000470 μF) at a
The third and fourth quarter cycles frequency of 7.15 MHz?
repeat the events of the first and second, 1
respectively, with this difference: the XC
2ʌf C
polarity of the applied voltage has reversed,
and the current changes to correspond. In 1
other words, an alternating current flows in 2 S u 7.15 MHz u 0.000470 ȝF
the circuit because of the alternate charg- Fig 4.38 — A
1ȍ graph showing
ing and discharging of the capacitance. As 47.4 ȍ the general
shown in Fig 4.37, the current starts its 0.0211 relationship of
cycle 90° before the voltage, so the current reactance to
in a capacitor leads the applied voltage by Example: What is the reactance of the frequency for a
fixed value of
90°. You might find it helpful to remember same capacitor, 470 pF (0.000470 μF), at
the word “ICE” as a mnemonic because capacitance.
a frequency of 14.29 MHz?
the current (I) in a capacitor (C) comes
1
before voltage (E). We can also turn this XC
statement around, to say the voltage in a 2ʌf C
capacitor lags the current by 90°. 1
CAPACITIVE REACTANCE 2 S u 14.30 MHz u 0.000470 ȝF
The quantity of electric charge that can 1ȍ
23.7 ȍ
be placed on a capacitor is proportional to 0.0422

4.24 Chapter 4
Inductance and Inductors
A second way to store electrical energy metric system units, we measure magnetic magnet has magnetic properties identical
is in a magnetic field. This phenomenon is flux in maxwells (1Mx = 10-8 Wb). in principle to those of a permanent mag-
called inductance, and the devices that The field intensity, known as the flux net, including poles and lines of force or
exhibit inductance are called inductors. density, decreases with the square of the flux. The strength of the magnetic field
Inductance depends upon some basic distance from the source. Flux density (B) depends on several factors: the number of
underlying magnetic properties. See is represented in gauss (G), where one turns of the coil, the magnetic properties
Chapter 6 for more information on practi- gauss is equivalent to one line of force per of the materials surrounding the coil (both
cal inductor applications and problems. square centimeter of area across the field inside and out), the length of the magnetic
(G = Mx / cm2). The gauss is a cgs unit. In path and the amplitude of the current.
MAGNETISM SI units, flux density is represented by the The magnetizing or magnetomotive
tesla (T), which is one weber per square force that produces a flux or total mag-
Magnetic Fields, Flux and Flux meter (T = Wb/m2). netic field is measured in gilberts (Gb).
Density Magnetic fields exist around two types The force in gilberts equals 0.4π (approxi-
Magnetic fields are closed fields that sur- of materials. First, certain ferromagnetic mately 1.257) times the number of turns
round a magnet, as illustrated in Fig 4.39. materials contain molecules aligned so in the coil times the current in amperes.
The field consists of lines of magnetic as to produce a magnetic field. Lodestone, (The SI unit of magnetomotive force is the
force or flux. It exhibits polarity, which is Alnico and other materials with high ampere turn, abbreviated A, just like the
conventionally indicated as north-seeking retentivity form permanent magnets ampere.) The magnetic field strength, H,
and south-seeking poles, or north and because they retain their magnetic proper- measured in oersteds (Oe) produced by
south poles for short. Magnetic flux is ties for long periods. Other materials, such any particular magnetomotive force (mea-
measured in the SI unit of the as soft iron, yield temporary magnets that sured in gilberts) is given by:
weber, which is a volt second (Wb = Vs). lose their magnetic properties rapidly.
0.4 ʌ N I
In the centimeter gram second (cgs) The second type of magnetic material is H (55)
an electrical conductor with a current "
through it. As shown in Fig 4.40, moving where:
electrons are surrounded by a closed mag- H = magnetic field strength in oersteds,
netic field lying in planes perpendicular to N = number of turns,
their motion. The needle of a compass I = dc current in amperes,
placed near a wire carrying direct current π = 3.1416, and
will be deflected by the magnetic field " = mean magnetic path length in cen-
around the wire. This phenomenon is one timeters.
aspect of a two-way relationship: a mov- The gilbert and oersted are cgs units.
ing magnetic field whose lines cut across These are given here because most ama-
a wire will induce an electrical current in teur calculations will use these units. You
the wire, and an electrical current will pro- may also see the preferred SI units in some
duce a magnetic field. literature. The SI unit of magnetic field
If the wire is coiled into a solenoid, the strength is the ampere (turn) per meter.
magnetic field greatly intensifies as the A force is required to produce a given
Fig 4.39 — The magnetic field and
poles of a permanent magnet. The individual flux lines add together. Fig 4.41 magnetic field strength. This implies that
magnetic field direction is from the illustrates the principle by showing a coil there is a resistance, called reluctance, to
north to the south pole. section. Note that the resulting electro- be overcome.

Fig 4.40 — The magnetic field around a

conductor carrying an electrical
current. If the thumb of your right hand
points in the direction of the
conventional current (plus to minus), Fig 4.41 — Cross section of an inductor
your fingers curl in the direction of the showing its flux lines and overall Fig 4.42 — A coil of wire wound around
magnetic field around the wire. magnetic field. a laminated iron core.

Electrical Fundamentals 4.25

Table 4.6
Properties of Some High-Permeability Materials

Material Approximate Percent Composition Maximum

Permeability
Fe Ni Co Mo Other
Iron 99.91 — — — — 5000
Purified Iron 99.95 — — — — 180000
4% silicon-iron 96 — — — 4 Si 7000
45 Permalloy 54.7 45 — — 0.3 Mn 25000
Hipernik 50 50 — — — 70000
78 Permalloy 21.2 78.5 — — 0.3 Mn 100000
4-79 Permalloy 16.7 79 — — 0.3 Mn 100000
Supermalloy 15.7 79 — 5 0.3 Mn 800000
Permendur 49.7 — 50 — 0.3 Mn 5000
2V Permendur 49 — 49 — 2V 4500
Hiperco 64 — 34 — 2 Cr 10000 Fig 4.43 — A typical permeability curve
2-81 Permalloy* 17 81 — 2 — 130 for a magnetic core, showing the point
Carbonyl iron* 99.9 — — — — 132 where saturation begins.
Ferroxcube III** (MnFe2O4 + ZnFe2O4) 1500

Note: all materials in sheet form except * (insulated powder) and ** (sintered powder).
(Reference: L. Ridenour, ed., Modern Physics for the Engineer, p 119.)

Core Properties: Permeability, 5000 in high-quality units. Powdered-iron

Saturation, Reluctance, Hysteresis cores used in RF tuned circuits range in
The nature of the material within the coil permeability from 3 to about 35, while
of an electromagnet, where the lines of ferrites of nickel-zinc and manganese-
force are most concentrated, has the great- zinc range from 20 to 15000. Table 4.6
est effect upon the magnetic field lists some common magnetic materials,
established by the coil. All materials are their composition and their permeabi-
compared to air. The ratio of flux density lities. Core materials are often frequency
produced by a given material compared to sensitive, exhibiting excessive losses out-
the flux density produce by an air core is side the frequency band of intended use.
the permeability of the material. Suppose As a measure of the ease with which a
the coil in Fig 4.42 is wound on an iron magnetic field may be established in a Fig 4.44 — A typical hysteresis curve
core having a cross-sectional area of material as compared with air, permeabil- for a magnetic core, showing the
2 square inches. When a certain current is ity (μ) corresponds roughly to electrical additional energy needed to overcome
sent through the coil, it is found that there conductivity. Permeability is given as: residual flux.
are 80000 lines of force in the core. Since
the area is 2 square inches, the magnetic
flux density is 40000 lines per square inch.
Now suppose that the iron core is removed
and the same current is maintained in the
coil. Also suppose the flux density with-
out the iron core is found to be 50 lines per
square inch. The ratio of these flux densi-
ties, iron core to air, is 40000 / 50 or 800,
the core’s permeability.
Permeabilities as high as 106 have been
attained. The three most common types of
materials used in magnetic cores are these:
A. stacks of laminated steel sheets (for
power and audio applications);
B. various ferrite compounds (for cores
shaped as rods, toroids, beads and numer-
ous other forms); and
C. powdered iron (shaped as slugs, tor-
oids and other forms for RF inductors).
Brass has a permeability less than 1. A
brass core inserted into a coil will decrease
Fig 4.45 — Photos and schematic symbols for representative inductors. A, an air-
the inductance compared to an air core. core inductor; B, a variable inductor with a nonmagnetic slug and C, an inductor
The permeability of silicon-steel with a toroidal magnetic core. The 1/4-inch-ruled graph paper background provides
power-transformer cores approaches a size comparison.

4.26 Chapter 4
 B formed by the source of the voltage. physical configuration of the inductor.
ȝ (56) Power is required for doing work, and Coiling a conductor increases its induc-
H since power is equal to current multiplied tance. In effect, the growing (or shrink-
where: by voltage, there must be a voltage drop in ing) magnetic field of each turn produces
B is the flux density in gauss, and the circuit while energy is being stored in magnetic lines of force that — in their
H is the magnetic field strength in oer- the field. This voltage drop, exclusive of expansion (or contraction) — cut across
steds. any voltage drop caused by resistance in the other turns of the coil, inducing a volt-
Unlike electrical conductivity, which is the circuit, is the result of an opposing age in every other turn. The mutuality of
independent of other electrical param- voltage induced in the circuit while the the effect multiplies the ability of the
eters, the permeability of a magnetic field is building up to its final value. Once coiled conductor to store electrical energy.
material varies with the flux density. At the field becomes constant, the induced A coil of many turns will have more
low flux densities (or with an air core), voltage or back-voltage disappears, be- inductance than one of few turns, if both
increasing the current through the coil will cause no further energy is being stored. coils are otherwise physically similar.
cause a proportionate increase in flux. But The induced voltage opposes the voltage Furthermore, if an inductor is placed
at very high flux densities, increasing the of the source and tends to prevent the cur- around a magnetic core, its inductance will
current beyond a certain point may cause rent from rising rapidly when the circuit is increase in proportion to the permeability
no appreciable change in the flux. At this closed. Fig 4.46A illustrates the situation of that core, if the circuit current is below
point, the core is said to be saturated. Satu- of energizing an inductor or magnetic cir- the point at which the core saturates.
ration causes a rapid decrease in perme- cuit, showing the relative amplitudes of The polarity of an induced voltage is
ability, because it decreases the ratio of induced voltage and the delayed rise in always such as to oppose any change in
flux lines to those obtainable with the current to its full value. the circuit current. This means that when
same current using an air core. Fig 4.43 The amplitude of the induced voltage is the current in the circuit is increasing,
displays a typical permeability curve, proportional to the rate at which the cur- work is being done against the induced
showing the region of saturation. The satu- rent changes (and consequently, the rate voltage by storing energy in the magnetic
ration point varies with the makeup of dif- at which the magnetic field changes) and field. Likewise, if the current in the circuit
ferent magnetic materials. Air and other to a constant associated with the circuit tends to decrease, the stored energy of the
nonmagnetic materials do not saturate and itself: the inductance (or self-inductance) field returns to the circuit, and adds to the
have a permeability of one. Reluctance, of the circuit. Inductance depends on the energy being supplied by the voltage
which is the reciprocal of permeability and
corresponds roughly to resistance in an
electrical circuit, is also one for air and
other nonmagnetic cores.
The retentivity of magnetic core materi-
als creates another potential set of losses
caused by hysteresis. Fig 4.44 illustrates the
change of flux density (B) with a changing
magnetizing force (H). From starting point
A, with no residual flux, the flux reaches
point B at the maximum magnetizing force.
As the force decreases, so too does the flux,
but it does not reach zero simultaneously
with the force at point D. As the force con-
tinues in the opposite direction, it brings
the flux density to point C. As the force
decreases to zero, the flux once more lags
behind. In effect, a reverse force is neces-
sary to overcome the residual magnetism
retained by the core material, a coercive
force. The result is a power loss to the mag-
netic circuit, which appears as heat in the
core material. Air cores are immune to hys-
teresis effects and losses.

INDUCTANCE AND DIRECT

CURRENT
In an electrical circuit, any element
having a magnetic field is called an induc-
tor. Fig 4.45 shows schematic-diagram
symbols and photographs of a few repre-
sentative inductors: an air-core inductor,
a slug-tuned variable inductor with a
nonmagnetic core and an inductor with a
magnetic (iron) core. Fig 4.46 — Inductive circuit showing and graphing the generation of induced
The transfer of energy to the magnetic voltage and the rise of current in an inductor at A, and the decay of current as
field of an inductor represents work per- power is removed and the coil shorted at B.

Electrical Fundamentals 4.27

source. Inductors try to maintain a it appears in the second coil because of ergy that act like the turning on of the
constant current through the circuit. This current flowing in the first, it is a mutual switch in a circuit containing self-induc-
phenomenon tends to keep the current effect and results from the mutual induc- tance. Because the fields created grow to
flowing even though the applied voltage tance between the two coils. very high levels rapidly, they cut across
may be decreasing or be removed entirely. When all the flux set up by one coil cuts wires leading into and out of — and wires
Fig 4.46B illustrates the decreasing but all the turns of the other coil, the mutual wholly within — electronic equipment,
continuing flow of current caused by the inductance has its maximum possible inducing unwanted voltages by mutual
induced voltage after the source voltage is value. If only a small part of the flux set up coupling.
removed from the circuit. by one coil cuts the turns of the other, the Short-duration, high-level voltage
The energy stored in the magnetic field mutual inductance is relatively small. Two spikes occur on ac and dc power lines.
of an inductor is given by the formula: coils having mutual inductance are said to Because the field intensity is great, these
be coupled. spikes may induce voltages upon conduct-
I2 L The ratio of actual mutual inductance to ing elements in sensitive circuits, disrupt-
W (57)
2 the maximum possible value that could ing them and even injuring components.
where: theoretically be obtained with two given Lightning in the vicinity of the equipment
W = energy in joules, coils is called the coefficient of coupling can induce voltages on power lines and
I = current in amperes, and between the coils. It is frequently other conductive paths (even ground con-
L = inductance in henrys. expressed as a percentage. Coils that have ductors) that lead to the equipment loca-
This formula corresponds to the energy- nearly the maximum possible mutual tion. Lightning that seems a safe distance
storage formula for capacitors: energy inductance (coefficient = 1 or 100%) are away can induce large spikes on power
storage is a function of current squared said to be closely, or tightly, coupled. If lines that ultimately lead to the equipment.
over time. As with capacitors, the time the mutual inductance is relatively small Closer at hand, heavy equipment with
dependence of inductor current is a sig- the coils are said to be loosely coupled. electrical motors can induce significant
nificant property; see the section on time The degree of coupling depends upon the spikes into power lines within the equip-
constants. physical spacing between the coils and ment location. Even though the power
The basic unit of inductance is the henry how they are placed with respect to each lines are straight, the powerful magnetic
(abbreviated H), which equals an induced other. Maximum coupling exists when field of a spike source can induce damag-
voltage of one volt when the inducing cur- they have a common axis and are as close ing voltages on equipment left “plugged
rent is varying at a rate of one ampere per together as possible (for example, one in” during electrical storms or during the
second. In various aspects of radio work, wound over the other). The coupling is operation of heavy equipment that inad-
inductors may take values ranging from a least when the coils are far apart or are equately filters its spikes.
fraction of a nanohenry (nH) through mil- placed so their axes are at right angles. Parallel-wire cables linking elements of
lihenrys (mH) up to about 20 H. The maximum possible coefficient of electronic equipment consist of long wires
coupling is closely approached when the in close proximity to each other. Signal
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE AND two coils are wound on a closed iron core. pulses can couple both magnetically and
MAGNETIC COUPLING The coefficient with air-core coils may run capacitively from one wire to another.
as high as 0.6 or 0.7 if one coil is wound Since the magnetic field of a changing
Mutual Inductance over the other, but will be much less if the current decreases as the square of dis-
When two coils are arranged with their two coils are separated. Although unity tance, separating the signal-carrying lines
axes on the same line, as shown in Fig coupling is suggested by Fig 4.47, such diminishes inductive coupling. Placing a
4.47, current sent through coil 1 creates a coupling is possible only when the coils grounded wire between signal-carrying
magnetic field that cuts coil 2. Conse- are wound on a closed magnetic core. lines reduces capacitive coupling. Unless
quently, a voltage will be induced in coil they are well-shielded and filtered, how-
2 whenever the field strength of coil 1 is Unwanted Couplings: Spikes, ever, the lines are still susceptible to the
changing. This induced voltage is similar Lightning and Other Pulses inductive coupling of pulses from other
to the voltage of self-induction, but since Every conductor passing current has a sources.
magnetic field associated with it — and
therefore inductance — even though the INDUCTORS IN RADIO WORK
conductor is not formed into a coil. The Various facets of radio work make use
inductance of a short length of straight of inductors ranging from the tiny up to
wire is small, but it may not be negligible. the massive. Small values of inductance,
If the current through it changes rapidly, as illustrated by Fig 4.48A, serve mostly
the induced voltage may be appreciable. in RF circuits. They may be self-support-
This is the case in even a few inches of ing air-core or air-wound coils or the
wire with an alternating current having a winding may be supported by nonmag-
frequency on the order of 100 MHz or netic strips or a form. Phenolic, certain
higher. At much lower frequencies or at plastics and ceramics are the most com-
dc, the inductance of the same wire might mon coil forms for air-core inductors.
be ignored because the induced voltage These inductors range in value from a few
would seemingly be negligible. hundred μH for medium- and high-
There are many phenomena, however, frequency circuits down to tenths of a μH
Fig 4.47 — Mutual inductance: When S both natural and man-made, which create
is closed, current flows through coil
for VHF and UHF work. The smallest val-
number 1, setting up a magnetic field
sufficiently strong magnetic fields to ues of inductance in radio work result from
that induces a voltage in the turns of induce voltages into straight wires. Many component leads. For VHF work and
coil number 2. of them are brief but intense pulses of en- higher frequencies, component lead

4.28 Chapter 4
 (C)
Fig 4.48 — Part A shows small-value air-
wound inductors. Part B shows some
inductors with values in the range of a
few millihenrys and C shows a large
inductor such as might be used in audio
(A) (B) circuits or as power-supply chokes. The
1
/4-inch-ruled graph paper background
provides a size comparison.

length is often critical. Circuits may fail ing beyond them to other parts of circuits. appear in Fig 4.48C. Lower values of these
to operate properly because leads are a Low-frequency radio work may also use iron-core coils, in the range of a few hen-
little too short or too long. inductors in this range of values, some- rys, are useful as audio-frequency chokes.
It is possible to make these solenoid times wound with litz wire. Litz wire is a Larger values up to about 20 H may be
coils variable by inserting a slug in the special version of stranded wire, with each found in power supplies, as choke filters,
center of the coil. (Slug-tuned coils nor- strand insulated from the others. For to suppress 120-Hz ripple. Although some
mally have a ceramic, plastic or phenolic audio filters, toroidal coils with values of these inductors are open frame, most
insulating form between the conductive below 100 mH are useful. Resembling have iron covers to confine the powerful
slug and the coil winding.) If the slug powdered-iron-core RF toroids, these magnetic fields they produce.
material is magnetic, such as powdered coils are wound on ferrite or molybdenum-
iron, the inductance increases as the slug permalloy cores having much higher INDUCTANCES IN SERIES AND
is centered along the length of the coil. If permeabilities. PARALLEL
the slug is brass or some other conductive Audio and power-supply inductors When two or more inductors are con-
but nonmagnetic material, centering the
slug will reduce the coil’s inductance. This
effect stems from the fact that brass has
low electrical resistance and acts as an
effective short-circuited one-turn second-
ary for the coil. (See more on transformer
effects later in this chapter.)
An alternative to air-core inductors for
RF work are toroidal coils wound on cores
composed of powdered iron mixed with a
binder to hold the material together. The
availability of many types and sizes of
powdered-iron cores has made these
inductors popular for low-power fixed-
value service. The toroidal shape concen-
trates the inductor’s field tightly about the
coil, eliminating the need in many cases
for other forms of shielding to limit the
interaction of the inductor’s magnetic
field with the fields of other inductors.
Fig 4.48B shows samples of inductors
in the millihenry range. Among these Fig 4.49 — Part A shows inductances in
inductors are multisection RF chokes series, and Part B shows inductances Fig 4.50 — Time constant of an RL
designed to keep RF currents from pass- in parallel. circuit being energized.

