Active learning

Experiential learning is more efficient than passive learning like reading or listening.[16]

Active learning occurs when a person takes control of his/her learning experience. Since
understanding information is the key aspect of learning, it is important for learners to recognize what
they understand and what they do not. By doing so, they can monitor their own mastery of subjects.
Active learning encourages learners to have an internal dialogue in which they verbalize
understandings. This and other meta-cognitive strategies can be taught to a child over time. Studies
within metacognition have proven the value in active learning, claiming that the learning is usually at
a stronger level as a result.[17]
In addition, learners have more incentive to learn when they have control over not only how they
learn but also what they learn.[18]

Associative learning[edit]
Associative learning is the process by which a person or animal learns an association between two
stimuli or events.[19] In classical conditioning a previously neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with a
reflex eliciting stimulus until eventually the neutral stimulus elicits a response on its own. In operant
conditioning, a behavior that is reinforced or punished in the presence of a stimulus becomes more
or less likely to occur in the presence of that stimulus.
Operant conditioning[edit]
Main article: Operant conditioning
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement (by reward) or instead a punishment given after a given
behavior, change the frequency and/or form of that behavior. Stimulus present when the
behavior/consequence occurs come to control these behavior modifications.
Classical conditioning[edit]
Main article: Classical conditioning
The typical paradigm for classical conditioning involves repeatedly pairing an unconditioned stimulus
(which unfailingly evokes a reflexive response) with another previously neutral stimulus (which does
not normally evoke the response). Following conditioning, the response occurs both to the
unconditioned stimulus and to the other, unrelated stimulus (now referred to as the "conditioned
stimulus"). The response to the conditioned stimulus is termed a conditioned response. The classic
example is Ivan Pavlov and his dogs.[15] Pavlov fed his dogs meat powder, which naturally made the
dogs salivate—salivating is a reflexive response to the meat powder. Meat powder is the
unconditioned stimulus (US) and the salivation is the unconditioned response (UR). Pavlov rang a
bell before presenting the meat powder. The first time Pavlov rang the bell, the neutral stimulus, the
dogs did not salivate, but once he put the meat powder in their mouths they began to salivate. After
numerous pairings of bell and food, the dogs learned that the bell signaled that food was about to
come, and began to salivate when they heard the bell. Once this occurred, the bell became the
conditioned stimulus (CS) and the salivation to the bell became the conditioned response (CR).
Classical conditioning has been demonstrated in many species. For example, it is seen in
honeybees, in the proboscis extension reflex paradigm.[20] It was recently also demonstrated in
garden pea plants.[21]
Another influential person in the world of classical conditioning is John B. Watson. Watson's work
was very influential and paved the way for B.F. Skinner's radical behaviorism. Watson's behaviorism
(and philosophy of science) stood in direct contrast to Freud and other accounts based largely on
introspection. Watson's view was that the introspective method was too subjective, and that we
should limit the study of human development to directly observable behaviors. In 1913, Watson
published the article "Psychology as the Behaviorist Views," in which he argued that laboratory
studies should serve psychology best as a science. Watson's most famous, and controversial,
experiment, "Little Albert", where he demonstrated how psychologists can account for the learning of
emotion through classical conditioning principles.
Observational learning[edit]
Main article: Observational learning
Observational learning is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. It is a form
of social learning which takes various forms, based on various processes. In humans, this form of
learning seems to not need reinforcement to occur, but instead, requires a social model such as a
parent, sibling, friend, or teacher with surroundings.
Imprinting[edit]
Main article: Imprinting (psychology)
Imprinting is a kind of learning occurring at a particular life stage that is rapid and apparently
independent of the consequences of behavior. In filial imprinting, young animals, particularly birds,
form an association with another individual or in some cases, an object, that they respond to as they
would to a parent. In 1935, the Austrian Zoologist Konrad Lorenz discovered that certain birds follow
and form a bond if the object makes sounds.

