Locomotion and Movement

Chapter
y Movement is one of the significant characteristics
of living organisms.
y An act of moving an external body part (change
Definition
in posture) or an internal body part by applying
an internal force, i.e., force generated within the
body of an organism is called movement (vital Movement (in living organisms):
movement). An act of moving an internal
y Movement of the fingers for writing, forward or external body part is called
bending of the spine to pick an object, clapping, movement.
facial muscle movements for expression of
emotions, etc., are some of the examples of
movement in external body parts, whereas
movement in the wall of alimentary canal for
forward pushing of food, movement of thoracic
chamber during ventilation, movement of the
wall of uterus during parturition, etc., are some
examples involving movement of internal body
parts in human beings.
y Non-living objects also show movements. But
these movements are induced or imposed on
them, i.e., movements of non-living objects
occur due to external forces applied on them,
e.g., movement of an automobile is induced by
its engine, movement of wet clothes on a wire by
wind, movement of a toy by batteries, etc.
y A change in location of an organism, i.e.,
locomotion is possible only by movement of either
external body parts (hind limbs in human beings)
or locomotory organelles (cilia in Paramecium
and flagella in ). Locomotion is essential for an
organism to perform various activities like finding
food, shelter or mate, escaping from predators, Definition
seasonal migration etc.
y Thus, movement is possible without locomotion, Locomotion: An act of change in
Locomotion and Movement

but locomotion is not possible without movement. an organism’s location is called

locomotion.

1.
 TYPES OF MOVEMENT IN HUMAN BEINGS
The following types of movements are shown by
different cells in the human body:
y Cytoplasmic Movement or Cyclosis
⚪ Materials involved in metabolic reactions are
distributed inside a eukaryotic cell due to
continuous movement of its cytoplasm.
⚪ Activities of cytoskeletal elements
like microtubules, actin filaments and
intermediate filaments and changes in the
sol-gel state within the cell are responsible
for this movement.
⚪ Such cytoplasmic movement or streaming
also helps in the change of shape of the cell
by generating pseudopodia.
y Pseudopodial Movement
⚪ Outward extensions of the cell membrane
along with the cytoplasm in a eukaryotic
cell makes structures called as pseudopodia
(false feet).
⚪ These pseudopodia are responsible for
locomotion and movements related to
capturing of foreign bodies in many human
cells like macrophages and neutrophils
(phagocytes).
⚪ Pseudopodial movement is also called
amoeboid movement as locomotion and
food capture in Amoeba is brought about by
generation of pseudopodia.
y Ciliary Movements
⚪ Cilia are short, hair-like locomotory organelles
which occur numerously in many prokaryotic
(bacteria) and eukaryotic (Paramecium) cells.
⚪ The cilia beat actively (dependent on ATPase
Locomotion and Movement

activity) in a coordinated manner from basal

body to the tip by sliding movement of
microtubules in their axonemes.
⚪ This coordinated beating of cilia creates a
current to move materials present on the
luminal surface of cells in one direction.

2.
 ⚪ In human body, cells containing cilia, perform
a wide range of functions. The human
respiratory tract contains about 107/mm2 of
cilia which functions to clean the respiratory
passage by moving the mucus (containing
trapped foreign particles) in outward direction
i.e., towards the nasal and oral cavity.
⚪ Fallopian tubes in human females have
an epithelium of ciliated and non-ciliated
cells. Cilia are also found in the cells of the Definitions
endometrium. The presence of cilia in the
female reproductive tract aids in transport of Endometrium: Inner lining of
secondary oocyte to the isthmus-ampullary the uterus.
junction (fertilization site in fallopian tube) Ependymal cells: Ependymal
and in the movement of zygote towards the cells are ciliated squamous
uterus. The uterine cilia help the sperms to or columnar cells forming an
travel up to the fallopian tubes. epithelial layer which lines the
⚪ Similarly, cilia present in the rete testis and ventricles of the brain and the
vasa efferentia of the male reproductive central canal of the spinal cord.
system helps in the movement of spermatozoa Ependymal cells are a type of
to reach epididymis. neuroglial cells.
⚪ In the brain ventricles, the cerebrospinal fluid
is circulated by the beating of cilia present on
the surfaces of ependymal cells.
y Flagellar Movements:
⚪ Although structurally same, flagella differ
with cilia in number and size. These are long,
filamentous or thread-like cell organelles
which are comparatively less in number.
⚪ The undulating, wave-like slow flagellar
movement is shown by the tail of human
sperms. The sliding of microtubules in the
axoneme of sperm’s tail produces flagellar
movement which gives motility to the sperms
Locomotion and Movement

to move in the female reproductive tract.

y Muscular Movements:
⚪ All muscles present in human body have an
ability to shorten forcefully by contracting
themselves when stimulated by signals
coming from the nervous system.