Electrical Fundamentals 4.29

nected in series (Fig 4.49A), the total Ohm’s Law value. In practical terms, the energy stored in the magnetic field returns
inductance is equal to the sum of the indi- differences become unmeasurable after a instantly to the circuit when S1 is opened.
vidual inductances, provided that the coils time. The rapid collapse of the field causes a
are sufficiently separated so that coils are The current at any time after the switch very large voltage to be induced in the coil.
not in the magnetic field of one another. in Fig 4.50 has been closed, can be found Usually the induced voltage is many times
That is: from: larger than the applied voltage, because
the induced voltage is proportional to the
L total L1  L2  L3 ...  L n (58) ª tR º rate at which the field changes. The com-

E «1  e L » mon result of opening the switch in such a
If inductors are connected in parallel « » circuit is that a spark or arc forms at the
¬ ¼ (61)
(Fig 4.49B), and if the coils are separated I(t) switch contacts during the instant the
sufficiently, the total inductance is given R switch opens. When the inductance is
by: where: large and the current in the circuit is high,
I(t) = current in amperes at time t, large amounts of energy are released in a
1
L total E = power supply potential in volts, very short time. It is not at all unusual for
1 1 1 1 (59) the switch contacts to burn or melt under
   ...  t = time in seconds after initiation of
L1 L2 L3 Ln such circumstances. The spark or arc at
current,
For only two inductors in parallel, the e = natural logarithmic base = 2.718, the opened switch can be reduced or sup-
formula becomes: R = circuit resistance in ohms, and pressed by connecting a suitable capacitor
L= inductance in henrys. and resistor in series across the contacts.
L1 u L2 Such an RC combination is called a snub-
L total (60)
L1  L2 The time in seconds required for the ber network.
Thus, the rules for combining induc- current to build up to 63.2% of the maxi- Transistor switches connected to and
tances in series and parallel are the same mum value is called the time constant, and controlling coils, such as relay solenoids,
as those for resistances, assuming that the is equal to L / R, where L is in henrys and also require protection. In most cases, a
coils are far enough apart so that each is R is in ohms. After each time interval small power diode connected in reverse
unaffected by another’s magnetic field. equal to this constant, the circuit conducts across the relay coil will prevent field-col-
When this is not so, the formulas given an additional 63.2% of the remaining cur- lapse currents from harming the transis-
above will not yield correct results. rent. This behavior is graphed in Fig 4.50. tor.
As is the case with capacitors, after 5 time If the excitation is removed without
RL TIME CONSTANT constants the current is considered to have breaking the circuit, as theoretically dia-
A comparable situation to an RC circuit reached its maximum value. As with grammed in Fig 4.51, the current will
exists when resistance and inductance are capacitors, we often use the lower- decay according to the formula:
connected in series. In Fig 4.50, first con- case Greek tau (τ) to represent the time
sider L to have no resistance and also con- constant. ª  tR º
E« L »
sider that R is zero. Closing S1 sends a Example: If a circuit has an inductor of I(t) e (62)
R« »
current through the circuit. The instanta- 5.0 mH in series with a resistor of 10 Ω, ¬ ¼
neous transition from no current to a finite how long will it take for the current in the
value, however small, represents a rapid circuit to reach full value after power is
change in current, and a reverse voltage is applied? Since achieving maximum cur-
developed by the self-inductance of L. The rent takes approximately five time con-
value of reverse voltage is almost equal stants,
and opposite to the applied voltage. The
resulting initial current is very small. t 5 L / R (5 u 5.0 u 10 3 H) / 10 ȍ
The reverse voltage depends on the
change in the value of the current and 2.5 u 10 3 seconds or 2.5 ms
would cease to offer opposition if the
current did not continue to increase. With Note that if the inductance is increased
no resistance in the circuit (which, by to 5.0 H, the required time increases by a
Ohm’s Law, would lead to an infinitely factor of 1000 to 2.5 seconds. Since the
large current), the current would increase circuit resistance didn’t change, the final
forever, always growing just fast enough current is the same for both cases in this
to keep the self-induced voltage equal to example. Increasing inductance increases
the applied voltage. the time required to reach full current.
When resistance in the circuit limits the Zero resistance would prevent the cir-
current, Ohm’s Law defines the value that cuit from ever achieving full current. All
the current can reach. The reverse voltage inductive circuits have some resistance,
generated in L must only equal the differ- however, if only the resistance of the wire
ence between E and the drop across R, making up the inductor.
because the difference is the voltage actu- An inductor cannot be discharged in the
ally applied to L. This difference becomes simple circuit of Fig 4.50 because the
smaller as the current approaches the final magnetic field collapses as soon as the Fig 4.51 — Time constant of an RL
circuit being deenergized. This is a
Ohm’s Law value. Theoretically, the current ceases. Opening S1 does not leave theoretical model only, since a
reverse voltage never quite disappears, the inductor charged in the way that a mechanical switch cannot change state
and so the current never quite reaches the capacitor would remain charged. The instantaneously.

4.30 Chapter 4
where t = time in seconds after removal of
the source voltage. standing that the primary cause for current inductors and capacitors.
After one time constant the current will lag in an inductor is the reverse voltage
lose 63.2% of its steady-state value. (It generated in the inductance. The ampli- INDUCTIVE REACTANCE
will decay to 36.8% of the steady-state tude of the reverse voltage is proportional The amplitude of alternating current in
value.) The graph in Fig 4.51 shows the to the rate at which the current changes. In an inductor is inversely proportional to the
current-decay waveform to be identical to time segment OA, when the applied volt- applied frequency. Since the reverse volt-
the voltage-discharge waveform of a age is at its positive maximum, the reverse age is directly proportional to inductance
capacitor. Be careful about applying the or induced voltage is also maximum, for a given rate of current change, the
terms charge and discharge to an induc- allowing the least current to flow. The rate current is inversely proportional to induc-
tive circuit, however. These terms refer to at which the current is changing is the tance for a given applied voltage and
energy storage in an electric field. An highest, a 38% change in the time period frequency.
inductor stores energy in a magnetic field. OA. In the segment AB, the current The combined effect of inductance and
changes by only 33%, yielding a reduced frequency is called inductive reactance,
ALTERNATING CURRENT IN level of induced voltage, which is in step which — like capacitive reactance — is
INDUCTORS with the decrease in the applied voltage. expressed in ohms. The formula for induc-
When an alternating voltage is applied The process continues in time segments tive reactance is:
to an ideal inductance (one with no resis- BC and CD, the latter producing only XL 2 ʌ f L (63)
tance — all practical inductors have some an 8% rise in current as the applied and
resistance), the current is 90° out of phase where:
induced voltage approach zero.
with the applied voltage. In this case the XL = inductive reactance,
In segment DE, the applied voltage
current lags 90° behind the voltage, the changes direction. The induced voltage f = frequency in hertz,
opposite of the capacitor current-voltage also changes direction, which returns cur- L = inductance in henrys, and
relationship, as shown in Fig 4.52. (Here rent to the circuit from storage in the mag- π = 3.1416.
again, we can also say the voltage across netic field. The direction of this current is ( If Ȧ 2 ʌ f, then X L Ȧ L. )
an inductor leads the current by 90°.) now opposite to the applied voltage, Example: What is the reactance of a coil
If you have difficulty remembering the which sustains the current in the positive having an inductance of 8.00 H at a fre-
phase relationships between voltage and direction. As the applied voltage contin- quency of 120 Hz?
current with inductors and capacitors, you ues to increase negatively, the current —
although positive — decreases in value, XL 2ʌf L
may find it helpful to think of the phrase,
“ELI the ICE man.” This will remind you reaching zero as the applied voltage 6.2832 u 120 Hz u 8.00 H
that voltage across an inductor leads the reaches its negative maximum. The nega-
6030 ȍ
current through it, because the E comes tive half-cycle continues just as did the
before the I, with an L between them, as positive half-cycle. In RF circuits the inductance values are
you read from left to right. (The letter L Compare Fig 4.52 with Fig 4.37. usually small and the frequencies are
represents inductance.) It will also help Whereas in a pure capacitive circuit, the large. When the inductance is expressed
you remember the capacitor conditions current leads the voltage by 90º, in a pure in millihenrys and the frequency in kilo-
because I comes before E with a C be- inductive circuit, the current lags the volt- hertz, the conversion factors for the two
tween them. age by 90º. These phenomena are espe- units cancel, and the formula for reactance
Interpreting Fig 4.52 begins with under- cially important in circuits that combine may be used without first converting
to fundamental units. Similarly, no con-
version is necessary if the inductance is
expressed in microhenrys and the fre-
quency in megahertz.
Example: What is the reactance of a
15.0-microhenry coil at a frequency of
14.0 MHz?
XL 2ʌf L
6.2832 u 14.0 MHz u 15.0 ȝH
1320 ȍ
The resistance of the wire used to wind
the coil has no effect on the reactance, but
simply acts as a separate resistor con-
nected in series with the coil.
Example: What is the reactance of the
same coil at a frequency of 7.0 MHz?
XL 2ʌf L
6.2832 u 7.0 MHz u 15.0 ȝH
660 ȍ
Comparing the two examples suggests
Fig 4.52 — Phase relationships between voltage and current when an alternating correctly that inductive reactance varies
current is applied to an inductance. directly with frequency. The rate of

Electrical Fundamentals 4.31

change of the current varies directly with will be of fundamental importance in 1
B (64)
the frequency, and this rate of change also creating resonant circuits. XL
determines the amplitude of the induced As a measure of the ability of an induc-
or reverse voltage. Hence, the opposition tor to limit the flow of ac in a circuit, in- where:
to the flow of current increases propor- ductive reactance is similar to capacitive XL = reactance, and
tionally to frequency. This opposition is reactance in having a corresponding B = susceptance.
called inductive reactance. The direct susceptance, or ability to pass ac current
relationship between frequency and reac- in a circuit. In an ideal inductor with no The unit of susceptance for both induc-
tance in inductors, combined with the resistive losses — that is, no energy lost as tors and capacitors is the siemens, abbre-
inverse relationship between reactance heat — susceptance is simply the recipro- viated S.
and frequency in the case of capacitors, cal of reactance.

Quality Factor, or Q of Components

Components that store energy, like Good quality ceramic capacitors and mica conductor surface. This property is called
capacitors and inductors, may be compared capacitors may have Q values of 1200 or skin effect. If the inductor’s core is a
in terms of quality or Q. The Q of any such more. Small ceramic trimmer capacitors conductive material, such as iron, ferrite,
component is the ratio of its ability to store may have Q values too small to ignore in or brass, the core will introduce additional
energy to the sum total of all energy losses some applications. Microwave capacitors losses of energy. The specific details of
within the component. In practical terms, can have poor Q values; 10 or less at these losses are discussed in connection
this ratio reduces to the formula: 10 GHz and higher frequencies. with each type of core material.
Inductors are subject to many types of The sum of all core losses may be
X
Q (65) electrical energy losses, however, such as depicted by showing a resistor in series
R wire resistance, core losses and skin with the inductor (as in Figs 4.50 and
where: effect. All electrical conductors have some 4.51), although there is no separate com-
Q = figure of merit or quality (no units), resistance through which electrical energy ponent represented by the resistor sym-
X = XL (inductive reactance) for induc- is lost as heat. Moreover, inductor wire bol. As a result of inherent energy losses,
tors and X C (capacitive reactance) for must be sized to handle the anticipated inductor Q rarely, if ever, approaches ca-
capacitors (in ohms), and current through the coil. Wire conductors pacitor Q in a circuit where both compo-
R = the sum of all resistances associated suffer additional ac losses because alter- nents work together. Although many
with the energy losses in the component nating current tends to flow on the conduc- circuits call for the highest Q inductor ob-
(in ohms). tor surface. As the frequency increases, the tainable, other circuits may call for a spe-
The Q of c×apacitors is ordinarily high. current is confined to a thinner layer of the cific Q, even a very low one.

AC Component Summary

Component Resistor Capacitor Inductor

Basic Unit ohm (Ω) farad (F) henry (H)
Units Commonly Used microfarads (μF) millihenrys (mH)
picofarads (pF) microhenrys (μH)
Quantity Stored (None) Voltage Current
(Does not want to change
in circuit)
Combining components in series R1 + R2 C1 × C2 / C1 + C2 L1 + L2
Combining components in parallel R1 × R2 / R1 + R2 C1 + C2 L1 × L2 / L1 + L2
Time constant (None) RC L/R
Voltage-Current Phase In phase Current leads voltage Voltage leads current
Voltage lags current Current lags voltage
Resistance or Reactance Resistance XC = 1 / 2πfC XL = 2πfL
Change with increasing frequency No Reactance decreases Reactance increases
Q of circuit Not defined XC / R XL / R

Calculating Practical Inductors

Although builders and experimenters required value. Core materials and wire the use of some materials.
rarely construct their own capacitors, for winding both solenoid and toroidal
inductor fabrication is common. In fact, it inductors are readily available. The fol- AIR-CORE INDUCTORS
is often necessary, since commercially lowing information includes fundamental Many circuits require air-core inductors
available units may be unavailable or formulas and design examples for calcu- using just one layer of wire. The
expensive. Even if available, they may lating practical inductors, along with approximate inductance of a single-layer
consist of coil stock to be trimmed to the additional data on the theoretical limits in air-core coil may be calculated from the

4.32 Chapter 4
simplified formula: than 0.4 d. (Note: Inductance varies as the one inch and is long enough to accommo-
square of the turns. If the number of turns date a coil of 11/4 inches. Then d = 1.00
d2 n2 is doubled, the inductance is quadrupled.
L ȝH (66) inch, " = 1.25 inches and L = 10.0. Sub-
18 d  40 " This relationship is inherent in the equa- stituting:
where: tion, but is often overlooked. For example,
L = inductance in microhenrys, if you want to double the inductance, put 10.0 [(18 u 1.00)  (40 u 1.25)]
on additional turns equal to 1.4 times the n
d = coil diameter in inches (from wire 1
center to wire center), original number of turns, or 40% more
turns.) 680 26.1 turns
" = coil length in inches, and
n = number of turns. Example: What is the inductance of a A 26-turn coil would be close enough in
coil if the coil has 48 turns wound at 32 practical work. Since the coil will be 1.25
The notation is explained in Fig 4.53. turns per inch and a diameter of 3/4 inch? inches long, the number of turns per inch
This formula is a close approximation for In this case, d = 0.75, " = 48/32 = 1.5 and n will be 26.1 / 1.25 = 20.9. Consulting the
coils having a length equal to or greater = 48. wire table in the Component Data and
References chapter, we find that #17
0.752 u 48 2 enameled wire (or anything smaller) can
L
(18 u 0.75)  (40 u 1.5) be used. The proper inductance is obtained
by winding the required number of turns
1300 on the form and then adjusting the spacing
18 PH
74 between the turns to make a uniformly
spaced coil 1.25 inches long.
To calculate the number of turns of a
Most inductance formulas lose accu-
single-layer coil for a required value of
racy when applied to small coils (such as
inductance, the formula becomes: are used in VHF work and in low-pass fil-
L (18 d  40 ") ters built for reducing harmonic interfer-
n (67) ence to televisions) because the conductor
d thickness is no longer negligible in com-
Fig 4.53 — Coil dimensions used in the Example: Suppose an inductance of parison with the size of the coil. Fig 4.54
inductance formula for air-core 10.0 μH is required. The form on which shows the measured inductance of VHF
inductors. the coil is to be wound has a diameter of coils and may be used as a basis for circuit
design. Two curves are given; curve A is
for coils wound to an inside diameter of
1
/ 2 inch; curve B is for coils of 3/ 4-inch
inside diameter. In both curves, the wire
size is #12, and the winding pitch is eight
turns to the inch (1/8-inch center-to-center
turn spacing). The inductance values
given include leads 1/2-inch long.
Machine-wound coils with the preset
diameters and turns per inch are available
in many radio stores, under the trade names
of B&W Miniductor, Airdux and Polycoil.
The Component Data and References
chapter provides information on using such
coil stock to simplify the process of design-
ing high-quality inductors for most HF
applications. Forming a wire into a sole-
noid increases its inductance, and also
introduces distributed capacitance. Since
each turn is at a slightly different ac poten-
tial, each pair of turns effectively forms a
parasitic capacitor. See the Real-World
Component Characteristics chapter for
information on the effects of these compli-
cations to the “ideal” inductors under dis-
cussion in this chapter. Moreover, the Q of
air-core inductors is, in part, a function of
the coil shape, specifically its ratio of
length to diameter. Q tends to be highest
when these dimensions are nearly equal.
With wire properly sized to the current car-
ried by the coil, and with high-caliber con-
struction, air-core inductors can achieve Qs
Fig 4.54 — Measured inductance of coils wound with #12 bare wire, eight turns to above 200. Air-core inductors with Qs as
the inch. The values include half-inch leads. high as 400 are possible.