Play[edit]
Main article: Play (activity)
Play generally describes behavior with no particular end in itself, but that improves performance in
similar future situations. This is seen in a wide variety of vertebrates besides humans, but is mostly
limited to mammals and birds. Cats are known to play with a ball of string when young, which gives
them experience with catching prey. Besides inanimate objects, animals may play with other
members of their own species or other animals, such as orcas playing with seals they have caught.
Play involves a significant cost to animals, such as increased vulnerability to predators and the risk
of injury and possibly infection. It also consumes energy, so there must be significant benefits
associated with play for it to have evolved. Play is generally seen in younger animals, suggesting a
link with learning. However, it may also have other benefits not associated directly with learning, for
example improving physical fitness.
Play, as it pertains to humans as a form of learning is central to a child's learning and development.
Through play, children learn social skills such as sharing and collaboration. Children develop
emotional skills such as learning to deal with the emotion of anger, through play activities. As a form
of learning, play also facilitates the development of thinking and language skills in children.[22]
There are five types of play:

1. sensorimotor play aka functional play, characterized by repetition of activity

2. role play occurs starting at the age of 3
3. rule-based play where authoritative prescribed codes of conduct are primary
4. construction play involves experimentation and building
5. movement play aka physical play[22]
These five types of play are often intersecting. All types of play generate thinking and problem-
solving skills in children. Children learn to think creatively when they learn through play.[23] Specific
activities involved in each type of play change over time as humans progress through the lifespan.
Play as a form of learning, can occur solitarily, or involve interacting with others.

Enculturation[edit]
Main article: Enculturation
Enculturation is the process by which people learn values and behaviors that are appropriate or
necessary in their surrounding culture.[24] Parents, other adults, and peers shape the individual's
understanding of these values.[24] If successful, enculturation results in competence in the language,
values and rituals of the culture.[24] This is different from acculturation, where a person adopts the
values and societal rules of a culture different from their native one.
Multiple examples of enculturation can be found cross-culturally. Collaborative practices in the
Mazahua people have shown that participation in everyday interaction and later learning activities
contributed to enculturation rooted in nonverbal social experience.[25] As the children participated in
everyday activities, they learned the cultural significance of these interactions. The collaborative and
helpful behaviors exhibited by Mexican and Mexican-heritage children is a cultural practice known as
being "acomedido".[26] Chillihuani girls in Peru described themselves as weaving constantly, following
behavior shown by the other adults.[27]

Episodic learning[edit]
Episodic learning is a change in behavior that occurs as a result of an event.[28] For example, a fear
of dogs that follows being bitten by a dog is episodic learning. Episodic learning is so named
because events are recorded into episodic memory, which is one of the three forms of explicit
learning and retrieval, along with perceptual memory and semantic memory.[29] Episodic memory
remembers events and history that are embedded in experience and this is distinguished from
semantic memory, which attempts to extract facts out of their experiential context[30] or – as some
describe – a timeless organization of knowledge.[31] For instance, if a person remembers the Grand
Canyon from a recent visit, it is an episodic memory. He would use semantic memory to answer
someone who would ask him information such as where the Grand Canyon is. A study revealed that
humans are very accurate in the recognition of episodic memory even without deliberate intention to
memorize it.[32] This is said to indicate a very large storage capacity of the brain for things that people
pay attention to.[32]

Multimedia learning[edit]
Main article: Multimedia learning
Multimedia learning is where a person uses both auditory and visual stimuli to learn information
(Mayer 2001) . This type of learning relies on dual-coding theory (Paivio 1971) .

E-learning and augmented learning[edit]

Main article: Electronic learning
Electronic learning or e-learning is computer-enhanced learning. A specific and always more
diffused e-learning is mobile learning (m-learning), which uses different mobile telecommunication
equipment, such as cellular phones.
When a learner interacts with the e-learning environment, it's called augmented learning. By
adapting to the needs of individuals, the context-driven instruction can be dynamically tailored to the
learner's natural environment. Augmented digital content may include text, images, video, audio
(music and voice). By personalizing instruction, augmented learning has been shown to improve
learning performance for a lifetime.[33] See also minimally invasive education.
Moore (1989)[34] purported that three core types of interaction are necessary for quality, effective
online learning:

 learner–learner (i.e. communication between and among peers with or without the teacher
present),
 learner–instructor (i.e. student teacher communication), and
 learner–content (i.e. intellectually interacting with content that results in changes in learners'
understanding, perceptions, and cognitive structures).
In his theory of transactional distance, Moore (1993)[35] contented that structure and interaction or
dialogue bridge the gap in understanding and communication that is created by geographical
distances (known as transactional distance).