3.
 ⚪ Depending on their location, voluntary
muscles contract to pull a bone which either
produces a change in the body posture or
helps in locomotion of the organism, e.g.,
movement of forelimbs and hindlimbs. Rack your Brain
⚪ Involuntary muscles associated with the
visceral organs help in the movement of
Muscles present in the wall of
food, blood, urine, etc. within the body e.g.,
blood vessels are voluntary or
contraction of muscular layer in the wall
involuntary?
of alimentary canal which causes forward
movement of food in its lumen.
Locomotion and Movement

4.
 THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
y In human beings, locomotion and movement of
body parts are brought about by coordinated
activity of the human muscular system, nervous
system, and skeletal system. Gray Matter Alert!!!
y The muscular system consists of different types
of muscles which work in close association with y Largest muscle: Gluteus
the skeletal system to produces movements maximus
like running, writing, standing, sitting, walking, y Smallest muscle: Stapedius
bending, etc. y Longest muscle: Sartorius
y Strongest muscle: Masseter
MUSCLES y Hardest working muscle:
y Muscles originate from the embryonic mesoderm. Heart
y All muscles present in the muscular system are y Busiest muscle: Extraocular
made up of specialized cells called as muscle muscles (eye muscles)
fibres.
y These fibres have special properties like
contractibility, excitability, and conductivity by
which they bring about movement in the body.
y There are more than 600 muscles in the body
contributing about 40% of the total body weight.
y The contraction and relaxation of muscles bring
about various activities in the human body like
speaking, mobility of body parts, maintenance of
body posture, breathing, circulation by beating
of heart, vision, regulation of body temperature, Gray Matter Alert!!!
urination, movement of food for digestion,
childbirth, etc. Skeletal muslce fibres can
stretch to as much as three
Characteristics of Muscles times their contracted length.
y Contractability: A muscle fibre has an ability to
contract on receiving a stimulus from a nerve. The
contraction of muscles is due to the presence of
contractile proteins like actin and myosin in their
Locomotion and Movement

sarcoplasm.
y Excitability: The property of a muscle fibre to
respond to different stimuli is called excitability.
A muscle can be excited to contract by chemical,
nervous, electrical or mechanical stimuli.

5.
 y Conductivity: The spread of a stimulus received
by a muscle fibre to all its parts is called
conductivity.
y Threshold stimulus: To contact, a muscle fibre
should receive a stimulus of a specific strength.
This is called a threshold stimulus. A stimulus
with lower strength or intensity than the
threshold stimulus will not be able to produce
contraction in a muscle.
y Bowditch’s Law (All or None Law): According
to this law, a muscle fibre will not contract on Keywords
receiving a stimulus below its threshold stimulus
and will show maximum contraction in response Š Contractability
to the threshold stimulus irrespective of the Š Excitability
strength or intensity of the stimulus. Because of Š Conductivity
this property of a muscle fibres, this law is also Š Extensibility
called as all or none law. Š Elasticity
y Muscle Twitch: When stimulated by a single
stimulus equivalent to or greater than the
threshold stimulus, a muscle fibre show single
contraction. This quick, single contraction of a
muscle fibre is called as a muscle twitch.

A muscle twitch occurs in three phases:

⚪ Latent Phase: This period is characterised
by conversion of stimulus into chemical
excitation, and it’s spread throughout the
muscle fibre. It is about 0.01 seconds in Rack your Brain
skeletal fibres.
⚪ Contraction Phase: The period for which the What causes muscles twitching?
muscle fibre remains contracted is called the
contraction phase. It is about 0.04 seconds in
skeletal muscle fibres.
⚪ Relaxation Phase: It is the period required
Locomotion and Movement

by a muscle fibre to come back to its resting

state. It is about 0.05 seconds for a skeletal
muscle.
y Refractory Period: The resting period during
which a muscle fibre does not respond to a
second stimulus after the previous excitation.