Electrical Fundamentals 4.33

STRAIGHT-WIRE INDUCTANCE meters instead of inches, the equation may ­° ª § 2 b ·º ½°
still be used, except replace the 0.00508
L 0.00508 b ® «ln ¨ ¸»  0.75 ¾
At low frequencies the inductance of a °̄ ¬ © a ¹¼ °¿
straight, round, nonmagnetic wire in free value with 0.0002.
space is given by: Skin effect reduces the inductance at
0.00508 (3.9370) u
VHF and above. As the frequency
­° ª § 2 b ·º ½° approaches infinity, the 0.75 constant ­° ª § 2 u 3.9370 ·º ½°
L 0.00508 b ® «ln ¨ ¸»  0.75¾ (68) ® «ln ¨ ¸»  0.75¾
°̄ ¬ © a ¹¼ °¿ within the brackets approaches unity. As a °̄ ¬ © 0.0787 ¹¼ °¿
practical matter, skin effect will not
where: reduce the inductance by more than a few
L = inductance in μH, percent. L = 0.0200 [1n (100) – 0.75]
a = wire radius in inches, Example: What is the inductance of a =0.0200 (4.60 – 0.75)
b = wire length in inches, and wire that is 0.1575 inch in diameter and =0.0200 × 3.85 = 0.077 μH
ln = natural logarithm = 2.303 × 3.9370 inches long? For the calculations,
common logarithm (base 10). a = 0.0787 inch (radius) and b = 3.9370 Fig 4.55 is a graph of the inductance for
If the dimensions are expressed in milli- inch. wires of various radii as a function of
length.
A VHF or UHF tank circuit can be fab-
ricated from a wire parallel to a ground
plane, with one end grounded. A formula
for the inductance of such an arrangement
is given in Fig 4.56.
Example: What is the inductance of a
wire 3.9370 inches long and 0.0787 inch
in radius, suspended 1.5748 inch above a
ground plane? (The inductance is mea-
sured between the free end and the ground
plane, and the formula includes the induc-
tance of the 1.5748-inch grounding link.)
To demonstrate the use of the formula in
Fig 4.56, begin by evaluating these quan-
tities:

b  b2  a 2 3.9370  3.9370 2  0.0787 2

3.9370  3.94 7.88

b  b2  4 h 2  

3.9370  3.9370 2  4 1.5748 2 
3.9370  15.500  4 2.4800 

3.9370  15.500  9.9200

3.9370  5.0418 8.9788
2h 2 u 1.5748
40.0
a 0.0787
b 3.9370
Fig 4.55 — Inductance of various conductor sizes as straight wires. 0.98425
4 4

­° ª 2h § b  2 2 · º ½°
L 0.0117 b ®log10 « ¨ b a
¸ » ¾  0.00508 §¨ 2 2 2 2 b ·
b  4h  b  a   2h  a ¸
°̄ «¬ a ¨© b  2
b  4h
2 ¸»
¹ ¼ °¿ © 4 ¹

where
L=inductance in μH
a=wire radius in inches
b=wire length parallel to ground plane in inches
h= wire height above ground plane in inches

Fig 4.56 — Equation for determining the inductance of a wire parallel to a ground plane, with one end grounded. If the
dimensions are in millimeters, the numerical coefficients become 0.0004605 for the first term and 0.0002 for the second term.

4.34 Chapter 4
 losses, which are also significant in iron-
core inductors.
Eddy-current and hysteresis losses in
iron increase rapidly as the frequency of
the alternating current increases. For this
reason, ordinary iron cores can be used
only at power-line and audio frequencies
— up to approximately 15000 Hz. Even
then, a very good grade of iron or steel is
necessary for the core to perform well at
the higher audio frequencies. Laminated
iron cores become completely useless at
radio frequencies.
SLUG-TUNED INDUCTORS
For RF work, the losses in iron cores
can be reduced to a more useful level by
grinding the iron into a powder and then
§ 2b w h·
L 0.00508 b ¨ ln  0.5  0.2235 ¸ mixing it with a “binder” of insulating
© w  h b ¹
Fig 4.58 — Typical construction of an material in such a way that the individual
iron-core inductor. The small air gap iron particles are insulated from each
prevents magnetic saturation of the other. Using this approach, cores can be
where
iron and thus maintains the inductance made that function satisfactorily even into
L=inductance in microhenrys
at high currents.
b=length in inches the VHF range.
w=width in inches Because a large part of the magnetic
h=thickness in inches path is through a nonmagnetic material
(the “binder”), the permeability of the iron
Fig 4.57 — Equation for determining the current flowing in the coil, in contrast is low compared with the values obtained
the inductance of a flat strip inductor. to an air-core coil, where the inductance is at power-line frequencies. The core is usu-
independent of current because air does ally shaped in the form of a slug or cylin-
not saturate. der for fit inside the insulating form on
Substituting these values into the for- Iron-core coils such as the one sketched which the coil is wound. Despite the fact
mula yields: in Fig 4.58 are used chiefly in power-sup- that the major portion of the magnetic path
ply equipment. They usually have direct for the flux is in air, the slug is quite effec-
­° ª § 7.88 ·º ½° current flowing through the winding, and tive in increasing the coil inductance. By
L 0.0117 u 3.9370 ®log10 « 40.0 u ¨ ¸» ¾ any variation in inductance with current is pushing (or screwing) the slug in and out
°̄ ¬ © 8.9788 ¹¼ °¿
usually undesirable. Inductance variations of the coil, the inductance can be varied
+ 0.00508 × (5.0418 – 3.94 + 0.98425 – may be overcome by keeping the flux den- over a considerable range.
3.1496 + 0.0787) sity below the saturation point of the iron.
L 0.0662 ȝH Opening the core so there is a small air POWDERED-IRON TOROIDAL
gap, indicated by the dashed lines in Fig INDUCTORS
Another conductor configuration that is 4.58, will achieve this goal. The reluctance For fixed-value inductors intended for
frequently used is a flat strip over a ground or magnetic resistance introduced by such use at HF and VHF, the powdered-iron to-
plane. This arrangement has lower skin- a gap is very large compared with that of roidal core has become almost the stan-
effect loss at high frequencies than round the iron, even though the gap is only a dard core and material in low power
wire because it has a higher surface-area small fraction of an inch. Therefore, the circuits. Fig 4.59 shows the general out-
to volume ratio. The inductance of such a gap — rather than the iron — controls the lines of a toroidal coil on a magnetic core.
strip can be found from the formula in Fig flux density. Air gaps in iron cores reduce Manufacturers offer a wide variety of core
4.57. For a large collection of formulas the inductance, but they hold the value materials, or mixes, to provide units that
useful in constructing air-core inductors practically constant regardless of the cur- will perform over a desired frequency
of many configurations, see the “Circuit rent magnitude. range with a reasonable permeability. Ini-
Elements” section in Terman’s Radio When alternating current flows through tial permeabilities for powdered-iron
Engineers’ Handbook or the “Transmis- a coil wound on an iron core, a voltage is cores fall in the range of 3 to 35 for various
sion Media” chapter of The ARRL UHF/ induced. Since iron is a conductor, a cur- mixes. In addition, core sizes are avail-
Microwave Experimenter’s Manual. rent also flows in the core. Such currents able in the range of 0.125-inch outside di-
are called eddy currents. Eddy currents ameter (OD) up to 1.06-inch OD, with
IRON-CORE INDUCTORS represent lost power because they flow larger sizes to 5-inch OD available in cer-
If the permeability of an iron core in an through the resistance of the iron and gen- tain mixes. The range of sizes permits the
inductor is 800, then the inductance of any erate heat. Losses caused by eddy currents builder to construct single-layer inductors
given air-wound coil is increased 800 can be reduced by laminating the core for almost any value using wire sized to
times by inserting the iron core. The (cutting the core into thin strips). These meet the circuit current demands. While
inductance will be proportional to the strips or laminations are then insulated powdered-iron toroids are often painted
magnetic flux through the coil, other from each other by painting them with various colors, you must know the manu-
things being equal. The inductance of an some insulating material such as varnish facturer to identify the mix. There seems
iron-core inductor is highly dependent on or shellac. These losses add to hysteresis to be no set standard between manufac-

Electrical Fundamentals 4.35

 AL u N2 to 30 gauss at 28 MHz, although the curve
L (69) is not linear. To calculate the maximum
10000
anticipated flux density for a particular
where:
coil, use the formula:
L = the inductance in μH,
AL = the inductance index in μH per 100 E RMS u 10 8
turns, and Bmax (71)
N = the number of turns. 4.44 u A e u N u f
Example: What is the inductance of a where:
60-turn coil on a core with an AL of 55? Bmax = the maximum flux density in
This AL value was selected from manu-
gauss,
facturer’s information about a 0.8-inch
OD core with an initial permeability of 10. ERMS = the voltage across the coil,
This particular core is intended for use in Ae = the cross-sectional area of the core
the range of 2 to 30 MHz. See the Compo- in square centimeters,
nent Data and References chapter for N = the number of turns in the coil, and
more detailed data on the range of avail- f = the operating frequency in Hz.
able cores. Example: What is the maximum ac flux
density for a coil of 15 turns if the fre-
AL u N2 55 u 60 2 quency is 7.0 MHz, the RMS voltage is
L
10000 10000 25 V and the cross-sectional area of the
core is 0.133 cm2?
198000
19.8 ȝH E RMS u 108
Fig 4.59 — A typical toroidal inductor 10000 Bmax
wound on a powdered-iron or ferrite 4.44 u A e u N u f
core. Some key physical dimensions
are noted. Equally important are the
To calculate the number of turns needed
for a particular inductance, use the for- 25 u 108
core material, its permeability, its
intended range of operating freq- mula: 4.44 u 0.133 u 15 u 7.0 u 10 6
uencies, and its AL value. This is an
11-turn toroid. L 25 u 10 8
N 100 (70) 40 gauss
AL 62 u 10 6
Example: How many turns are needed
for a 12.0-μH coil if the AL for the selected Since the recommended limit for cores
core is 49? operated at 7 MHz is 57 gauss, this coil is
turers. Iron-powder toroids usually have well within guidelines.
rounded edges.
L 12.0 FERRITE TOROIDAL INDUCTORS
The use of powdered iron in a binder N 100 100
reduces core losses usually associated AL 49 Although nearly identical in general
with iron, while the permeability of the appearance to powdered-iron cores, fer-
core permits a reduction in the wire length 100 0.245 100 u 0.495 49.5 turns rite cores differ in a number of important
and associated resistance in forming a characteristics. They are often unpainted,
coil of a given inductance. Therefore, If the value is critical, experimenting unlike powdered-iron toroids. Ferrite
powdered-iron-core toroidal inductors with 49-turn and 50-turn coils is in order, toroids often have sharp edges, while pow-
can achieve Qs well above 100, often especially since core characteristics may dered-iron toroids usually have rounded
approaching or exceeding 200 within the vary slightly from batch to batch. Count edges. Composed of nickel-zinc ferrites
frequency range specified for a given core. turns by each pass of the wire through the for lower permeability ranges and of man-
Moreover, these coils are considered self- center of the core. (A straight wire through ganese-zinc ferrites for higher per-mea-
shielding since most of the flux lines are a toroidal core amounts to a one-turn coil.) bilities, these cores span the permeability
within the core, a fact that simplifies cir- Fine adjustment of the inductance may be range from 20 to above 10000. Nickel-zinc
cuit design and construction. possible by spreading or squeezing induc- cores with permeabilities from 20 to 800
Each powdered-iron core has a value of tor turns. are useful in high-Q applications, but
AL determined and published by the core The power-handling ability of toroidal function more commonly in amateur
manufacturer. For powdered-iron cores, cores depends on many variables, which applications as RF chokes. They are also
AL represents the inductance index, that include the cross-sectional area through useful in wide-band transformers (dis-
is, the inductance in μH per 100 turns of the core, the core material, the numbers of cussed later in this chapter).
wire on the core, arranged in a single layer. turns in the coil, the applied voltage and Because of their higher permeabilities,
The builder must select a core size capable the operating frequency. Although pow- the formulas for calculating inductance
of holding the calculated number of turns, dered-iron cores can withstand dc flux and turns require slight modification.
of the required wire size, for the desired densities up to 5000 gauss without satu- Manufacturers list ferrite AL values in mH
inductance. Otherwise, the coil calcula- rating, ac flux densities from sine waves per 1000 turns. Thus, to calculate induc-
tion is straightforward. To calculate the above certain limits can overheat cores. tance, the formula is
inductance of a powdered-iron toroidal Manufacturers provide guideline limits
coil, when the number of turns and the core for ac flux densities to avoid overheating. AL u N2
L (72)
material are known, use the formula: The limits range from 150 gauss at 1 MHz 1000000

4.36 Chapter 4
where: 1.88 u 10 6 1000 0.008 1000 u 0.089 89 turns
L = the inductance in mH, 1.88 mH
1 u 10 6
AL = the inductance index in mH per
To calculate the number of turns needed For inductors carrying both dc and
1000 turns, and
for a particular inductance, use the formula: ac currents, the upper saturation limit
N = the number of turns.
Example: What is the inductance of a for most ferrites is a flux density of
L 2000 gauss, with power calculations iden-
60-turn coil on a core with an AL of 523? N 1000 (73)
AL tical to those used for powdered-
(See the Component Data and Refer-
ences chapter for more detailed data on iron cores. For detailed information on
Example: How many turns are needed
the range of available cores.) for a 1.2-mH coil if the AL for the selected available cores and their characteristics,
core is 150? see Iron-Powder and Ferrite Coil Forms,
AL u N2 523 u 60 2 a combination catalog and information
L book from Amidon Associates, Inc.
1000000 1000000 L 1.2
N 1000 1000
AL 150

Ohm’s Law for Reactance

Only ac circuits containing capacitance Next, use Ohm’s Law: mined by applying the same rules as for
or inductance (or both) have reactance. E I u XC 0.050 A u 111 ȍ 5.6 V resistances in series and in parallel. Series
Despite the fact that the voltage in such reactance is given by the formula
circuits is 90° out of phase with the cur- Example: What is the current through
rent, circuit reactance does limit current in an 8.00-H inductor at 120 Hz, if 420 V is X total X1  X2  X3  . . .  X n (77)
a manner that corresponds to resistance. applied?
Therefore, the Ohm’s Law equations
XL 2 ʌ f L 2 u 3.1416 u 120 Hz Example: Two noninteracting induc-
relating voltage, current and resistance
apply to purely reactive circuits: u 8.00 H 6030 ȍ tances are in series. Each has a value of 4.0
μH, and the operating frequency is 3.8
Fig 4.60 charts the reactances of capa- MHz. What is the resulting reactance?
E IX (74) citors from 1 pF to 100 μF, and the reac- The reactance of each inductor is:
tances of inductors from 0.1 μH to 10 H,
E for frequencies between 100 Hz and 100 XL 2 ʌ f L 2 u 3.1416 u 3.8 u
I (75) MHz. Approximate values of reactance
X 10 6 Hz u 4 u 10 6 H 96 ȍ
can be read or interpolated from the chart.
E The formulas will produce more exact val- X total X1  X2 96 ȍ  96 ȍ 192 ȍ
X (76) ues, however.
I
Although both inductive and capacitive
where: reactance limit current, the two types of We might also calculate the total reac-
E = ac voltage in RMS, reactance differ. With capacitive reac- tance by first adding the inductances:
I = ac current in amperes, and tance, the current leads the voltage by 90°, L total L1  L2 4.0 ȝH  4.0 ȝH 8.0 ȝH
X = inductive or capacitive reactance. whereas with inductive reactance, the cur-
rent lags the voltage by 90°. The conven- X total 2 ʌ f L 2 u 3.1416 u 3.8
Example: What is the voltage across a tion for charting the two types of reactance
u 10 6 Hz u 8.0 u 10 6 H
capacitor of 200 pF at 7.15 MHz, if the appears in Fig 4.61. On this graph, induc-
current through the capacitor is 50 mA? tive reactance is plotted along the +90° X total 191 ȍ
Since the reactance of the capacitor is a vertical line, while capacitive reactance is
function of both frequency and capaci- plotted along the –90° vertical line. This (The fact that the last digit differs by
tance, first calculate the reactance: convention of assigning a positive value one illustrates the uncertainty of the cal-
to inductive reactance and a negative value culation caused by the uncertainty of the
1
XC to capacitive reactance results from the measured values in the problem, and dif-
2ʌf C mathematics involved in impedance cal- ferences caused by rounding off the calcu-
culations. lated values. This also shows why it is
1
important to follow the rules for signifi-
2 u 3.1416 u 7.15 u 10 6 Hz u 200 u 10 12 F REACTANCES IN SERIES AND cant figures.
PARALLEL Example: Two noninteracting capacitors
If a circuit contains two reactances of are in series. One has a value of 10.0 pF, the
10 6 ȍ the same type, whether in series or in par- other of 20.0 pF. What is the resulting reac-
111 ȍ
8980 allel, the resultant reactance can be deter- tance in a circuit operating at 28.0 MHz?

Electrical Fundamentals 4.37

Fig 4.60 — Inductive and capacitive reactance vs frequency. Heavy lines represent multiples of 10, intermediate lines
multiples of 5. For example, the light line between 10 μH and 100 μH represents 50 μH; the light line between 0.1 μF and 1 μF
represents 0.5μμF, and so on. Other values can be extrapolated from the chart. For example, the reactance of 10 H at 60 Hz
can be found by taking the reactance of 10 H at 600 Hz and dividing by 10 for the 10 times decrease in frequency.