Rote learning[edit]
Main article: Rote learning
Rote learning is memorizing information so that it can be recalled by the learner exactly the way it
was read or heard. The major technique used for rote learning is learning by repetition, based on the
idea that a learner can recall the material exactly (but not its meaning) if the information is repeatedly
processed. Rote learning is used in diverse areas, from mathematics to music to religion. Although it
has been criticized by some educators, rote learning is a necessary precursor to meaningful
learning.

Meaningful learning[edit]
See also: Deeper learning
Meaningful learning is the concept that learned knowledge (e.g., a fact) is fully understood to the
extent that it relates to other knowledge. To this end, meaningful learning contrasts with rote
learning in which information is acquired without regard to understanding. Meaningful learning, on
the other hand, implies there is a comprehensive knowledge of the context of the facts learned.[36]

Evidence-based learning[edit]
Main article: Evidence-based learning
Evidence-based learning is the use of evidence from well designed scientific studies to accelerate
learning. Evidence-based learning methods such as spaced repetition can increase the rate at which
a student learns.[37]

Formal learning[edit]
Main article: Education
A depiction of the world's oldest continually operating university, the University of Bologna, Italy

Formal learning is learning that takes place within a teacher-student relationship, such as in a school
system. The term formal learning has nothing to do with the formality of the learning, but rather the
way it is directed and organized. In formal learning, the learning or training departments set out the
goals and objectives of the learning.[38]

Nonformal learning[edit]
Main article: Nonformal learning
Nonformal learning is organized learning outside the formal learning system. For example, learning
by coming together with people with similar interests and exchanging viewpoints, in clubs or in
(international) youth organizations, workshops.

Informal learning[edit]
Main article: Informal learning
Informal learning is less structured than "nonformal" one. It may occur through the experience of
day-to-day situations (for example, one would learn to look ahead while walking because of the
danger inherent in not paying attention to where one is going). It is learning from life, during a meal
at table with parents, play, exploring, etc.

Nonformal learning and combined approaches[edit]

The educational system may use a combination of formal, informal, and nonformal learning
methods. The UN and EU recognize these different forms of learning (cf. links below). In some
schools, students can get points that count in the formal-learning systems if they get work done in
informal-learning circuits. They may be given time to assist international youth workshops and
training courses, on the condition they prepare, contribute, share and can prove this offered valuable
new insight, helped to acquire new skills, a place to get experience in organizing, teaching, etc.
To learn a skill, such as solving a Rubik's Cube quickly, several factors come into play at once:

 Reading directions helps a player learn the patterns that solve the Rubik's Cube.
 Practicing the moves repeatedly helps build "muscle memory" and speed.
 Thinking critically about moves helps find shortcuts, which speeds future attempts.
 Observing the Rubik's Cube's six colors help anchor solutions in the mind.
 Revisiting the cube occasionally helps retain the skill.
Tangential learning[edit]
Tangential learning is the process by which people self-educate if a topic is exposed to them in a
context that they already enjoy. For example, after playing a music-based video game, some people
may be motivated to learn how to play a real instrument, or after watching a TV show that references
Faust and Lovecraft, some people may be inspired to read the original work.[39] Self-education can be
improved with systematization. According to experts in natural learning, self-oriented learning
training has proven an effective tool for assisting independent learners with the natural phases of
learning.[40]
Extra Credits writer and game designer James Portnow was the first to suggest games as a potential
venue for "tangential learning".[41] Mozelius et al.[42] points out that intrinsic integration of learning
content seems to be a crucial design factor, and that games that include modules for further self-
studies tend to present good results. The built-in encyclopedias in the Civilization games are
presented as an example – by using these modules gamers can dig deeper for knowledge about
historical events in the gameplay. The importance of rules that regulate learning modules and game
experience is discussed by Moreno, C.,[43] in a case study about the mobile game Kiwaka. In this
game, developed by Landka in collaboration with ESA and ESO, progress is rewarded with
educational content, as opposed to traditional education games where learning activities are
rewarded with gameplay.[44][45]

Dialogic learning[edit]
Main article: Dialogic learning
Dialogic learning is a type of learning based on dialogue.

Incidental learning[edit]
In incidental teaching learning is not planned by the instructor or the student, it occurs as a
byproduct of another activity — an experience, observation, self-reflection, interaction, unique event,
or common routine task. This learning happens in addition to or apart from the instructor's plans and
the student's expectations. An example of incidental teaching is when the instructor places a train
set on top of a cabinet. If the child points or walks towards the cabinet, the instructor prompts the
student to say ―train.‖ Once the student says ―train,‖ he gets access to the train set.
Here are some steps most commonly used in incidental teaching:[46]

 An instructor will arrange the learning environment so that necessary materials are within the
student's sight, but not within his reach, thus impacting his motivation to seek out those
materials.
 An instructor waits for the student to initiate engagement.
 An instructor prompts the student to respond if needed.
 An instructor allows access to an item/activity contingent on a correct response from the student.
 The instructor fades out the prompting process over a period of time and subsequent trials.
Incidental learning is an occurrence that is not generally accounted for using the traditional methods
of instructional objectives and outcomes assessment. This type of learning occurs in part as a
product of social interaction and active involvement in both online and onsite courses. Research
implies that some un-assessed aspects of onsite and online learning challenge the equivalency of
education between the two modalities. Both onsite and online learning have distinct advantages with
traditional on-campus students experiencing higher degrees of incidental learning in three times as
many areas as online students. Additional research is called for to investigate the implications of
these findings both conceptually and pedagogically.[47]

Domains[edit]
Future school (1901 or 1910)

Benjamin Bloom has suggested three domains of learning:

 Cognitive: To recall, calculate, discuss, analyze, problem solve, etc.

 Psychomotor: To dance, swim, ski, dive, drive a car, ride a bike, etc.
 Affective: To like something or someone, love, appreciate, fear, hate, worship, etc.
These domains are not mutually exclusive. For example, in learning to play chess, the person must
learn the rules (cognitive domain)—but must also learn how to set up the chess pieces and how to
properly hold and move a chess piece (psychomotor). Furthermore, later in the game the person
may even learn to love the game itself, value its applications in life, and appreciate
its history (affective domain).[48]

Transfer[edit]
Transfer of learning is the application of skill, knowledge or understanding to resolve a novel
problem or situation that happens when certain conditions are fulfilled. Research indicates that
learning transfer is infrequent; most common when "... cued, primed, and guided..."[49] and has
sought to clarify what it is, and how it might be promoted through instruction.
Over the history of its discourse, various hypotheses and definitions have been advanced. First, it is
speculated that different types of transfer exist, including: near transfer, the application of skill to
solve a novel problem in a similar context; and far transfer, the application of skill to solve novel
problem presented in a different context.[50] Furthermore, Perkins and Salomon (1992) suggest that
positive transfer in cases when learning supports novel problem solving, and negative transfer
occurs when prior learning inhibits performance on highly correlated tasks, such as second or third-
language learning.[51] Concepts of positive and negative transfer have a long history; researchers in
the early 20th century described the possibility that "...habits or mental acts developed by a
particular kind of training may inhibit rather than facilitate other mental activities".[52] Finally, Schwarz,
Bransford and Sears (2005) have proposed that transferring knowledge into a situation may differ
from transferring knowledge out to a situation as a means to reconcile findings that transfer may
both be frequent and challenging to promote.[53]
A significant and long research history has also attempted to explicate the conditions under which
transfer of learning might occur. Early research by Ruger, for example, found that the "level of
attention", "attitudes", "method of attack" (or method for tackling a problem), a "search for new points
of view", "a careful testing of hypothesis" and "generalization" were all valuable approaches for
promoting transfer.[54] To encourage transfer through teaching, Perkins and Salomon recommend
aligning ("hugging") instruction with practice and assessment, and "bridging", or encouraging
learners to reflect on past experiences or make connections between prior knowledge and current
content.[51]
Factors affecting learning[edit]
External factors[edit]
1. Heredity: A classroom instructor can neither change nor increase heredity, but the student
can use and develop it. Some learners are rich in hereditary endowment while others are
poor. Each student is unique and has different abilities. The native intelligence is different in
individuals. Heredity governs or conditions our ability to learn and the rate of learning. The
intelligent learners can establish and see relationship very easily and more quickly.
2. Status of students: Physical and home conditions also matter: Certain problems like
malnutrition i.e.; inadequate supply of nutrients to the body, fatigue i.e.; tiredness, bodily
weakness, and bad health are great obstructers in learning. These are some of the physical
conditions by which a student can get affected. Home is a place where a family lives. If the
home conditions are not proper, the student is affected seriously. Some of the home
conditions are bad ventilation, unhygienic living, bad light, etc. These affect the student and
his or her rate of learning.[55][56]
3. Physical environment: The design, quality, and setting of a learning space, such as a school
or classroom, can each be critical to the success of a learning environment. Size,
configuration, comfort—fresh air, temperature, light, acoustics, furniture—can all affect a
student's learning. The tools used by both instructors and students directly affect how
information is conveyed, from display and writing surfaces (blackboards, markerboards, tack
surfaces) to digital technologies. For example, if a room is too crowded, stress levels rise,
student attention is reduced, and furniture arrangement is restricted. If furniture is incorrectly
arranged, sight lines to the instructor or instructional material is limited and the ability to suit
the learning or lesson style is restricted. Aesthetics can also play a role, for if student morale
suffers, so does motivation to attend school.[57][58]
Internal factors[edit]
There are several internal factors that affect learning.[59][60] They are