1
X C1 X total X C1  X C2 568 ȍ  284 ȍ 852 ȍ (Within the uncertainty of the measured
2ʌf C
values and the rounding of values in the
1 calculations, this is the same result as we
Alternatively, for series capacitors, the obtained with the first method.)
2 u 3.1416 u 28.0 u 10 6 Hz u 10.0 u 10  12 F
total capacitance is 6.67 × 10–12 F or 6.67 This example serves to remind us that
10 6 ȍ pF. Then: series capacitance is not calculated in the
568 ȍ manner used by other series resistance and
1760 1
X total inductance, but series capacitive reac-
1 2ʌf C tance does follow the simple addition for-
X C2
2ʌf C mula.
1 For reactances of the same type in par-
1 allel, the general formula is:
2 u 3.1416 u 28.0 u 10 6 Hz u 6.67 u 10 12 F
2 u 3.1416 u 28.0 u 10 6 Hz u 20.0 u 10  12 F
1
10 6 ȍ 10 6 ȍ X total
284 ȍ 855 ȍ 1 1 1 1 (78)
1170    ... 
3520 X1 X2 X3 Xn

4.38 Chapter 4
 Example: Place the series inductors X total XL  XC
above (4.0 μH each) in parallel in a 80.0 ȍ  20.0 ȍ  60.0 ȍ
3.8-MHz circuit. What is the resultant
reactance? Since the result is a positive value, reac-
X L1 u X L2 tance is inductive. Had the result been a
X total negative number, the reactance would
X L1  X L2 have been capacitive.
96 ȍ u 96 ȍ
When reactance types are mixed in a
48 ȍ series circuit, the resulting reactance is
96 ȍ  96 ȍ always smaller than the larger of the two
Of course, equal reactances (or resis- reactances. Likewise, the resulting volt-
tances) in parallel yield a reactance that is age across the series combination of reac-
the value of one of them divided by the tances is always smaller than the larger of
number (n) of equal reactances, or: the two voltages across individual reac-
tances.
X 96 ȍ Every series circuit of mixed reactance
X total 48 ȍ types with more than two circuit elements
n 2 can be reduced to the type of circuit cov-
ered here. If the circuit has more than one
All of these calculations apply only capacitor or more than one inductor in the
to reactances of the same type; that is, overall series string, first use the formulas
all capacitive or all inductive. Mixing given earlier to determine the total series
types of reactances requires a different inductance alone and the total series
approach. capacitance alone (or their respective
reactances). Then combine the resulting
UNLIKE REACTANCES IN SERIES
single capacitive reactance and single in-
Fig 4.61 — The conventional method of When combining unlike reactances —
plotting reactances on the vertical axis ductive reactance as shown in this section.
of a graph, using the upward or “plus”
that is, combinations of inductive and
direction for inductive reactance and capacitive reactance — in series, it is nec- UNLIKE REACTANCES IN
the downward or “minus” direction for essary to take into account that the volt- PARALLEL
capacitive reactance. The horizontal age-to-current phase relationships differ The situation of parallel reactances of
axis will be used for resistance in later
for the different types of reactance. Fig mixed type appears in Fig 4.63. Since the
examples.
4.62 shows a series circuit with both types elements are in parallel, the voltage is
of reactance. Since the reactances are in common to both reactive components. The
series, the current must be the same in current through the capacitor, IC, leads the
both. The voltage across each circuit ele- voltage by 90°, and the current through
or, for exactly two reactances in parallel
ment differs in phase, however. The volt- the inductor, IL, lags the voltage by 90°.
age EL leads the current by 90°, and the The two currents are 180° out of phase and
X1 u X2 voltage EC lags the current by 90°. There- thus cancel each other in whole or in part.
X total (79)
X1  X2 fore, EL and EC have opposite polarities The total current is the difference between
and cancel each other in whole or in part. the individual currents, as indicated by the
Example: Place the capacitors in the last The dotted line in Fig 4.62 approximates dotted line in Fig 4.63.
example (10.0 pF and 20.0 pF) in parallel the resulting voltage E, which is the dif- Since reactance is the ratio of voltage to
in the 28.0 MHz circuit. What is the result- ference between EL and EC. current, the total reactance in the circuit
ant reactance? Since, for a constant current, the is:
X1 u X2 reactance is directly proportional to the
E
X total voltage, the net reactance must be the dif- X total (81)
X1  X2 ference between the inductive and the IL  IC
568 ȍ u 284 ȍ capacitive reactances, or:
189 ȍ In the drawing, IC is larger than I L, and
568 ȍ  284 ȍ the resulting differential current retains
X total XL  XC (80) the phase of I C. Therefore, the overall
Alternatively, two capacitors in parallel
add their capacitances. reactance, Xtotal, is capacitive in this case.
For this and subsequent calculations in The total reactance of the circuit will be
C total C1  C 2 10.0 pF  20.0 pF 30 pF which there is a mixture of inductive and smaller than the larger of the individual
capacitive reactance, use the absolute reactances, because the total current
1 value of each reactance. The convention
XC is smaller than the larger of the two
2ʌf C of recording inductive reactances as posi- individual currents.
tive and capacitive reactances as negative In parallel circuits of this type, reac-
1
is built into the mathematical operators in tance and current are inversely propor-
2 u 3.1416 u 28.0 u 10 6 Hz u 30 u 10 12 F the formulas. tional to each other for a constant voltage.
Example: Using Fig 4.62 as a visual aid, Therefore, to calculate the total reactance
10 6 ȍ let XC = 20.0 Ω and XL = 80.0 Ω. What is directly from the individual reactances,
189 ȍ
5280 the resulting reactance? use the formula:

Electrical Fundamentals 4.39

  XL u XC
X total
XL  XC

 40.0 ȍ u 10.0 ȍ
40.0 ȍ  10.0 ȍ

 400 ȍ
 13.3 ȍ
30.0 ȍ
The reactance is capacitive, as indicated
by the negative solution. Moreover, the
resultant reactance is always smaller than
the larger of the two individual reactances.
As with the case of series reactances, if
each leg of a parallel circuit contains more
than one reactance, first simplify each leg
to a single reactance. If the reactances are
of the same type in each leg, the series
reactance formulas for reactances of the
same type will apply. If the reactances are
of different types, then use the formulas
shown above for mixed series reactances
to simplify the leg to a single value and
Fig 4.62 — A series circuit containing both inductive and capacitive components, type of reactance.
together with representative voltage and current relationships.
APPROACHING RESONANCE
When two unlike reactances have the
same numerical value, any series or paral-
lel circuit in which they occur is said to be
resonant. For any given inductance or
capacitance, it is theoretically possible to
find a value of the opposite reactance type
to produce a resonant circuit for any
desired frequency.
When a series circuit like the one shown
in Fig 4.62 is resonant, the voltages EC and
EL are equal and cancel; their sum is zero.
Since the reactance of the circuit is pro-
portional to the sum of these voltages, the
total reactance also goes to zero. Theoreti-
cally, the current, as shown in Fig 4.64,
can rise without limit. In fact, it is limited
only by power losses in the components
and other resistances that would be in a
real circuit of this type. As the frequency
of operation moves slightly off resonance,
the reactance climbs rapidly and then be-
gins to level off. Similarly, the current
drops rapidly off resonance and then lev-
els.
Fig 4.63 — A parallel circuit containing both inductive and capacitive components, In a parallel-resonant circuit of the type
together with representative voltage and current relationships.
in Fig 4.63, the current IL and IC are equal
and cancel to zero. Since the reactance is
inversely proportional to the current, as
the current approaches zero, the reactance
rises without limit. As with series circuits,
component power losses and other resis-
 XL u XC
X total (82) tive numbers. If the solution yields a nega- tances in the circuit limit the current drop
XL  XC tive number, the resulting reactance is ca- to some point above zero. Fig 4.65 shows
pacitive, and if the solution is positive, the theoretical current curve near and at
As with the series formula for mixed then the reactance is inductive. resonance for a purely reactive parallel-
reactances, use the absolute values of the Example: Using Fig 4.63 as a visual aid, resonant circuit. Note that in both Fig 4.64
reactances, since the minus signs in the place a capacitive reactance of 10.0 Ω in and Fig 4.65, the departure of current from
formula take into account the convention parallel with an inductive reactance of the resonance value is close to, but not
of treating capacitive reactances as nega- 40.0 Ω. What is the resulting reactance? quite, symmetrical above and below the

4.40 Chapter 4
resonant frequency. surable ac voltage and current, we cannot
Example: What is the reactance of a simply multiply the two together to arrive
series L-C circuit consisting of a 56.04-pF at power. Power is the rate at which
capacitor and an 8.967-μH inductor at energy is consumed by a circuit, and purely
7.00, 7.10 and 7.20 MHz? Using the for- reactive circuits do not consume power.
mulas from earlier in this chapter, we cal- The charge placed on a capacitor during
culate a table of values: part of an ac cycle is returned to the circuit
during the next part of a cycle. Likewise,
Frequency XL (Ω) XC (Ω) Xtotal (Ω) the energy stored in the magnetic field of
(MHz) an inductor returns to the circuit as the
7.000 394.4 405.7 –11.3 field collapses later in the ac cycle. A re-
7.100 400.0 400.0 0 active circuit simply cycles and recycles
7.200 405.7 394.4 11.3 energy into and out of the reactive compo-
nents. If a purely reactive circuit were
The exercise shows the manner in which possible in reality, it would consume no
the reactance rises rapidly as the fre- power at all.
quency moves above and below reso- In reactive circuits, circulation of
nance. Note that in a series-resonant energy accounts for seemingly odd phe-
circuit, the reactance at frequencies below Fig 4.65 — The relative generator nomena. For example, in a series circuit
resonance is capacitive, and above reso- current with a fixed voltage in a parallel with capacitance and inductance, the volt-
nance, it is inductive. Fig 4.66 displays circuit containing inductive and ages across the components may exceed
this fact graphically. In a parallel-resonant capacitive reactances as the frequency
approaches and departs from
the supply voltage. That condition can
circuit, where the reactance increases resonance. (The circulating current exist because, while energy is being stored
without limit at resonance, the opposite through the parallel inductor and by the inductor, the capacitor is returning
condition exists: above resonance, the capacitor is a maximum at resonance.) energy to the circuit from its previously
reactance is capacitive and below reso- charged state, and vice versa. In a parallel
nance it is inductive, as shown in Fig 4.67. circuit with inductive and capacitive
Of course, all graphs and calculations in branches, the current circulating through
this section are theoretical and presume a the components may exceed the current
purely reactive circuit. Real circuits are drawn from the source. Again, the phe-
never purely reactive; they contain some nomenon occurs because the inductor’s
resistance that modifies their performance collapsing field supplies current to the
considerably. Real resonant circuits will capacitor, and the discharging capacitor
be discussed later in this chapter. provides current to the inductor.
To distinguish between the non-dissi-
REACTIVE POWER pated power in a purely reactive circuit and
Although purely reactive circuits, the dissipated power of a resistive circuit,
whether simple or complex, show a mea- the unit of reactive power is called the volt-
ampere reactive, or VAR. The term watt is
not used; sometimes reactive power is
called wattless power. Formulas similar to
those for resistive power are used to calcu-
Fig 4.66 — The transition from late VAR:
capacitive to inductive reactance in a
series-resonant circuit as the frequency VAR IuE (83)
passes resonance.
VAR I2 u X (84)

E2
VAR (85)
X
These formulas have only limited use in
radio work.

REACTANCE AND COMPLEX

WAVEFORMS
All of the formulas and relationships
shown in this section apply to alternating
current in the form of regular sine waves.
Complex wave shapes complicate the
reactive situation considerably. A com-
Fig 4.64 — The relative generator plex or nonsinusoidal wave can be re-
current with a fixed voltage in a series solved into a fundamental frequency and a
circuit containing inductive and Fig 4.67 — The transition from
capacitive reactances as the frequency inductive to capacitive reactance series of harmonic frequencies whose
approaches and departs from in a parallel-resonant circuit as the amplitudes depend on the original wave
resonance. frequency passes resonance. shape. When such a complex wave — or

Electrical Fundamentals 4.41

collection of sine waves — is applied to a best. On the other hand, the frequency
reactive circuit, the current through the sensitivity of reactive components and cir-
circuit will not have the same wave shape cuits lays the foundation for filtering, that
as the applied voltage. The difference re- is, for separating signals of different fre-
sults because the reactance of an inductor quencies and passing them into different
and capacitor depend in part on the ap- circuits. For example, suppose a coil is in
plied frequency. the series path of a signal and a capacitor
For the second-harmonic component of is connected from the signal line to
the complex wave, the reactance of the Fig 4.68 — A signal path with a series ground, as represented in Fig 4.68. The
inductor and a shunt capacitor. The
inductor is twice and the reactance of the circuit presents different reactances to
reactance of the coil to the second har-
capacitor is half their respective values at an ac signal and to its harmonics. monic of the signal will be twice that at the
the fundamental frequency. A third-har- fundamental frequency and oppose more
monic component produces inductive effectively the flow of harmonic current.
reactances that are triple and capacitive Likewise, the reactance of the capacitor to
reactances that are one-third those at the the harmonic will be half that to the funda-
fundamental frequency. Thus, the overall plex wave shape creates both difficulties mental, allowing the harmonic an easier
circuit reactance is different for each har- and opportunities. On the one hand, calcu- current path away from the signal line
monic component. lating the circuit reactance in the presence toward ground. See the RF and AF Filters
The frequency sensitivity of a reactive of highly variable as well as complex chapter for detailed information on filter
circuit to various components of a com- waveforms, such as speech, is difficult at theory and construction.

Impedance
When a circuit contains both resistance section, reactance is graphed on the verti- CALCULATING Z FROM R AND X IN
and reactance, the combined opposition cal (Y) axis to record the phase difference SERIES CIRCUITS
to current is called impedance. Symbol- between the voltage and the current. Fig Impedance is the complex combination
ized by the letter Z, impedance is a more 4.70 adds resistance to the graph. Since of resistance and reactance. Since there is
general term than either resistance or re- the voltage is in phase with the current, a 90° phase difference between resistance
actance. Frequently, the term is used even resistance is recorded on the horizontal and reactance (whether inductive or ca-
for circuits containing only resistance or axis, using the positive or right side of the pacitive), simply adding the two values
reactance. Qualifications such as “resis- scale. will not yield what actually happens in a
tive impedance” are sometimes added to
indicate that a circuit has only resistance,
however.
The reactance and resistance compris-
ing an impedance may be connected ei-
ther in series or in parallel, as shown in
Fig 4.69. In these circuits, the reactance is
shown as a box to indicate that it may be
either inductive or capacitive. In the
series circuit at A, the current is the same
in both elements, with (generally) differ-
ent voltages appearing across the resis-
tance and reactance. In the parallel circuit
at B, the same voltage is applied to both
elements, but different currents may flow
in the two branches.
In a resistance, the current is in phase
with the applied voltage, while in a reac-
tance it is 90° out of phase with the volt-
age. Thus, the phase relationship between Fig 4.70 — The conventional method of
current and voltage in the circuit as a charting impedances on a graph, using
whole may be anything between zero and the vertical axis for reactance (the
upward or “plus” direction for inductive
90°, depending on the relative amounts of reactance and the downward or “minus”
resistance and reactance. Fig 4.69 — Series and parallel circuits direction for capacitive reactance), and
As shown in Fig 4.61 in the preceding containing resistance and reactance. using the horizontal axis for resistance.

4.42 Chapter 4
circuit. Therefore, expressions like “Z = R where: Using the information just calculated,
± X” can be misleading, because they sug- Z = the impedance in ohms, the impedance is:
gest simple addition. As a result, imped- R = the resistance in ohms, and
ance is often expressed “Z = R ± jX.” X = the reactance in ohms. Z = 112 Ω ∠ 63.4°
In pure mathematics, “i” indicates an In the present example,
imaginary number. Because i represents The expressions R ± jX and Z ∠θ both
current in electronics, we use the letter “j” Z 50  j100 ȍ provide the same information, but in two
for the same mathematical operator, different forms. The procedure just
although there is nothing imaginary about given permits conversion from rectangu-
As the graph shows, the combined lar coordinates into polar coordinates.
what it represents in electronics. With
respect to resistance and reactance, the let- opposition to current (or impedance) is The reverse procedure is also important.
ter j is normally assigned to those figures represented by a line triangulating the two Fig 4.72 shows an impedance composed
on the vertical scale, 90° out of phase with given values. The graph will provide an of a capacitive reactance and a resistance.
the horizontal scale. The actual function estimate of the value. A more exact way to Since capacitive reactance appears as a
of j is to indicate that calculating imped- calculate the resultant impedance involves negative value, the impedance will be at a
ance from resistance and reactance the formula for right triangles, where the negative phase angle, in this case, 12.0 Ω
requires vector addition. In vector addi- square of the hypotenuse equals the sum at a phase angle of – 42.0° or Z = 12.0 Ω
tion, the result of combining two values at of the squares of the two sides. Since ∠ – 42.0°.
a 90° phase difference results in a new impedance is the hypotenuse: Think of the impedance as forming a
quantity for the combination, and also in a triangle with the values of X and R from
new combined phase angle relative to the the rectangular coordinates. The reactance
base line. Z R2  X2 (87) axis forms the side opposite the angle θ.
Consider Fig 4.71, a series circuit con-
sisting of an inductive reactance and a In this example: side opposite X
resistance. As given, the inductive reac- sin ș (91)
hypotenuse Z
tance is 100 Ω and the resistance is 50 Ω. Z 50 ȍ 2  100 ȍ 2
Using rectangular coordinates, the im-
pedance becomes 2500 ȍ2  10000 ȍ2

Z R  jX (86) 12500 ȍ2 112 ȍ

The impedance that results from com-

bining 50 Ω of resistance with 100 Ω of
inductive reactance is 112 Ω. The phase
angle of the resultant is neither 0° nor
+90°. Instead, it lies somewhere between
the two. Let θ be the angle between the
horizontal axis and the line representing
the impedance. From trigonometry, the
tangent of the angle is the side opposite
the angle divided by the side adjacent to
the angle, or
X
tan ș (88)
R
where:
X = the reactance, and
R = the resistance.
Find the angle by taking the inverse tan-
gent, or arctan:
X
ș arctan (89)
R
In the example shown in Fig 6.57,

100 ȍ
ș arctan arctan 2.0 63.4q
50 ȍ

Combining the resultant impedance Fig 4.72 — A series circuit consisting

Fig 4.71 — A series circuit consisting of a capacitive reactance and a
of an inductive reactance of 100 Ω and
with the angle provides the impedance in resistance: the impedance is given
a resistance of 50 Ω . At B, the graph polar coordinate form: as 12.0 Ω at a phase angle θ of -42
plots the resistance, reactance, and degrees. At B, the graph plots the
impedance. Z ‘T (90) resistance, reactance, and impedance.