1. Goals or purposes: Each and everyone has a goal. A goal should be set to each pupil
according to the standard expected to him. A goal is an aim or desired result. There are 2
types of goals called immediate and distant goals. A goal that occurs or is done at once is
called an immediate goal, and distant goals are those that take time to achieve. Immediate
goals should be set before the young learner and distant goals for older learners. Goals
should be specific and clear, so that learners understand.
2. Motivational behavior: Motivation means to provide with a motive. Motivation learners should
be motivated so that they stimulate themselves with interest. This behavior arouses and
regulates the student's internal energies.
3. Interest: This is a quality that arouses a feeling. It encourages a student to move over tasks
further. During teaching, the instructor must raise interests among students for the best
learning. Interest is an apparent (clearly seen or understood) behaviour.
4. Attention: Attention means consideration. It is concentration or focusing of consciousness
upon one object or an idea. If effective learning should take place attention is essential.
Instructors must secure the attention of the student.
5. Drill or practice: This method includes repeating the tasks "n" number of times like needs,
phrases, principles, etc. This makes learning more effective.
6. Fatigue: Generally there are three types of fatigue, i.e., muscular, sensory, and mental.
Muscular and sensory fatigues are bodily fatigue. Mental fatigue is in the central nervous
system. The remedy is to change teaching methods, e.g., use audio-visual aids, etc.
 7. Aptitude: Aptitude is natural ability. It is a condition in which an individuals ability to acquire
certain skills, knowledge through training.
8. Attitude: It is a way of thinking. The attitude of the student must be tested to find out how
much inclination he or she has for learning a subject or topic.
9. Emotional conditions: Emotions are physiological states of being. Students who answer a
question properly or give good results should be praised. This encouragement increases
their ability and helps them produce better results. Certain attitudes, such as always finding
fault in a student's answer or provoking or embarrassing the student in front of a class are
counterproductive.
10. Speed, Accuracy and retention: Speed is the rapidity of movement. Retention is the act of
retaining. These 3 elements depend upon aptitude, attitude, interest, attention and
motivation of the students.
11. Learning activities: Learning depends upon the activities and experiences provided by the
teacher, his concept of discipline, methods of teaching and above all his overall personality.
12. Testing: Various tests measure individual learner differences at the heart of effective
learning. Testing helps eliminate subjective elements of measuring pupil differences and
performances.
13. Guidance: Everyone needs guidance in some part or some time in life. Some need it
constantly and some very rarely depending on the students conditions. Small learners need
more guidance. Guidance is an advice to solve a problem. Guidance involves the art of
helping boys and girls in various aspects of academics, improving vocational aspects like
choosing careers and recreational aspects like choosing hobbies. Guidance covers the
whole gamut of learners problems- learning as well as non- learning.
Epigenetic factors[edit]
Further information: Epigenetics in learning and memory
The underlying molecular basis of learning appears to be dynamic changes in gene
expression occurring in brain neurons that are introduced by epigenetic mechanisms. Epigenetic
regulation of gene expression involves, most notably, chemical modification of DNA or DNA-
associated histone proteins. These chemical modifications can cause long lasting changes in gene
expression. Epigenetic mechanisms involved in learning include
the methylation and demethylation of neuronal DNA as well as methylation, acetylation and
deacetylation of neuronal histone proteins.
During learning, information processing in the brain involves induction of oxidative modification in
neuronal DNA followed by the employment of DNA repair processes that introduce epigenetic
alterations. In particular, the DNA repair processes of non-homologous end joining and base
excision repair are employed in learning and memory formation.[61][62]

In animal evolution[edit]
Animals gain knowledge in two ways. First is learning—in which an animal gathers information about
its environment and uses this information. For example, if an animal eats something that hurts its
stomach, it learns not to eat that again. The second is innate knowledge that is genetically inherited.
An example of this is when a horse is born and can immediately walk. The horse has not learned
this behavior; it simply knows how to do it.[63] In some scenarios, innate knowledge is more beneficial
than learned knowledge. However, in other scenarios the opposite is true—animals must learn
certain behaviors when it is disadvantageous to have a specific innate behavior. In these situations,
learning evolves in the species.

Costs and benefits of learned and innate knowledge[edit]

In a changing environment, an animal must constantly gain new information to survive. However, in
a stable environment, this same individual needs to gather the information it needs once, and then
rely on it for the rest of its life. Therefore, different scenarios better suit either learning or innate
knowledge. Essentially, the cost of obtaining certain knowledge versus the benefit of already having
it determines whether an animal evolved to learn in a given situation, or whether it innately knew the
information. If the cost of gaining the knowledge outweighs the benefit of having it, then the animal
does not evolve to learn in this scenario—but instead, non-learning evolves. However, if the benefit
of having certain information outweighs the cost of obtaining it, then the animal is far more likely to
evolve to have to learn this information.[63]
Non-learning is more likely to evolve in two scenarios. If an environment is static and change does
not or rarely occurs, then learning is simply unnecessary. Because there is no need for learning in
this scenario—and because learning could prove disadvantageous due to the time it took to learn
the information—non-learning evolves. However, if an environment is in a constant state of change,
then learning is disadvantageous. Anything learned is immediately irrelevant because of the
changing environment.[63] The learned information no longer applies. Essentially, the animal would be
just as successful if it took a guess as if it learned. In this situation, non-learning evolves. In fact, a
study of Drosophila melanogaster showed that learning can actually lead to a decrease in
productivity, possibly because egg-laying behaviors and decisions were impaired by interference
from the memories gained from the new learned materials or because of the cost of energy in
learning.[64]
However, in environments where change occurs within an animal's lifetime but is not constant,
learning is more likely to evolve. Learning is beneficial in these scenarios because an animal
can adapt to the new situation, but can still apply the knowledge that it learns for a somewhat
extended period of time. Therefore, learning increases the chances of success as opposed to
guessing.[63] An example of this is seen in aquatic environments with landscapes subject to change.
In these environments, learning is favored because the fish are predisposed to learn the specific
spatial cues where they live.[65]