Electrical Fundamentals 4.43

 Solving this equation for reactance, we RX 30.0 ȍ u 40.0 ȍ
10,000 ȍ2  94,900 ȍ2 Z
have: 2
R X
2
30.0 ȍ2  40.0 ȍ2
2
104900 ȍ 323.9 ȍ
X Z u sin ș (ohms) (92)
Since 308 Ω is the value of inductive 1200 : 2 1200 : 2
reactance of the 7.00-μH coil at 7.00 MHz, 900 : 2  1600 : 2 2500 : 2
Likewise, the resistance forms the side
the phase angle calculation proceeds as
adjacent to the angle.
given in the earlier example (equation 89):
1200 ȍ 2
Z 24.0 ȍ
side adjacent R X § 308.0 : · 50.0 ȍ
cos ș T arctan arctan ¨ ¸
hypotenuse Z R © 100.0 : ¹ § 40.0 ȍ·
§R·
ș arctan ¨ ¸ arctan ¨¨ ¸¸
Solving for resistance, we have:
arctan 3.08  72.0q ©X¹ © 30.0 ȍ¹

Since the reactance is inductive, the ș arctan 1.33  53.1q

R Z u cos ș (ohms) (93)
phase angle is positive.
Since the parallel reactance is inductive,
Then from our example: CALCULATING Z FROM R AND X the resultant angle is positive.
IN PARALLEL CIRCUITS Example: A capacitor with a reactance
X 12.0 ȍ u sin  42q In a parallel circuit containing reactance of 16.0 Ω is in parallel with a resistor of
and resistance, such as shown in Fig 4.73, 12.0 Ω. What is the resulting impedance
12.0 ȍ u  0.669  8.03 ȍ and phase angle?
calculation of the resultant impedance
R 12.0 ȍ u cos (  42.0q) from the values of R and X does not pro- RX 16.0 ȍ u 12.0 ȍ
ceed by direct triangulation. The general Z
12.0 ȍ u 0.743 8.92 ȍ
formula for such parallel circuits is:
2
R X
2
16.0 ȍ2  12.0 ȍ2
Since X is a negative value, it plots on RX
the lower vertical axis, as shown in Fig Z (96) 192 ȍ2 192 ȍ2
2 2
R X
4.72, indicating capacitive reactance. In 256 ȍ2  144 ȍ2 400 ȍ2
rectangular form, Z = 8.92 Ω – j8.03 Ω.
In performing impedance and related where the formula uses the absolute (un-
signed) reactance value. The phase angle 192 ȍ 2
calculations with complex circuits, rect- Z 9.60 ȍ
angular coordinates are most useful when for the parallel circuit is given by: 20.0 ȍ
formulas require the addition or subtrac- §R·
tion of values. Polar notation is most use- T arctan ¨ ¸ (97) §R· § 12.0 ȍ·
ș arctan ¨ ¸ arctan ¨¨ ¸¸
©X¹
ful for multiplying and dividing complex ©X¹ © 16.0 ȍ¹
numbers. If the parallel reactance is capacitive,
All of the examples shown so far in this then θ is a negative angle, and if the par- ș arctan 0.750   36.9q
section have presumed values of reactance allel reactance is inductive, then θ is a
that contribute to the circuit impedance. positive angle. Because the parallel reactance is
Reactance is a function of frequency, how- Example: An inductor with a reactance capacitive, the resultant phase angle is
ever, and many impedance calculations of 30.0 Ω is in parallel with a resistor of negative.
may begin with a value of capacitance or 40.0 Ω. What is the resulting impedance
inductance and an operating frequency. and phase angle? ADMITTANCE
In terms of these values, the series imped- Just as the inverse of resistance is con-
ance formula (Eq 87) becomes two formu- ductance (G) and the inverse of reactance
las: is susceptance (B), so too impedance has
an inverse: admittance (Y), measured in
Z R 2  2 ʌ f L 2 (94) siemens (S). Thus,
2 1
§ 1 · Y (98)
Z R 2  ¨¨ ¸¸ (95) Z
©2ʌf C¹ Since resistance, reactance and imped-
Example: What is the impedance of a ance are inversely proportional to the cur-
circuit like Fig 4.71 with a resistance of rent (Z = E / I), conductance, susceptance
100 Ω and a 7.00-μH inductor operating at and admittance are directly proportional
a frequency of 7.00 MHz? Using equation to current. That is,
94,
1
Y (99)
Z R  2 ʌ f L 
2 2
E
Fig 4.73 — A parallel circuit containing One handy use for admittance is in
an inductive reactance of 30.0 Ω and a simplifying parallel circuit impedance
100 ȍ 2

 2 ʌu 7.00 u 10
6 6
H u 7.00 u 10 Hz 
2 resistor of 40.0 Ω . No graph is given,
since parallel impedances do not calculations. A parallel combination of
triangulate in the simple way of series reactance and resistance reduces to a
Z 10,000 ȍ2  308 ȍ2 impedances. vector addition of susceptance and con-

4.44 Chapter 4
ductance, if admittance is the desired out- further series resistance. The series com- where the subscripts P and S represent the
come. In other words, for parallel circuits: bination of XC and XL reduce to a single parallel- and series-equivalent values,
value using the same rules of combination respectively. If the parallel values are
Y G 2  B2 (100) discussed in the section on purely reactive known, the equivalent series circuit can
components. As Fig 4.74B demonstrates, be found from:
where: the resultant reactance is the difference
between the two series reactances. RP XP2
Y = admittance, RS (104)
G = conductance or 1 / R, and For parallel circuits with multiple resis- RP2  XP2
B = susceptance or 1 / X. tances or multiple reactances of the same
and
type, use the rules of parallel combination
Example: An inductor with a reactance of to reduce the resistive and reactive com- RP2 XP
ponents to single elements. Where two or XS
30.0 Ω is in parallel with a resistor of 40.0 Ω. RP2  XP2
(105)
What is the resulting impedance and phase more reactive components of different
angle? The susceptance is 1 / 30.0 Ω = types appear in the same circuit, they can Example: Let the series circuit in Fig
0.0333 S and the conductance is 1 / 40.0 Ω
be combined using formulas shown ear- 4.69 have a series reactance of –50.0 Ω
lier for pure reactances. As Fig 4.75 sug- (indicating a capacitive reactance) and a
= 0.0250 S.
gests, however, they can also be combined resistance of 50.0 Ω. What are the values
Y 0.0333 S2  0.0250 S2 as susceptances. Parallel susceptances of of the equivalent parallel circuit?
different types add, with attention to their
0.00173 S2 0.0417 S
differing signs. The resulting single
RP
R S2  X S2 50.0 ȍ2   50.0 ȍ2
susceptance can then be combined with RS 50.0 ȍ
1 1 the conductance to arrive at the overall
Z 24.0 ȍ circuit admittance. The inverse of the ad-
Y 0.0417 S 2500 ȍ2  2500 ȍ2 5000 ȍ2
mittance is the final circuit impedance. 100 ȍ
50.0 ȍ 50.0 ȍ
The phase angle in terms of conduc- Equivalent Series and Parallel
tance and susceptance is: Circuits
XP
R S2  X S2 50.0 ȍ2   50.0 ȍ2
The two circuits shown in Fig 4.69 are XS  50.0 ȍ
§B·
ș arctan ¨ ¸ (101) equivalent if the same current flows when
©G¹ a given voltage of the same frequency is 2500 ȍ2  2500 ȍ2 5000 ȍ2
In this example, applied, and if the phase angle between  50.0 ȍ  50.0 ȍ
voltage and current is the same in both
§ 0.0333 S ·  100 ȍ
ș arctan ¨ ¸ arctan 1.33 53.1q cases. It is possible, in fact, to transform
© 0.0250 S ¹ any given series circuit into an equivalent
Again, since the reactive component is parallel circuit, and vice versa.
inductive, the phase angle is positive. For A series RX circuit can be converted
a capacitively reactive parallel circuit, the into its parallel equivalent by means of the
phase angle would have been negative. formulas:
Compare these results with the direct
R S2  X S2
calculation earlier in the section. RP (102)
Conversion from resistance, reactance RS
and impedance to conductance, susceptance
and admittance is perhaps most useful in R S2  X S2
XP (103)
complex-parallel-circuit calculations. Many XS
advanced facets of active-circuit analysis
will demand familiarity both with the con-
cepts and with the calculation strategies in-
troduced here, however.

More than Two Elements in Series

or Parallel
When a circuit contains several resis-
tances or several reactances in series,
simplify the circuit before attempting to
calculate the impedance. Resistances in
series add, just as in a purely resistive cir-
cuit. Series reactances of the same kind — Fig 4.75 — A parallel impedance
that is, all capacitive or all inductive — containing mixed capacitive and
also add, just as in a purely reactive cir- inductive reactances can be reduced
cuit. The goal is to produce a single value to a single reactance plus resistance
of resistance and a single value of reac- using formulas shown earlier in the
Fig 4.74 — A series impedance chapter. By converting reactances to
tance for the impedance calculation. containing mixed capacitive and susceptances, as shown in A, you can
Fig 4.74 illustrates a more difficult case inductive reactances can be reduced to combine the susceptances alge-
in which a circuit contains two different a single reactance plus resistance by braically into a single susceptance,
reactive elements in series, along with a combining the reactances algebraically. as shown in B.

Electrical Fundamentals 4.45

 The parallel circuit in Fig 4.69 calls for two drops, 350 V, is greater than the In this example the power factor would
a capacitive reactance of 100 Ω and a re- applied voltage because the two voltages be 300 W / 500 W = 0.600. Power factor is
sistance of 100 Ω to be equivalent to the are 90° out of phase. Their actual result- frequently expressed as a percentage; in
series circuit. ant, when phase is taken into account, is: this case, 60%. An equivalent definition
of power factor is:
OHM’S LAW FOR IMPEDANCE
E 150 V 2  200 V 2
Ohm’s Law applies to circuits contain- PF cos ș
ing impedance just as readily as to circuits 2
22500 V  40000 V 2
62500 V 2
having resistance or reactance only. The where θ is the phase angle. Since the phase
formulas are: 250 V
angle equals:
E IZ (106) POWER FACTOR §X· § 100 ȍ ·
ș arctan ¨ ¸ arctan ¨ ¸
In the circuit of Fig 4.76, an applied R
© ¹ © 75.0 ȍ ¹
E voltage of 250 V results in a current of
I (107) arctan (1.33) 53.1q
Z 2.00 A, giving an apparent power of 250 V
× 2.00 A = 500 W. Only the resistance
actually consumes power, however. The Then the power factor is:
E
Z (108) power in the resistance is:
I
PF cos 53.1q 0.600
where:
E = voltage in volts, P I R2
2.00 A2
u 75.0 V 300 W
as the earlier calculation confirms.
I = current in amperes, and
Z = impedance in ohms. The ratio of the consumed power to the Real, or dissipated, power is measured
apparent power is called the power factor in watts. Apparent power, to distinguish it
Fig 4.76 shows a simple circuit consist- of the circuit. from real power, is measured in volt-
ing of a resistance of 75.0 Ω and a reac- amperes (VA). It is simply the product of
tance of 100 Ω in series. From the Pconsumed R the voltage across and the current through
PF (109)
series-impedance formula previously Papparent Z an overall impedance. It has no direct
given, the impedance is relationship to the power actually dissi-
pated unless the power factor of the circuit
Z R2  XL2 75.0 ȍ2  100 ȍ2 is known. The power factor of a purely
resistive circuit is 100% or 1, while the
5630 ȍ2  10000 ȍ2 15600 ȍ2 power factor of a pure reactance is zero. In
this illustration, the reactive power is:
125 ȍ

If the applied voltage is 250 V, then

VAR I2 X L 2.00 A 2 u 100 ȍ 400 VA

E 250 V Since power factor is always rendered

I 2.00 A as a positive number, the value must be
Z 125 ȍ followed by the words “leading” or “lag-
ging” to identify the phase of the voltage
This current flows through both the with respect to the current. Specifying the
resistance and reactance, so the voltage numerical power factor is not always suf-
drops are: ficient. For example, many dc-to-ac power
inverters can safely operate loads having a
ER I R 2.00A u 75.0ȍ 150 V large net reactance of one sign but only a
Fig 4.76 — A series circuit consisting of small reactance of the opposite sign.
an inductive reactance of 100 Ω and a
E XL I X L 2.00 A u100 ȍ 200 V resistance of 75.0 Ω . Also shown is the Hence, the final calculation of the power
applied voltage, voltage drops across factor in this example yields the value
The simple arithmetical sum of these the circuit elements, and the current. 0.600, leading.

4.46 Chapter 4
Resonant Circuits
A circuit containing both an inductor work in terms of MHz, μH and pF, the basic of the circuit is determined solely by the
and a capacitor — and therefore, both relationship rearranges to these handy for- resistance. The actual current through the
induc-tive and capacitive reactance — is mulas: circuit at resonance, and for frequencies
often called a tuned circuit. There is a par- near resonance, is determined by the for-
25330
ticular frequency at which the inductive and L (113) mula:
capacitive reactances are the same, that is, f2 C
XL = XC. For most purposes, this is the reso- E E
25330 I
nant frequency of the circuit. (Special con- C (114) Z
f2 L ª 1 º2 (115)
siderations apply to parallel circuits; they R2  «2 ʌf L 
will emerge in the section devoted to such ¬ 2 ʌ f C  »¼
circuits.) At the resonant frequency — or at where:
f = frequency in MHz, where all values are in basic units.
resonance, for short:
L = inductance in μH, and At resonance, the reactive factor in the
1 C = capacitance in pF.
XL 2ʌf L XC formula is zero. As the frequency is shifted
2ʌf C above or below the resonant frequency
By solving for f, we can find the reso- Example: What value of capacitance without altering component values, how-
nant frequency of any combination of is needed to create a resonant circuit at ever, the reactive factor becomes signifi-
inductor and capacitor from the formula: 21.1 MHz, if the inductor is 2.00 μH? cant, and the value of the current becomes
smaller than at resonance. At frequencies
1
f (110) 25330 25330 far from resonance, the reactive compo-
2ʌ LC C nents become dominant, and the resistance
2
f L 21.12
u 2.00  no longer significantly affects the current
where: amplitude.
25330 The exact curve created by recording
f = frequency in hertz (Hz), 28.5 pF
L = inductance in henrys (H), 890 the current as the frequency changes
C = capacitance in farads (F), and depends on the ratio of reactance to resis-
π = 3.1416. For most radio work, these formulas tance. When the reactance of either the
will permit calculations of frequency and coil or capacitor is of the same order of
For most high-frequency (HF) radio component values well within the limits magnitude as the resistance, the current
work, smaller units of inductance and of component tolerances. Resonant cir- decreases rather slowly as the frequency
capacitance and larger units of frequency cuits have other properties of importance, is moved in either direction away from
are more convenient. The basic formula in addition to the resonant frequency, resonance. Such a curve is said to be
becomes: however. These include impedance, volt- broad. Conversely, when the reactance is
age drop across components in series- considerably larger than the resistance, the
10 3 resonant circuits, circulating current in current decreases rapidly as the frequency
f (111) moves away from resonance, and the cir-
2ʌ LC parallel-resonant circuits, and bandwidth.
These properties determine such factors cuit is said to be sharp. A sharp circuit will
where: respond a great deal more readily to the
as the selectivity of a tuned circuit and the
f = frequency in megahertz (MHz), resonant frequency than to frequencies
component ratings for circuits handling
L = inductance in microhenrys (μH), quite close to resonance; a broad circuit
considerable power. Although the basic
C = capacitance in picofarads (pF), and will respond almost equally well to a
determination of the tuned-circuit reso-
π = 3.1416.
nant frequency ignored any resistance in
the circuit, that resistance will play a vital
Example: What is the resonant fre-
role in the circuit’s other characteristics.
quency of a circuit containing an inductor
of 5.0 μH and a capacitor of 35 pF? SERIES-RESONANT CIRCUITS
10 3
10 3 Fig 4.77 presents a basic schematic
f diagram of a series-resonant circuit.
2ʌ LC 6.2832 u 5.0 u 35 Although most schematic diagrams of
radio circuits would show only the induc-
10 3 tor and the capacitor, resistance is always
12 MHz
83 present in such circuits. The most notable
resistance is associated with losses in the
To find the matching component (induc- inductor at HF; resistive losses in the
tor or capacitor) when the frequency and capacitor are low enough at those frequen-
one component is known (capacitor or cies to be ignored. The current meter
inductor) for general HF work, use the shown in the circuit is a reminder that in
formula: series circuits, the same current flows
through all elements. Fig 4.77 — A series circuit containing L,
1 C, and R is resonant at the applied
f2 (112) At resonance, the reactance of the
frequency when the reactance of C is
4 ʌ2 L C capacitor cancels the reactance of the equal to the reactance of L. The I in the
inductor. The voltage and current are in circle is the schematic symbol for an
where F, L and C are in basic units. For HF phase with each other, and the impedance ammeter.

Electrical Fundamentals 4.47

group or band of frequencies centered circuits, the inductor Q largely determines maximum value. Since the power con-
around the resonant frequency. the resonant-circuit Q. Since this value of sumed by the resistance, R, is proportional
Both types of resonance curves are use- Q is independent of any external load to to the square of the current, the power at
ful. A sharp circuit gives good selectivity which the circuit might transfer power, it is these points is half the maximum power at
— the ability to respond strongly (in terms called the unloaded Q or QU of the circuit. resonance, assuming that R is constant for
of current amplitude) at one desired fre- Example: What is the unloaded Q of a the calculations. The half-power, or –3 dB,
quency and to discriminate against others. series-resonant circuit with a loss resis- points are marked on Fig 4.79.
A broad circuit is used when the apparatus tance of 5 Ω and inductive and capacitive For Q values of 10 or greater, the curves
must give about the same response over a components having a reactance of 500 Ω shown in Fig 4.79 are approximately sym-
band of frequencies, rather than at a single each? With a reactance of 50 Ω each? metrical. On this assumption, bandwidth
frequency alone. (BW) can be easily calculated:
X1 500 ȍ
Fig 4.78 presents a family of curves, Q U1 100
showing the decrease in current as the R 5ȍ f
BW (116)
frequency deviates from resonance. In X2 50 ȍ QU
each case, the reactance is assumed to be Q U2 10
R 5ȍ where BW and f are in the same units, that
1000 Ω. The maximum current, shown as is, in Hz, kHz or MHz.
a relative value on the graph, occurs with
Bandwidth Example: What is the bandwidth of a
the lowest resistance, while the lowest
peak current occurs with the highest resis- Fig 4.79 is an alternative way of draw- series-resonant circuit operating at
tance. Equally important, the rate at which ing the family of curves that relate current 14 MHz with a QU of 100?
the current decreases from its maximum to frequency for a series-resonant circuit.
value also changes with the ratio of reac- By assuming that the peak current of each f 14 MHz
tance to resistance. It decreases most rap- curve is the same, the rate of change of BW 0.14 MHz 140 kHz
QU 100
idly when the ratio is high and most slowly current for various values of QU and the
when the ratio is low. associated ratios of reactance to resistance
are more easily compared. From the The relationship between QU, f and BW
Q curves, it is evident that the lower QU cir- provides a means of determining the value
As noted in earlier sections of this chap- cuits pass frequencies over a greater band- of circuit Q when inductor losses may be
ter, the ratio of reactance or stored energy width of frequencies than the circuits with difficult to measure. By constructing the
to resistance or consumed energy is Q. a higher QU. For the purpose of comparing series-resonant circuit and measuring the
Since both terms of the ratio are measured tuned circuits, bandwidth is often defined current as the frequency varies above and
in ohms, Q has no units and is variously as the frequency spread between the two below resonance, the half-power points
known as the quality factor, the figure of frequencies at which the current amplitude can be determined. Then:
merit or the multiplying factor. Since the decreases to 0.707 (or 1 2 ) times the f
resistive losses of the coil dominate the QU (117)
energy consumption in HF series-resonant BW
Example: What is the QU of a series-
resonant circuit operating at 3.75 MHz, if
the bandwidth is 375 kHz?

f 3.75 MHz
QU 10.0
BW 0.375 MHz

Table 4.7 provides some simple formu-

las for estimating the maximum current
and phase angle for various bandwidths, if
both f and QU are known.

Voltage Drop Across Components

The voltage drop across the coil and
across the capacitor in a series-resonant
circuit are each proportional to the reac-
tance of the component for a given current
(since E = I X). These voltages may be
many times the source voltage for a high-
Q circuit. In fact, at resonance, the voltage
Fig 4.79 — Current in series-resonant
drop is:
Fig 4.78 — Current in series-resonant circuits having different values of QU.
circuits with various values of series The current at resonance is set at the EX QU E (118)
resistance and Q. The current values same level for all curves in order to
are relative to an arbitrary maximum show the rate of change of decrease in where:
of 1.0. The reactance for all curves is current for each value of QU. The half- EX = the voltage across the reactive
1000 Ω . Note that the current is hardly power points are shown to indicate
component,
affected by the resistance in the circuit relative bandwidth of the response for
at frequencies more than 10% away each curve. The bandwidth is indicated QU = the circuit unloaded Q, and
from the resonant frequency. for a circuit with a QU of 10. E = the source voltage.

4.48 Chapter 4
Table 4.7
The Selectivity of Resonant Circuits

Approximate percentage Bandwidth (between

of current at resonance1 or half-power or –3 dB Series circuit current
of impedance at resonance2 points on response curve) phase angle (degrees)
95 f / 3Q 18.5
90 f / 2Q 26.5
70.7 f/Q 45
44.7 2f / Q 63.5
24.2 4f / Q 76
12.4 8f / Q 83
1For a series resonant circuit
2For a parallel resonant circuit
Fig 4.80 — A typical parallel-resonant
circuit, with the resistance shown in
series with the inductive leg of the
circuit. Below a QU of 10, resonance
definitions may lead to three separate
frequencies which converge at higher
(Note that the voltage drop across the 1 QU levels. See text.
RS
inductor is the vector sum of the voltages 1.00 u 10 4 u 9.87 u 10 6
across the resistance and the reactance;
however, for Qs greater than 10, the error 1
10.1 ȍ
created by using equation 96 is not ordi- 0.0987
narily significant.) Since the calculated inductor can seriously reduce circuit Q,
In calculating the impedance, current without special component- and circuit-
value of EX is the RMS voltage, the peak
and bandwidth for a series-resonant cir- construction techniques.
voltage will be higher by a factor of 1.414.
Antenna couplers and other high-Q cuit in which this capacitor might be used,
the series-equivalent resistance of the unit PARALLEL-RESONANT CIRCUITS
circuits handling significant power may
is added to the loss resistance of the coil. Although series-resonant circuits are
experience arcing from high values of EX,
Since inductor losses tend to increase with common, the vast majority of resonant cir-
even though the source voltage to the cir- cuits used in radio work are parallel-reso-
frequency because of skin effect, the com-
cuit is well within component ratings.
bined losses in the capacitor and the nant circuits. Fig 4.80 represents a typical
Capacitor Losses
Although capacitor energy losses tend
to be insignificant compared to inductor
losses up to about 30 MHz, the losses may
affect circuit Q in the VHF range. Leakage
resistance, principally in the solid dielec-
tric that forms the insulating support for
the capacitor plates, is not exactly like the
wire resistance losses in a coil. Instead of
forming a series resistance, capacitor leak-
age usually forms a parallel resistance with
the capacitive reactance. If the leakage
resistance of a capacitor is significant
enough to affect the Q of a series-resonant
circuit, the parallel resistance must be
converted to an equivalent series resis-
tance before adding it to the inductor’s
resistance.

X C2 1
RS (119)
Rp R p u 2 ʌ f C2

Example: A 10.0 pF capacitor has a leak-

age resistance of 10000 Ω at 50.0 MHz.
What is the equivalent series resistance?
1
RS
R p u 2 ʌ f C2
Fig 4.81 — Resonant conditions for a low-QU parallel circuit. Resonance may be
1 defined as (a) XL = XC, (b) minimum current flow and maximum impedance or (c)
voltage and current in phase with each other. With the circuit of Fig 4.80 and a QU
4
 6
1.00 u 10 u 6.283 u 50.0 u 10 u 10.0 u 10 
12 2
of less than 10, these three definitions may represent three distinct frequencies.

Electrical Fundamentals 4.49

HF parallel-resonant circuit. As is the case ferent from the one for minimum current the approximate parallel-equivalent resis-
for series-resonant circuits, the inductor is and the one for XL = XC. tance, use the formula:
the chief source of resistive losses, and The points shown in the graph in Fig
these losses appear in series with the coil. 4.81 represent only one of many possible
RP
XL2 2 ʌ f L 2 QUXL
Because current through parallel-resonant situations, and the relative positions of the (120)
RS RS
circuits is lowest at resonance, and imped- three resonant points do not hold for all
ance is highest, they are sometimes called possible cases. Moreover, specific circuit Example: What is the parallel-equiva-
antiresonant circuits. Likewise, the names designs can draw some of the resonant lent resistance for a coil with an inductive
acceptor and rejector are occasionally points together, for example, compensat- reactance of 350 Ω and a series resistance
applied to series- and parallel-resonant ing for the resistance of the coil by retun- of 5.0 Ω at resonance?
circuits, respectively. ing the capacitor. The differences among
Because the conditions in the two legs these resonances are significant for cir-
RP
XL2 350 ȍ2
of the parallel circuit in Fig 4.80 are not cuit Qs below 10, where the inductor’s RS 5.0 ȍ
the same — the resistance is in only one of series resistance is a significant percent-
the legs — all of the conditions by which age of the reactance. Above a Q of 10, the 122,500 ȍ 2
series resonance is determined do not oc- three points converge to within a percent 24,500 ȍ
cur simultaneously in a parallel-resonant 5.0 ȍ
of the frequency and can be ignored for
circuit. Fig 4.81 graphically illustrates the practical calculations. Tuning for mini-
situation by showing the currents through mum current will not introduce a suffi- Since the coil QU remains the inductor’s
the two components. When the inductive ciently large phase angle between voltage reactance divided by its series resistance,
and capacitive reactances are identical, the and current to create circuit difficulties. the coil QU is 70. Multiplying QU by the
condition defined for series resonance is reactance also provides the approximate
met as shown in line (A). The impedance Parallel Circuits of Moderate to High parallel-equivalent resistance of the coil
of the inductive leg is composed of both Q series resistance.
XL and R, which yields an impedance that The resonant frequencies defined above At resonance, where X L = X C, R P
is greater than XC and that is not 180° out converge in parallel-resonant circuits with defines the impedance of the parallel-
of phase with XC. The resultant current is Qs higher than about 10. Therefore, a single resonant circuit. The reactances just equal
greater than its minimum possible value set of formulas will sufficiently approxi- each other, leaving the voltage and cur-
and not in phase with the voltage. mate circuit performance for accurate pre- rent in phase with each other. In other
By altering the value of the inductor dictions. Indeed, above a Q of 10, the words, the circuit shows only the parallel
slightly (and holding the Q constant), a performance of a parallel circuit appears in resistance. Therefore, equation 120 can be
new frequency can be obtained at which many ways to be simply the inverse of the rewritten as:
the current reaches its minimum. When performance of a series-resonant circuit
parallel circuits are tuned using a current using the same components. Z
XL2 2 ʌ f L 2 QUXL
meter as an indicator, this point (B) is (121)
Accurate analysis of a parallel-resonant RS RS
ordinarily used as an indication of reso- circuit requires the substitution of a paral-
nance. The current “dip” indicates a con- lel-equivalent resistor for the actual induc- In this example, the circuit impedance
dition of maximum impedance and is tor-loss series resistor, as shown in Fig at resonance is 24,500 Ω.
sometimes called the antiresonant point 4.82. Sometimes called the dynamic resis- At frequencies below resonance the cur-
or maximum impedance resonance to dis- tance of the parallel-resonant circuit, the rent through the inductor is larger than that
tinguish it from the condition where XC = parallel-equivalent resistor value will in- through the capacitor, because the reac-
XL. Maximum impedance is achieved by crease with circuit Q, that is, as the series tance of the coil is smaller and that of the
vector addition of XC, XL and R, however, resistance value decreases. To calculate capacitor is larger than at resonance. There
and the result is a current somewhat out of is only partial cancellation of the two
phase with the voltage. reactive currents, and the line current
Point (C) on the curve represents the therefore is larger than the current taken
unity-power-factor resonant point. Adjust- by the resistance alone. At frequencies
ing the inductor value and hence its above resonance the situation is reversed
reactance (while holding Q constant) pro- and more current flows through the ca-
duces a new resonant frequency at which pacitor than through the inductor, so the
the resultant current is in phase with the line current again increases. The current
voltage. The inductor’s new value of at resonance, being determined wholly by
reactance is the value required for a paral- RP, will be small if RP is large, and large if
lel-equivalent inductor and its parallel- RP is small. Fig 4.83 illustrates the rela-
equivalent resistor (calculated according tive current flows through a parallel-tuned
to the formulas in the last section) to just circuit as the frequency is moved from
cancel the capacitive reactance. The value below resonance to above resonance. The
of the parallel-equivalent inductor is base line represents the minimum current
always smaller than the actual inductor in level for the particular circuit. The actual
series with the resistor and has a propor- current at any frequency off resonance is
tionally smaller reactance. (The parallel- Fig 4.82 — Series and parallel simply the vector sum of the currents
equivalent resistor, conversely, will equivalents when both circuits are through the parallel equivalent resistance
resonant. The series resistance, R S
always be larger than the coil-loss resistor in A, is replaced by the parallel resis- and through the reactive components.
shown in series with the inductor.) The tance, RP in B, and vice versa. RP = To obtain the impedance of a parallel-
result is a resonant frequency slightly dif- X L2 / R S. tuned circuit either at or off the resonant

4.50 Chapter 4
frequency, apply the general formula: which the impedance falls is a function of signal path to ground. Assume both cir-
QU. Fig 4.84 presents a family of curves cuits are resonant at the same frequency, f,
ZC ZL
Z (122) showing the impedance drop from reso- and have the same Q. The series tuned
ZS circuit at A has its lowest impedance at f,
nance for circuit Qs ranging from 10 to
where: 100. The curve family for parallel-circuit permitting the maximum possible current
Z = overall circuit impedance impedance is essentially the same as the to flow along the signal path. At all other
ZC = impedance of the capacitive leg curve family for series-circuit current. frequencies, the impedance is greater and
(usually, the reactance of the As with series tuned circuits, the higher the current at those frequencies is less. The
capacitor), the Q of a parallel-tuned circuit, the circuit passes the desired signal and tends
ZL = impedance of the inductive leg sharper the response peak. Likewise, the to impede signals at undesired frequen-
(the vector sum of the coil’s reac- lower the Q, the wider the band of fre- cies. The parallel circuit at B provides the
tance and resistance), and quencies to which the circuit responds. highest impedance at resonance, f, mak-
ZS = series impedance of the capacitor- Using the half-power (–3 dB) points as a ing the signal path the lowest impedance
inductor combination as derived comparative measure of circuit perfor-
from the denominator of equation mance, equations 116 and 117 apply
115. equally to parallel-tuned circuits. That is,
After using vector calculations to obtain BW = f / Q U and Q U =
ZL and Z S , converting all the values to f / BW, where the resonant frequency and
polar form — as described earlier in this the bandwidth are in the same units. As a
chapter — will ease the final calculation. handy reminder, Table 4.8 summarizes the
Of course, each impedance may be derived performance of parallel-resonant circuits
from the resistance and the application of at high and low Qs and above and below
the basic reactance formulas on the values resonant frequency.
of the inductor and capacitor at the fre- It is possible to use either series or par-
quency of interest. allel-resonant circuits do the same work in
Since the current rises off resonance, the many circuits, thus giving the designer con-
parallel-resonant-circuit impedance must siderable flexibility. Fig 4.85 illustrates
fall. It also becomes complex, resulting in this general principle by showing a series-
an ever greater phase difference between resonant circuit in the signal path and a
the voltage and the current. The rate at parallel-resonant circuit shunted from the

Fig 4.84 — Relative impedance of

parallel-resonant circuits with different
values of QU. The curves are similar to
the series-resonant circuit current level
curves of Fig 4.78. The effect of QU on
impedance is most pronounced within
10% of the resonance frequency.

Fig 4.85 — Series- and parallel-

resonant circuits configured to perform
the same theoretical task: passing
Fig 4.83 — The currents in a parallel-resonant circuit as the frequency moves signals in a narrow band of frequencies
through resonance. Below resonance, the current lags the voltage; above along the signal path. A real design
resonance the current leads the voltage. The base line represents the current level example would consider many other
at resonance, which depends on the impedance of the circuit at that frequency. factors.

Electrical Fundamentals 4.51

Table 4.8
The Performance of Parallel-Resonant Circuits

A. High and Low Q Circuits (in relative terms)

Characteristic High Q Circuit Low Q Circuit

Selectivity high low
Bandwidth narrow wide
Impedance high low
Line current low high
Circulating current high low
Fig 4.87 — A loaded parallel-resonant
B. Off-Resonance Performance for Constant Values of Inductance and Capacitance circuit, showing both the inductor-loss
resistance and the load, RL. If smaller
Characteristic Above Resonance Below Resonance than the inductor resistance, RL will
Inductive reactance increases decreases control the loaded Q of the circuit (QL).
Capacitive reactance decreases increases
Circuit resistance unchanged* unchanged*
Circuit impedance decreases decreases
resistance of the circuit itself. At frequen-
Line current increases increases cies below 30 MHz, most of this resistance
Circulating current decreases decreases is in the coil. Within limits, increasing the
Circuit behavior capacitive inductive number of turns in the coil increases the
reactance faster than it raises the resis-
*This is true for frequencies near resonance. At distant frequencies, skin effect may alter the
resistive losses of the inductor.
tance, so coils for circuits in which the Q
must be high are made with relatively
large inductances for the frequency.
When the circuit delivers energy to a
load (as in the case of the resonant circuits
however, is a function of the element’s used in transmitters), the energy consumed
reactance. Fig 4.86 redraws the parallel- in the circuit itself is usually negligible
tuned circuit to indicate the line current compared with that consumed by the load.
and the current circulating between the The equivalent of such a circuit is shown in
coil and the capacitor. The current drawn
Fig 4.87, where the parallel resistor, RL,
from the source may be low, because the
represents the load to which power is de-
overall circuit impedance is high. The
livered. If the power dissipated in the load
current through the individual elements
is at least 10 times as great as the power lost
may be high, however, because there is
in the inductor and capacitor, the parallel
little resistive loss as the current circulates
impedance of the resonant circuit itself will
through the inductor and capacitor.
be so high compared with the resistance of
For parallel-resonant circuits with an
the load that for all practical purposes the
unloaded Q of 10 or greater, this circulat-
impedance of the combined circuit is equal
ing current is approximately: to the load impedance. Under these condi-
tions, the load resistance replaces the cir-
IC QU IT (123)
cuit impedance in calculating Q. The Q of
where: a parallel-resonant circuit loaded by a re-
IC = circulating current in A, mA or μA, sistive impedance is:
Fig 4.86 — A parallel-resonant circuit
redrawn to illustrate both the line QU = unloaded circuit Q, and RL
QL (124)
current and the circulating current. IT = line current in the same units as IC. X
where:
Example: A parallel-resonant circuit QL = circuit loaded Q,
permits an ac or RF line current of 30 mA
path for the signal. At frequencies off RL = parallel load resistance in ohms,
and has a Q of 100. What is the circulating
resonance, the parallel-resonant circuit and
current through the elements?
presents a lower impedance, thus present- X = reactance in ohms of either the in-
ing signals with a path to ground and away IX Q U I 100 u 30 mA 3000 mA 3 A ductor or the capacitor.
from the signal path. In theory, the effects
will be the same relative to a signal current Example: A resistive load of 3000 Ω is
Circulating currents in high-Q parallel- connected across a resonant circuit in
on the signal path. In actual circuit design tuned circuits can reach a level that causes
exercises, of course, many other variables which the inductive and capacitive reac-
component heating and power loss. There- tances are each 250 Ω. What is the circuit
will enter the design picture to make one fore, components should be rated for the
circuit preferable to the other. Q?
anticipated circulating currents, and not
just the line current. RL 3000 ȍ
Circulating Current QL 12
X 250 ȍ
In a parallel-resonant circuit, the source The Q of Loaded Circuits
voltage is the same for all the circuit In many resonant-circuit applications, The effective Q of a circuit loaded by a
elements. The current in each element, the only power lost is that dissipated in the parallel resistance increases when the re-