In plants[edit]
In recent years, plant physiologists have examined the physiology of plant behavior and cognition.
The concepts of learning and memory are relevant in identifying how plants respond to external
cues, a behavior necessary for survival. Monica Gagliano, an Australian professor of evolutionary
ecology, makes an argument for associative learning in the garden pea, Pisum sativum. The garden
pea is not specific to a region, but rather grows in cooler, higher altitude climates. Gagliano and
colleagues‘ 2016 paper aims to differentiate between innate phototropism behavior and learned
behaviors.[21] Plants use light cues in various ways, such as to sustain their metabolic needs and to
maintain their internal circadian rhythms. Circadian rhythms in plants are modulated by endogenous
bioactive substances that encourage leaf-opening and leaf-closing and are the basis of nyctinastic
behaviors.[66]
Gagliano and colleagues constructed a classical conditioning test in which pea seedlings were
divided into two experimental categories and placed in Y-shaped tubes.[21] In a series of training
sessions, the plants were exposed to light coming down different arms of the tube. In each case,
there was a fan blowing lightly down the tube in either the same or opposite arm as the light. The
unconditioned stimulus (US) was the predicted occurrence of light and the conditioned stimulus (CS)
was the wind blowing by the fan. Previous experimentation shows that plants respond to light by
bending and growing towards it through differential cell growth and division on one side of the plant
stem mediated by auxin signalling pathways.[67]
During the testing phase of Gagliano's experiment, the pea seedlings were placed in different Y-
pipes and exposed to the fan alone. Their direction of growth was subsequently recorded. The
‗correct‘ response by the seedlings was deemed to be growing into the arm where the light was
―predicted‖ from the previous day. The majority of plants in both experimental conditions grew in a
direction consistent with the predicted location of light based on the position of the fan the previous
day.[21] For example, if the seedling was trained with the fan and light coming down the same arm of
the Y-pipe, the following day the seedling grew towards the fan in the absence of light cues despite
the fan being placed in the opposite side of the Y-arm. Plants in the control group showed no
preference to a particular arm of the Y-pipe. The percentage difference in population behavior
observed between the control and experimental groups is meant to distinguish innate phototropism
behavior from active associative learning.[21]
While the physiological mechanism of associative learning in plants is not known, Telewski et al.
describes a hypothesis that describes photoreception as the basis of mechano-perception in
plants.[68] One mechanism for mechano-perception in plants relies on MS ion channels and calcium
channels. Mechanosensory proteins in cell lipid bilayers, known as MS ion channels, are activated
once they are physically deformed in response to pressure or tension. Ca2+ permeable ion channels
are ―stretch-gated‖ and allow for the influx of osmolytes and calcium, a well-known second
messenger, into the cell. This ion influx triggers a passive flow of water into the cell down its osmotic
gradient, effectively increasing turgor pressure and causing the cell to depolarize.[68] Gagliano
hypothesizes that the basis of associative learning in Pisum sativum is the coupling of
mechanosensory and photosensory pathways and is mediated by auxin signaling pathways. The
result is directional growth to maximize a plant's capture of sunlight.[21]
Gagliano et al. published another paper on habituation behaviors in the mimosa pudica plant
whereby the innate behavior of the plant was diminished by repeated exposure to a
stimulus.[13] There has been controversy around this paper and more generally around the topic of
plant cognition. Charles Abrahmson, a psychologist and behavioral biologist, says that part of the
issue of why scientists disagree about whether plants have the ability to learn is that researchers do
not use a consistent definition of "learning" and "cognition".[69] Similarly, Michael Pollan, an author
and journalist, says in his piece The Intelligent Plant that researchers do not doubt Gagliano's data
but rather her language, specifically her use of the term ―learning‖ and "cognition" with respect to
plants.[70] A direction for future research is testing whether circadian rhythms in plants modulate
learning and behavior and surveying researchers' definitions of ―cognition‖ and ―learning.‖

Machine learning[edit]
This section needs
expansion. You can help
by adding to it. (February 2020)

Robots can learn to cooperate.

Main article: Machine learning

Machine learning, a branch of artificial intelligence, concerns the construction and study of systems
that can learn from data. For example, a machine learning system could be trained on email
messages to learn to distinguish between spam and non-spam messages.

See also[edit]
 21st century skills – Skills that have been identified as being required for success in 21st century
 Epistemology – Branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge
 Implicit learning
 Instructional theory – A theory that offers explicit guidance on how to better help people learn
and develop
 Learning sciences – Interdisciplinary field to further scientific understanding of learning
 Lifelong learning
 Living educational theory – A method in educational research
 Media psychology
 Subgoal labeling
Information theory[edit]
 Algorithmic information theory
 Algorithmic probability
 Bayesian inference – Method of statistical inference
 Inductive logic programming
 Inductive probability – Determining the probability of future events based on past events
 Information theory
 Minimum description length
 Minimum message length – Formal information theory restatement of Occam's Razor
 Occam's razor – Philosophical principle of selecting the solution with the fewest assumptions
 Solomonoff's theory of inductive inference
 Universal artificial intelligence
Types of education[edit]
 Andragogy
 Heutagogy
 Pedagogy – Theory and practice of education

Notes[edit]
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