4.52 Chapter 4
actances are decreased. A circuit loaded or half the present impedance. Fig 4.88. This is equivalent to connecting
with a relatively low resistance (a few A parallel resistor of 24500 Ω, or the a higher value of load resistance across
thousand ohms) must have low-reactance nearest lower value (to guarantee suf- the whole circuit, and is similar in prin-
elements (large capacitance and small ficient bandwidth), will produce the ciple to impedance transformation with an
inductance) to have reasonably high Q. required reduction in Q and bandwidth iron-core transformer (described in the
Many power-handling circuits, such as the increase. Although this example simpli- next section of this chapter). In high-fre-
output networks of transmitters, are fies the situation encountered in real quency resonant circuits, the impedance
designed by first choosing a loaded Q for design cases by ignoring such factors as ratio does not vary exactly as the square of
the circuit and then determining compo- the shape of the band-pass curve, it illus- the turns ratio, because all the magnetic
nent values. See the RF PowerAmplifiers trates the interaction of the ingredients that flux lines do not cut every turn of the coil.
chapter for more details. determine the performance of parallel- A desired impedance ratio usually must
Parallel load resistors are sometimes resonant circuits. be obtained by experimental adjustment.
added to parallel-resonant circuits to lower When the load resistance has a very low
the circuit Q and increase the circuit band- Impedance Transformation value (say below 100 Ω) it may be con-
width. By using a high-Q circuit and adding An important application of the paral- nected in series in the resonant circuit (R S
a parallel resistor, designers can tailor the lel-resonant circuit is as an impedance in Fig 4.82A, for example), in which case
circuit response to their needs. Since the matching device in the output circuit of an it is transformed to an equivalent parallel
parallel resistor consumes power, such tech- RF power amplifier. There is an optimum impedance as previously described. If the
niques ordinarily apply to receiver and simi- value of load resistance for each type of Q is at least 10, the equivalent parallel
lar low-power circuits, however. tube or transistor and each set of required impedance is:
Example: Specifications call for a par- operating conditions. The resistance of the
allel-resonant circuit with a bandwidth of load to which the active device delivers X2
ZR (125)
400 kHz at 14.0 MHz. The circuit at hand power may be considerably lower than the RL
has a QU of 70.0 and its components have value required for proper device opera-
where:
reactances of 350 Ω each. What is the par- tion, or the load impedance may be con-
siderably higher than the amplifier output ZR = resistive parallel impedance at
allel load resistor that will increase the resonance,
bandwidth to the specified value? The impedance.
To transform the actual load resistance X = reactance (in ohms) of either the
bandwidth of the existing circuit is: coil or the capacitor, and
to the desired value, the load may be
tapped across part of the coil, as shown in RL = load resistance inserted in series.
f 14.0 MHz
BW 0.200 MHz
QU 70.0 If the Q is lower than 10, the reactance
will have to be adjusted somewhat — for
200 kHz the reasons given in the discussion of low-
The desired bandwidth, 400 kHz, re- Q circuits — to obtain a resistive imped-
quires a circuit with a Q of: ance of the desired value.
Networks like the one in Fig 4.88 have
f 14.0 MHz some serious disadvantages for some
Q 35.0 applications. For instance, the common
BW 0.400 MHz connection between the input and the out-
Since the desired Q is half the original put provides no dc isolation. Also, the
value, halving the resonant impedance or common ground is sometimes trouble-
parallel-resistance value of the circuit is some with regard to ground-loop currents.
in order. The present impedance of the Consequently, a network with only
circuit is: mutual magnetic coupling is often prefer-
able. With the advent of ferrites, construct-
Z QU XL 70.0 u 350 ȍ 24500 ȍ ing impedance transformers that are both
Fig 4.88 — A parallel-resonant circuit
broadband and permit operation well up
with a tapped coil to effect an
The desired impedance is: impedance match. Although the into the VHF portion of the spectrum has
impedance presented by the entire become relatively easy. The basic prin-
Z QU XL 35.0 u 350 ȍ circuit is very high, the impedance ciples of broadband impedance trans-
“seen” by the load, RL, is lower. formers appear in the following section.
12250 ȍ 12.25 kȍ

Electrical Fundamentals 4.53

Transformers
When the ac source current flows ability of the inductor core material and of them. This ratio is the coefficient of cou-
through every turn of an inductor, the gen- the space between them. pling (k) and is always less than 1. If k
eration of a counter-voltage and the stor- If the self-inductance values of two were to equal 1, the two coils would have
age of energy during each half cycle is said coils are known, it is possible to derive the the maximum possible mutual coupling.
to be by virtue of self-inductance. If an- mutual inductance by way of a simple Thus:
other inductor — not connected to the experiment schematically represented in
source of the original current — is posi- Fig 4.90. Without altering the physical M k L1 L2 (127)
tioned so the expanding and contracting setting or position of two coils, measure
magnetic field of the first inductor cuts the inductance of the series-connected where:
across its turns, a current will be induced coils with their windings complementing M = mutual inductance in henrys,
into the second coil. A load such as a each other and again with their windings L1 and L2 = individual coupled induc-
resistor may be connected across the sec- opposing each other. Since, for the two tors, each in henrys, and
ond coil to consume the energy transferred coils, LC = L1 + L2 + 2M, in the comple- k = the coefficient of coupling.
magnetically from the first inductor. This mentary case, and LO = L1 + L2 – 2M for
phenomenon is called mutual inductance. the opposing case, Using the experiment above, it is pos-
Two inductors positioned so that the sible to solve equation 127 for k with rea-
magnetic field of one (the primary induc- LC  LO sonable accuracy.
M (126) Any two coils having mutual inductance
tor) induces a current in the other (the 4
secondary inductor) are coupled. Fig 4.89 comprise a transformer having a primary
illustrates a pair of coupled inductors, The ratio of magnetic flux set up by the winding or inductor and a secondary wind-
showing an ac energy source connected to secondary coil to the flux set up by the ing or inductor. Fig 4.91 provides a picto-
one and a load connected to the other. If primary coil is a measure of the extent to rial representation of a typical iron-core
the coils are wound tightly on an iron core which two coils are coupled, compared to transformer, along with the schematic
so that nearly all the lines of force or mag- the maximum possible coupling between symbols for both iron-core and air-core
netic flux from the first coil link with the
turns of the second coil, the pair is said to
be tightly coupled. Coils with air cores
separated by a distance would be loosely
coupled. The signal source for the primary
inductor may be household ac power lines,
audio or other waveforms at lower fre-
quencies, or RF currents. The load may be
a device needing power, a speaker con-
verting electrical energy into sonic
energy, an antenna using RF energy for
communications or a particular circuit set
up to process a signal from a preceding
circuit. The uses of magnetically coupled
energy in electronics are innumerable.
Mutual inductance (M) between coils is
measured in henrys. Two coils have a
mutual inductance of 1 H under the fol-
lowing conditions: as the primary induc-
tor current changes at a rate of 1 A/s, the
voltage across the secondary inductor is
1 V. The level of mutual inductance varies
Fig 4.90 — An experimental setup for determining mutual inductance. Measure the
with many factors: the size and shape of inductance with the switch in each position and use the formula in the text to
the inductors, their relative positions and determine the mutual inductance.
distance from each other, and the perme-

Fig 4.89 — A basic transformer: two

inductors — one connected to an ac Fig 4.91 — A transformer. A is a pictorial diagram. Power is transferred from the
energy source, the other to a load — primary coil to the secondary by means of the magnetic field. B is a schematic
with coupled magnetic fields. diagram of an iron-core transformer, and C is an air-core transformer.

4.54 Chapter 4
transformers. Conventionally, the term ductor would be 90° out of phase with the
transformer is most commonly applied to voltage. In any properly designed trans-
coupled inductors having a magnetic core former, the power consumed by the trans-
material, while coupled air-wound induc- former when the secondary is open (not
tors are not called by that name. They are delivering power) is only the amount nec-
still transformers, however. essary to overcome the losses in the iron
We normally think of transformers as core and in the resistance of the wire with
ac devices, since mutual inductance only which the primary is wound.
occurs when magnetic fields are expand- Fig 4.92 — The conditions for When power is taken from the second-
ing or contracting. A transformer con- transformer action: two coils that ary winding by a load, the secondary cur-
exhibit mutual inductance, an ac power
nected to a dc source will exhibit mutual source, and a load. The magnetic field rent sets up a magnetic field that opposes
inductance only at the instants of closing set up by the energy in the primary the field set up by the primary current. For
and opening the primary circuit, or on the circuit transfers energy to the secon- the induced voltage in the primary to equal
rising and falling edges of dc pulses, dary for use by the load, resulting in a the applied voltage, the original field must
because only then does the primary wind- secondary voltage and current. be maintained. The primary must draw
ing have a changing field. The principle enough additional current to set up a field
uses of transformers are three: to physi- exactly equal and opposite to the field set
cally isolate the primary circuit from the ber of turns in each coil. In the primary, up by the secondary current.
secondary circuit, to transform voltages the induced voltage practically equals, In practical transformer calculations it
and currents from one level to another, and opposes, the applied voltage, as de- may be assumed that the entire primary
and to transform circuit impedances from scribed earlier. Hence: current is caused by the secondary load.
one level to another. These functions are This is justifiable because the magnetiz-
not mutually exclusive and have many §N · ing current should be very small in com-
ES E P ¨¨ S ¸¸ (128)
variations. parison with the primary load current at
© NP ¹
rated power output.
IRON-CORE TRANSFORMERS where: If the magnetic fields set up by the pri-
The primary and secondary coils of a ES = secondary voltage, mary and secondary currents are to be
transformer may be wound on a core of EP = primary applied voltage, equal, the primary current multiplied by
magnetic material. The permeability of NS = number of turns on secondary, the primary turns must equal the second-
the magnetic material increases the induc- and ary current multiplied by the secondary
tance of the coils so a relatively small NP = number of turns on primary. turns.
number of turns may be used to induce a
given voltage value with a small current. Example: A transformer has a primary §N ·
IP I S ¨¨ S ¸¸ (129)
A closed core having a continuous mag- of 400 turns and a secondary of 2800 turns, © NP ¹
netic path, such as that shown in Fig 4.91, and a voltage of 120 V is applied to the
also tends to ensure that practically all of primary. What voltage appears across the where:
the field set up by the current in the pri- secondary winding? IP = primary current,
mary coil will cut the turns of the second- IS = secondary current,
ary coil. For power transformers and § 2800 · NP = number of turns on primary, and
impedance-matching transformers used E S 120 V ¨ ¸ 120 V u 7 840 V
© 400 ¹ NS = number of turns on secondary.
in audio work, cores of iron strips are most
common and generally very efficient. (Notice that the number of turns is taken Example: Suppose the secondary of the
The following principles presume a co- as a known value rather than a measured transformer in the previous example is
efficient of coupling (k) of 1, that is, a quantity, so they do not limit the signifi- delivering a current of 0.20 A to a load.
perfect transformer. The value k = 1 indi- cant figures in the calculation.) Also, if What will be the primary current?
cates that all the turns of both coils link 840 V is applied to the 2800-turn winding
with all the magnetic flux lines, so that the (which then becomes the primary), the § 2800 ·
IP 0.20 A u ¨ ¸ 0.20 A u 7 1.4 A
voltage induced per turn is the same with output voltage from the 400-turn winding © 400 ¹
both coils. This condition makes the will be 120 V.
induced voltage independent of the in- Either winding of a transformer can be Although the secondary voltage is
ductance of the primary and secondary used as the primary, provided the wind- higher than the primary voltage, the sec-
inductors. Iron-core transformers for low ing has enough turns (enough inductance) ondary current is lower than the primary
frequencies most closely approach this to induce a voltage equal to the applied current, and by the same ratio. The sec-
ideal condition. Fig 4.92 illustrates the voltage without requiring an excessive ondary current in an ideal transformer is
conditions for transformer action. current. The windings must also have in- 180° out of phase with the primary cur-
sulation with a voltage rating sufficient rent, since the field in the secondary just
Voltage Ratio for the voltage present. offsets the field in the primary. The phase
For a given varying magnetic field, the relationship between the currents in the
voltage induced in a coil within the field Current or Ampere-Turns Ratio windings holds true no matter what the
is proportional to the number of turns in The current in the primary when no cur- phase difference between the current and
the coil. When the two coils of a trans- rent is taken from the secondary is called the voltage of the secondary. In fact, the
former are in the same field (which is the the magnetizing current of the trans- phase difference, if any, between voltage
case when both are wound on the same former. An ideal transformer, with no and current in the secondary winding will
closed core), it follows that the induced internal losses, would consume no power, be reflected back to the primary as an iden-
voltages will be proportional to the num- since the current through the primary in- tical phase difference.

Electrical Fundamentals 4.55

Power Ratio ZS = impedance of load connected to NP ZP NP 150 ȍ
secondary, and 38 6.2
A transformer cannot create power; it NS ZS NS 4.0 ȍ
can only transfer it and change the voltage NP, NS = turns ratio, primary to
level. Hence, the power taken from the secondary.
secondary cannot exceed that taken by the The primary therefore must have 6.2 times
primary from the applied voltage source. A load of any given impedance con- as many turns as the secondary.
There is always some power loss in the These relationships may be used in prac-
nected to the transformer secondary will
resistance of the coils and in the iron core, tical work even though they are based on
be transformed to a different value look-
so in all practical cases the power taken an ideal transformer. Aside from the nor-
ing into the primary from the power mal design requirements of reasonably
from the source will exceed that taken source. The impedance transformation is
from the secondary. low internal losses and low leakage reac-
proportional to the square of the primary- tance, the only other requirement is that
PO n PI (130) to-secondary turns ratio. the primary have enough inductance to
where: Example: A transformer has a primary- operate with low magnetizing current at
PO = power output from secondary, to-secondary turns ratio of 0.6 (the primary the voltage applied to the primary.
PI = power input to primary, and has six-tenths as many turns as the second- The primary terminal impedance of an
n = efficiency factor. ary) and a load of 3000 Ω is connected to iron-core transformer is determined
The efficiency, n, is always less than 1. the secondary. What is the impedance at wholly by the load connected to the sec-
It is usually expressed as a percentage: if the primary of the transformer? ondary and by the turns ratio. If the char-
n is 0.65, for instance, the efficiency is acteristics of the transformer have an
65%. ZP 3000 ȍ u 0.6 2 3000 ȍ u 0.36 appreciable effect on the impedance
Example: A transformer has an effi- presented to the power source, the trans-
Z P 1080 ȍ former is either poorly designed or is not
ciency of 85.0% at its full-load output of
150 W. What is the power input to the pri- By choosing the proper turns ratio, the suited to the voltage and frequency at
mary at full secondary load? impedance of a fixed load can be trans- which it is being used. Most transformers
formed to any desired value, within prac- will operate quite well at voltages from
tical limits. If transformer losses can be slightly above to well below the design
PO 150 W neglected, the transformed (reflected) im- figure.
PI 176 W
n 0.850 pedance has the same phase angle as the
Transformer Losses
actual load impedance. Thus, if the load is
A transformer is usually designed to a pure resistance, the load presented by In practice, none of the formulas given
have the highest efficiency at the power the primary to the power source will also so far provides truly exact results, although
output for which it is rated. The efficiency be a pure resistance. If the load imped- they afford reasonable approximations.
decreases with either lower or higher out- ance is complex, that is, if the load current Transformers in reality are not simply two
puts. On the other hand, the losses in the and voltage are out of phase with each coupled inductors, but a network of resis-
transformer are relatively small at low other, then the primary voltage and cur- tances and reactances, most of which
output but increase as more power is taken. rent will show the same phase angle. appear in Fig 4.93. Since only the terminals
The amount of power that the transformer Many devices or circuits require a numbered 1 through 4 are accessible to the
can handle is determined by its own losses, specific value of load resistance (or user, transformer ratings and specifications
because these losses heat the wire and impedance) for optimum operation. The take into account the additional losses cre-
core. There is a limit to the temperature impedance of the actual load that is to dis- ated by these complexities.
rise that can be tolerated, because too high sipate the power may differ widely from In a practical transformer not all of the
a temperature can either melt the wire or the impedance of the source device or cir- magnetic flux is common to both windings,
cause the insulation to break down. A cuit, so a transformer is used to change the although in well designed transformers the
transformer can be operated at reduced actual load into an impedance of the de- amount of flux that cuts one coil and not the
output, even though the efficiency is low, sired value. This is called impedance other is only a small percentage of the total
because the actual loss will be low under matching. flux. This leakage flux causes a voltage of
such conditions. The full-load efficiency self-induction. Consequently, there are
of small power transformers such as are small amounts of leakage inductance asso-
NP ZP
used in radio receivers and transmitters (132) ciated with both windings of the trans-
NS ZS former. Leakage inductance acts in
usually lies between about 60 and 90%,
depending on the size and design. exactly the same way as an equivalent
where: amount of ordinary inductance inserted in
IMPEDANCE RATIO NP / NS = required turns ratio, primary series with the circuit. It has, therefore, a
In an ideal transformer — one without to secondary, certain reactance, depending on the amount
losses or leakage reactance — the follow- ZP = primary impedance required, and of leakage inductance and the frequency.
ing relationship is true: ZS = impedance of load connected to This reactance is called leakage reactance,
secondary. shown as XL1 and XL2 in Fig 4.93.
2
§N · Current flowing through the leakage
ZP Z S ¨¨ P ¸¸ (131) Example: A transistor audio amplifier reactance causes a voltage drop. This volt-
© NS ¹ requires a load of 150 Ω for optimum per- age drop increases with increasing
where: formance, and is to be connected to a loud- current; hence, it increases as more power
ZP = impedance looking into the pri- speaker having an impedance of 4.0 Ω. is taken from the secondary. Thus, the
mary terminals from the power What is the turns ratio, primary to second- greater the secondary current, the smaller
source, ary, required in the coupling transformer? the secondary terminal voltage becomes.

4.56 Chapter 4
Fig 4.93 — A transformer as a network of resistances, inductances and
capacitances. Only L1 and L2 contribute to the transfer of energy.

The resistances of the transformer wind- losses include the energy required to over-
ings, R1 and R2, also cause voltage drops come the retentivity of the core’s magnetic
when there is current. Although these volt- material. Circulating currents through the Fig 4.94 — A typical transformer iron
age drops are not in phase with those core’s resistance are eddy currents, which core. The E and I pieces alternate
caused by leakage reactance, together they form part of the total core losses. These direction in successive layers to
improve the magnetic path while
result in a lower secondary voltage under losses, which add to the required magne- attenuating eddy currents in the core.
load than is indicated by the transformer tizing current, are equivalent to adding a
turns ratio. resistance in parallel with L1 in Fig 4.93.
Thus, the voltage regulation in a real
transformer is not perfect. At ac line fre- Core Construction
quencies (50 or 60 Hz), the voltage at the Audio and power transformers usually
secondary, with a reasonably well-designed employ one or another grade of silicon
transformer, should not drop more than steel as the core material. With
about 10% from open-circuit conditions permeabilities of 5000 or greater, these
to full load. The voltage drop may be con- cores saturate at flux densities approach-
siderably more than this in a transformer ing 105 lines per square inch of cross sec-
operating at voice and music frequencies, tion. The cores consist of thin insulated
because the leakage reactance increases laminations to break up potential eddy
directly with the frequency. current paths.
In addition to wire resistances and leak- Each core layer consists of an E and an
age reactances, certain stray capacitances I piece butted together, as represented in
occur in transformers. An electric field Fig 4.94. The butt point leaves a small gap.
exists between any two points having a Since the pieces in adjacent layers have a
different voltage. When current flows continuous magnetic path, however,
through a coil, each turn has a slightly dif- the flux density per unit of applied mag- Fig 4.95 — Two common transformer
ferent voltage than its adjacent turns, cre- netic force is increased and flux leakage constructions: shell and core.
ating a capacitance between turns. This reduced.
distributed capacitance appears in Fig Two core shapes are in common use, as
4.93 as C1 and C2. Another capacitance, shown in Fig 4.95. In the shell type, both
CM, appears between the two windings for windings are placed on the inner leg, while
the same reason. Moreover, transformer in the core type the primary and second-
windings can exhibit capacitance relative ary windings may be placed on separate
to nearby metal, for example, the chassis, legs, if desired. This is sometimes done
the shield and even the core. when it is necessary to minimize capaci-
Although these stray capacitances are tive effects between the primary and sec-
of little concern with power and audio ondary, or when one of the windings must
transformers, they become important as operate at very high voltage.
the frequency increases. In transformers The number of turns required in the pri-
for RF use, the stray capacitance can reso- mary for a given applied voltage is deter-
nate with either the leakage reactance or, mined by the size, shape and type of core
at lower frequencies, with the winding material used, as well as the frequency.
reactances, L1 or L2, especially under The number of turns required is inversely
very light or zero loads. In the frequency proportional to the cross-sectional area of
region around resonance, transformers no the core. As a rough indication, windings
longer exhibit the properties formulated of small power transformers frequently
above or the impedance properties to be have about six to eight turns per volt on a
Fig 4.96 — A shielded transformer: the
described below. core of 1-square-inch cross section and core plus an outer shield of magnetic
Iron-core transformers also experience have a magnetic path 10 or 12 inches in material contain nearly all of the
losses within the core itself. Hysteresis length. A longer path or smaller cross sec- magnetic field.

Electrical Fundamentals 4.57

tion requires more turns per volt, and vice nonmagnetic material between the case to circuits with a Q of 10 or greater.
versa. and the core creates a region of high reluc-
In most transformers the coils are tance, attenuating the field before it AIR-CORE RF TRANSFORMERS
wound in layers, with a thin sheet of reaches the case. Air-core transformers often function as
treated-paper insulation between each mutually coupled inductors for RF appli-
layer. Thicker insulation is used between AUTOTRANSFORMERS cations. They consist of a primary wind-
adjacent coils and between the first coil The transformer principle can be used ing and a secondary winding in close
and the core. with only one winding instead of two, as proximity. Leakage reactances are ordi-
shown in Fig 4.97A. The principles that narily high, however, and the coefficient
Shielding relate voltage, current and impedance to of coupling between the primary and sec-
Because magnetic lines of force are the turns ratio also apply equally well. A ondary windings is low. Consequently,
continuous and closed upon themselves, one-winding transformer is called an auto- unlike transformers having a magnetic
shielding requires a path for the lines of transformer. The current in the common core, the turns ratio does not have as much
force of the leakage flux. The high-per- section (A) of the winding is the difference significance. Instead, the voltage induced
meability of iron cores tends to concen- between the line (primary) and the load in the secondary depends on the mutual
trate the field, but additional shielding is (secondary) currents, since these currents inductance.
often needed. As depicted in Fig 4.96, are out of phase. Hence, if the line and load
enclosing the transformer in a good mag- currents are nearly equal, the common sec- Nonresonant RF Transformers
netic material can restrict virtually all of tion of the winding may be wound with In a very basic transformer circuit oper-
the magnetic field in the outer case. The comparatively small wire. The line and load ating at radio frequencies, such as in Fig
currents will be equal only when the pri- 4.98A, the source voltage is applied to L1.
mary (line) and secondary (load) voltages RS is the series resistance inherent in the
are not very different. source. By virtue of the mutual induc-
Autotransformers are used chiefly for tance, M, a voltage is induced in L2. A
boosting or reducing the power-line volt- current flows in the secondary circuit
age by relatively small amounts. Fig 4.97B through the reactance of L2 and the load
illustrates the principle schematically resistance of RL. Let XL2 be the reactance
with a switched, stepped autotransformer. of L2 independent of L1, that is, indepen-
Continuously variable autotransformers dent of the effects of mutual inductance.
are commercially available under a vari- The impedance of the secondary circuit is
ety of trade names; Variac and Powerstat then:
are typical examples.
Technically, tapped air-core inductors, ZS R L 2  X L2 2 (134)
such as the one in the network in Fig 4.88
at the close of the discussion of resonant
circuits, are also autotransformers. The where:
voltage from the tap to the bottom of the ZS = the impedance of the secondary
coil is less than the voltage across the circuit in ohms,
entire coil. Likewise, the impedance of RL = the load resistance in ohms, and
the tapped part of the winding is less than XL2 = the reactance of the secondary
the impedance of the entire winding. Be- inductance in ohms.
cause leakage reactances are great and the
co-efficient of coupling is quite low, the The effect of ZS upon the primary cir-
relationships true of a perfect transformer cuit is the same as a coupled impedance
grow quite unreliable in predicting the ex- in series with L1. Fig 4.98B displays
act values. For this reason, tapped the coupled impedance (ZP) in a dashed
induc-tors are rarely referred to as trans- enclosure to indicate that it is not a new
formers. The stepped-down situation in physical component. It has the same
Fig 4.88 is better approximated — at or absolute value of phase angle as in the sec-
close to resonance — by the formula ondary impedance, but the sign of the
reactance is reversed; it appears as a
R L X COM 2 capacitive reactance. The value of ZP is:
RP (133)
XL
where: ZP
2 ʌ f M 2
(135)
RP = tuned-circuit parallel-resonant ZS
impedance, where:
Fig 4.97 — The autotransformer is
based on the transformer, but uses RL = load resistance tapped across part ZP = the impedance introduced into the
only one winding. The pictorial diagram of the coil, primary,
at A shows the typical construction of XCOM = reactance of the portion of the ZS = the impedance of the secondary
an autotransformer. The schematic coil common to both the resonant circuit in ohms, and
diagram at B demonstrates the use of circuit and the load tap, and 2 π f M = the mutual reactance between
an autotransformer to step up or step
down ac voltage, usually to com- XL = reactance of the entire coil. the reactances of the primary and
pensate for excessive or deficient line secondary coils (also designated as
voltage. The result is approximate and applies only XM).

4.58 Chapter 4
 series to a parallel value by the usual for-
mula, RP = X2 / R1.
The higher the loaded or operating Q of
the circuit, the smaller the mutual induc-
tance required for the same power trans-
fer. If both the primary and secondary
circuits consist of resonant circuits, they
can be more loosely coupled than with a
single tuned circuit for the same power
transfer. At the usual loaded Q of 10 or
greater, these circuits are quite selective,
and consequently narrowband.
Although coupling networks have to a
large measure replaced RF transformer
coupling that uses air-core transformers,
these circuits are still useful in antenna
tuning units and other circuits. For RF
work, powdered-iron toroidal cores have
generally replaced air-core inductors for
almost all applications except where the
circuit handles very high power or the coil
must be very temperature stable. Slug-
tuned solenoid coils for low-power circuits
offer the ability to tune the circuit precisely
to resonance. For either type of core, rea-
sonably accurate calculation of impedance
Fig 4.98 — The coupling of a complex impedance back into the primary circuit of a transformation is possible. It is often easier
transformer composed of nonresonant air-core inductors. to experiment to find the correct values for
maximum power transfer, however. For
further information on coupled circuits,
see the section on Tuned (Resonant) Net-
Resonant RF Transformers works in the Receivers and Transmitters,
ance loads, the value of resistance coupled
The use of at least one resonant circuit to the primary is chapter.
in place of a pair of simple reactances
eliminates the reactance from the trans- X M2 R L BROADBAND FERRITE RF
R1 (136) TRANSFORMERS
formed impedance in the primary. For 2
X2  R L 2
loaded or operating Qs of at least 10, the The design concepts and general theory
resistances of individual components is where: of ideal transformers presented earlier in
negligible. Fig 4.99 represents just one of R1 = series resistance coupled into the this chapter apply also to transformers
many configurations in which at least one primary circuit, wound on ferromagnetic-core materials
of the inductors is in a resonant circuit. XM = mutual reactance, (ferrite and powdered iron). As is the case
The reactance coupled into the primary RL = load resistance, and with stacked cores made of laminations in
circuit is cancelled if the circuit is tuned to X2 = reactance of the secondary induc- the classic I and E shapes, the core mate-
resonance while the load is connected. If tance. rial has a specific permeability factor that
the reactance of the load capacitance, CL determines the inductance of the windings
is at least 10 times any stray capacitance in The parallel impedance of the resonant versus the number of wire turns used.
the circuit, as is the case for low imped- circuit is just R1 transformed from a Toroidal cores are useful from a few
hundred hertz well into the UHF spectrum.
The principal advantage of this type of
core is the self-shielding characteristic.
Another feature is the compactness of a
transformer or inductor. Therefore, toroi-
dal-core transformers are excellent for use
not only in dc-to-dc converters, where
tape-wound steel cores are employed, but
at frequencies up to at least 1000 MHz
with the selection of the proper core mate-
rial for the range of operating frequencies.
Toroidal cores are available from micro-
miniature sizes up to several inches in
diameter. The latter can be used, as one
example, to build a 20-kW balun for use in
Fig 4.99 — An air-core transformer circuit consisting of a resonant primary circuit
antenna systems.
and an untuned secondary. RS and CS are functions of the source, while RL and CL One of the most common ferromagnetic
are functions of the load circuit. transformers used in Amateur Radio work

Electrical Fundamentals 4.59

is the conventional broadband trans- down), especially with ferrite cores that
former. Broadband transformers with tend to have rougher edges. In addition,
losses of less than 1 dB are employed in high voltage applications should also use
circuits that must have a uniform response wire with high-voltage insulation and a
over a substantial frequency range, such high temperature rating.
as a 2- to 30-MHz broadband amplifier. In Fig 4.100 illustrates one method of
applications of this sort, the reactance transformer construction using a single
of the windings should be at least four toroid as the core. The primary of a step-
times the impedance that the winding is down impedance transformer is wound to
designed to look into at the lowest design occupy the entire core, with the secondary
frequency. wound over the primary. The first step in
Example: What should be the winding planning the winding is to select a core of
reactances of a transformer that has a the desired permeability. Convert the
300-Ω primary and a 50-Ω secondary required reactances determined earlier
load? Relative to the 50-Ω secondary load: into inductance values for the lowest fre-
quency of use. To find the number of turns
XS 4 ZS 4 u 50 ȍ 200 ȍ for each winding, use the AL value for the
selected core and equation 73 from the
The primary winding reactance (XP) is: section on ferrite toroidal inductors ear-
lier in this chapter. Be certain the core can
XP 4 ZP 4 u 300 ȍ 1200 ȍ handle the power by calculating the maxi-
Fig 4.100 — Schematic and pictorial
mum flux using equation 71, given earlier representation of a conventional
The core-material permeability plays a in the chapter, and comparing the result broadband transformer wound on a
vital role in designing a good broadband with the manufacturer’s guidelines. ferrite toroidal core. The secondary
transformer. The effective permeability of Example: Design a small broadband winding (L2) is wound over the primary
the core must be high enough to provide transformer having an impedance ratio of winding (L1).
ample winding reactance at the low end of 16:1 for a frequency range of 2.0 to 20.0
the operating range. As the operating fre- MHz to match the output of a small-signal
quency is increased, the effects of the core stage (impedance ≈ 500 Ω) to the input
tend to disappear until there are scarcely (impedance ≈ 32 Ω) of an amplifier.
any core effects at the upper limit of the 1. Since the impedance of the smaller
operating range. The limiting factors for winding should be at least 4 times the
high frequency response are distributed lower impedance to be matched at the
capacity and leakage inductance due to lowest frequency,
uncoupled flux. A high-permeability core X S 4 u 32 ȍ 128 ȍ .
minimizes the number of turns needed for 2. The inductance of the secondary
a given reactance and therefore also mini- winding should be
mizes the distributed capacitance at high
frequencies. LS X S 2 ʌ f 128 /
Ferrite cores with a permeability of 850
are common choices for transformers used
6.2832 u 2.0 u 10 Hz
6
0.0101 mH
between 2 and 30 MHz. Lower frequency 3. Select a suitable core. For this low-
ranges, for example, 1 kHz to 1 MHz, may power application, a 3/8-inch ferrite core
require cores with permeabilities up to with permeability of 850 is suitable. The
2000. Permeabilities from 40 to 125 are core has an value of 420. Calculate the
useful for VHF transformers. Conven- number of turns for the secondary.
tional broadband transformers require
resistive loads. Loads with reactive com- L 0.010
ponents should use appropriate networks N S 1000 1000
AL 420
to cancel the reactance.
Conventional transformers are wound
in the same manner as a power trans- 4. A 5-turn secondary winding should
former. Each winding is made from a sepa- suffice. The primary winding derives from
rate length of wire, with one winding the impedance ratio:
placed over the previous one with suitable
insulation between. Unlike some trans- ZP 16
NP N S 5
mission-line transformer designs, conven- ZS 1
tional broadband transformers provide dc Fig 4.101 — Schematic and pictorial
5 u 4 20 turns
isolation between the primary and second- representation of a “binocular” style of
ary circuits. The high voltages encoun- This low power application will not conventional broadband transformer.
tered in high-impedance-ratio step-up approach the maximum flux density lim- This style is used frequently at the
input and output ports of transistor RF
transformers may require that the core be its for the core, and #28 enamel wire amplifiers. It consists of two rows of
wrapped with glass electrical tape before should both fit the core and handle the high-permeability toroidal cores, with
adding the windings (as an additional currents involved. the winding passed through the center
protection from arcing and voltage break- A second style of broadband transformer holes of the resulting stacks.

4.60 Chapter 4
construction appears in Fig 4.101. The key The losses in conventional transform- acteristic impedance equal to the load.
elements in this transformer are the stacks of ers depend on current and include wire, They form a choke isolating the input from
ferrite cores aligned with tubes soldered to eddy-current and hysteresis losses. In con- the output and attenuating undesirable
pc-board end plates. This style of trans- trast, transmission line transformers ex- currents, such as antenna current, from the
former is suited to high power applications, hibit voltage-dependent losses, which remainder of the transmission line to the
for example, at the input and output ports of make higher impedances and higher energy source. The result is a current or
transistor RF power amplifiers. Low-power VSWR values limiting factors in design. choke balun. Such baluns may take many
versions of this transformer can be wound Within design limits, the cancellation of forms: coiled transmission line, ferrite
on “binocular” cores having pairs of paral- flux in the cores of transmission line trans- beads placed over a length of transmission
lel holes through them. formers permits very high efficiencies line, windings on linear ferrite cores or
For further information on conventional across their passbands. Losses may be windings on ferrite toroids.
transformer matching using ferromagnetic lower than 0.1 dB with the proper core Reconfiguring the windings of Fig
materials, see the Matching Networks sec- choice. 4.102 can alter the transformer operation.
tion in the RF Power Amplifiers chapter. Transmission-line transformers can be For example, if terminal 2 is connected to
Refer to the Component Data and Refer- configured for several modes of operation, terminal 3, a positive potential gradient
ences chapter for more detailed informa- but the chief amateur use is in baluns (bal- appears across the lengths of line, result-
tion on available ferrite cores. A standard anced-to-unbalanced transformers) and in ing in a terminal 4 potential of 2 E1 with
reference on conventional broadband ununs (unbalanced-to-unbalanced trans- respect to ground. If the load is discon-
transformers using ferro-magnetic materi- formers). The basic principle behind a nected from terminal 2 and reconnected to
als is Ferromagnetic Core Design and balun appears in Fig 4.102, a representa- ground, 2 E1 appears across the load —
Applications Handbook by Doug DeMaw, tion of the classic Guanella 1:1 balun. The instead of ±E1 / 2. The product of this
W1FB, published by Prentice Hall. input and output impedances are the same, experiment is a 4:1 impedance ratio, form-
but the output is balanced about a real or ing an unun. The bootstrapping effect of
TRANSMISSION-LINE virtual center point (terminal 5). If the the new connection is applicable to many
TRANSFORMERS characteristic impedance of the transmis- other design configurations involving
Conventional transformers use flux sion line forming the inductors with num- multiple windings to achieve custom
linkages to deliver energy to the output bered terminals equals the load impedance, impedance ratios from 1:1 up to 9:1.
circuit. Transmission line transformers then E2 will equal E1. With respect to ter- Balun and unun construction for the
use transmission line modes of energy minal 5, the voltage at terminal 4 is E1 / 2, impedances of most concern to amateurs
transfer between the input and the output while the voltage at terminal 2 is –E1 / 2, requires careful selection of the feed line
terminals of the devices. Although toroi- resulting in a balanced output. used to wind the balun. Building transmis-
dal versions of these transformers physi- The small losses in properly designed sion line transformers on ferrite toroids
cally resemble toroidal conventional baluns of this order stem from the poten- may require careful attention to wire size
broadband transformers, the principles of tial gradient that exists along the length of and spacing to approximate a 50-Ω line.
operation differ significantly. Stray induc- transmission line forming the transformer. Wrapping wire with polyimide tape (one
tances and interwinding capacitances The value of this potential is –E1 / 2, and or two coatings, depending upon the wire
form part of the characteristic impedance it forms a dielectric loss that can’t be size) and then glass taping the wires
of the transmission line, largely eliminat- eliminated. Although the loss is very small together periodically produces a reason-
ing resonances that limit high frequency in well-constructed 1:1 baluns at low im- able 50-Ω transmission line. Ferrite cores
response. The limiting factors for trans- pedances, the losses climb as impedances in the permeability range of 125 to 250 are
mission line transformers include line climb (as in 4:1 baluns) and as the VSWR generally optimal for transformer wind-
length, deviations in the constructed line climbs. Both conditions yield higher volt- ings, with 1.25-inch cores suitable to
from the design value of characteristic age gradients. 300-Ω power levels and 2.4-inch cores
impedance, and parasitic capacitances and The inductors in the transmission-line usable to the 5 kW level. Special designs
inductances that are independent of the transformer are equivalent to — and may may alter the power-handling capabilities
characteristic impedance of the line. be — coiled transmission line with a char- of the core sizes. For the 1:1 balun shown
in Fig 4.102, 10 bifilar turns (#16 wire for
the smaller core and #12 wire for the
larger, both Thermaleze wire) yields a
transformer operable from 160 to 10 m.
Transmission-line transformers have
their most obvious application to anten-
nas, since they isolate the antenna currents
from the feed line, especially where a
coaxial feed line is not exactly perpen-
dicular to the antenna. The balun prevents
antenna currents from flowing on the outer
surface of the coax shielding, back to the
trans-mitting equipment. Such currents
would distort the antenna radiation pat-
tern. Appropriately designed baluns can
also transform impedance values at the
Fig 4.102 — Schematic representation of the basic Guanella “choke” balun or 1:1 same time. For example, one might use a
transmission line transformer. The inductors are a length of two-wire transmission 4:1 balun to match a 12.5-Ω Yagi antenna
line. RS is the source impedance and RL is the load impedance. impedance to a 50-Ω feed line. A 4:1 balun

Electrical Fundamentals 4.61

might also be used to match a 75-Ω TV the low losses of transmission-line trans- For further information on transmis-
antenna to 300-Ω feed line. formers. Depending upon the losses that sion-line transformers and their applica-
Interstage coupling within solid-state can be tolerated and the bandwidth tions, see the RF Power Amplifiers
transmitters represents another potential needed, it is often a matter of designer chapter. Another reference on the subject
for transmission-line transformers. Broad- choice between a transmission-line trans- is Transmission Line Transformers, by
band coupling between low-impedance, former and a conventional broadband Jerry Sevick, W2FMI, published by Noble
but mismatched stages can benefit from transformer as the coupling device. Publishing.

4.62 Chapter 4