6.
 It is about 0.002-0.005 second in the skeletal
muscles.
y Summation: On receiving a weak stimulus, the
smaller motor units of a muscle are stimulated
first as compared to the larger motor units.
As the strength of the stimuli increases, larger
motor units are then stimulated causing the
muscle to contract. This is phenomenon is called Previous Year’s Question
as summation or the size principle. This occurs
because the small motor neurons in the spinal The muscular contraction in
cord have more excitability than the larger motor which the tension remains the
neurons. This makes the smaller motor units same and the mechanical work is
to contract first followed by the contraction in also done is called
the larger motor units. Also, the different motor (1) isotonic contraction
units contract alternately thus, providing smooth (2) tetanus
contraction even at low frequencies of nervous (3) isometric contraction
stimuli. (4) single muscle twitch
y Extensibility: The ability of muscles to get
stretched to a small degree is called as
extensibility.
y Elasticity: The property of a muscle to go to its
original length when relaxed is called elasticity.
y Muscle tone or Muscle tonus: To maintain body
posture and health of a muscle, certain muscle
fibres always undergo alternate contraction even
in a relaxed state which create muscle tension
at rest. This property of muscles is called as
muscle tone. It enables a muscle to respond to a
stimulus quickly.
y Tetanus (Muscle Tetanus): When a motor nerve
provides stimulus at a rapid rate to the muscle
it innervates, there is a continuous or sustained
contraction produced in the muscle. Such a state
of contraction is called tetanus.
Locomotion and Movement

y Muscle Tension: Muscle tension is the force

generated by a muscle when it contracts. There
are two types of muscle tensions:
⚪ Isometric Contraction: In an isometric
contraction, the muscle contracts against a
load without shortening its length. It occurs

7.
 when the load is greater than the force
(muscle tension) generated by the contraction
of the muscle, e.g., pushing against a wall.
⚪ Isotonic Contraction: In an isotonic
contraction, the muscle contracts and
shortens against a load. It occurs when
the force generated on contraction of the
muscle is greater than the load, whereas the
load remains the same throughout muscle
contraction (fixed load), e.g., lifting a weight.

Table. Differences between Isometric and Isotonic Contraction

Isometric Contraction Isotonic Contraction

Length of the muscle does not change,

Length of the muscle changes, i.e.,
i.e., shortening of the muscle fibre
the muscle shortens.
does not occur.

The load is greater than the muscle

The load is fixed
tension

Visible movement in body part

Muscle tension is produced without
without any change in the muscle
any visible movement in the body part
tension

Example: Pushing against a wall Example: Lifting a weight

y Muscle Fatigue
Locomotion and Movement

⚪ The inability of a muscle to continue producing Rack your Brain

the same force of contraction after been
active over a long period of time.
Why do muscles fatigue faster
⚪ Muscle initially use aerobic respiration to
after an intense exercise session?
generate energy to contract. After prolonged
contraction, when the oxygen becomes
limiting, the muscle switch to anaerobic

8.
 respiration to fulfil the energy requirement for
further contraction.
⚪ Lactic acid is produced during anaerobic
respiration which accumulates in the muscle
cells to cause fatigue.
⚪ Fatigued muscles experience pain. The site of
fatigue is the junction between motor nerve
endings and the muscle fibres.
⚪ A muscle can experience fatigue due to the
absence of oxygen, loss of nutrients supply,
accumulation of lactic acid or absence of
glycogen.
⚪ More oxygen is consumed during strenuous
exercise as compared to slow movement of
body.
y Rigor Mortis:
⚪ After death, the cellular metabolism in the
muscle fibres comes to a rest, due to which
ATPs are not produced any further.
⚪ Absence of ATP does not allow the
actin-myosin complexes to separate in a
muscle fibre.
⚪ Thus, once contracted (due to actin-myosin
interaction) the muscles fail to relax.
⚪ This rigidity or stiffening of muscles after
death is called rigor mortis.
⚪ It usually disappears as protein degradation
starts about 24 hours after death.
y Treppe (Staircase Effect):
⚪ When a muscle starts to contract, the
initial muscle contraction is of less strength
and compared to the strength of the later
contractions. This gradual increase in the
strength of muscle contractions is called
Locomotion and Movement

treppe. The primary cause of staircase effect

is the gradual increase in release of calcium
ions from sarcoplasmic reticulum and slow
restoration of the ions immediately.
y Origin and Insertion:
⚪ The end of a muscle which is attached to a
fixed or less movable bone is called its origin.

9.
 ⚪ The end of a muscle which is attached to a
movable bone is called its insertion.
y Tendons:
⚪ Fibrous connective tissue which is made up
of collagen and functions to attach a muscle
to a bone.
⚪ Acilles tendon is the largest and strongest
tendon in the body which connects the calf
muscles to the calcaneus bone (heel bone).
y Motor Unit:
⚪ A motor unit comprises a single motor nerve
which leaves the spinal cord and divides into
branches to innervate many muscle fibres to
make them contract simultaneously.
⚪ On an average, about 80-100 muscle fibres
may be present in a motor unit.

Definition

Motor Unit: Functional unit

of a muscle, consisting of all
the muscle fibres which are
innervated by a single motor
nerve fibre is called a motor
unit.

⚪ Small muscles that contract rapidly show

presence of more nerve fibres in them as
compared to the number of muscles fibres,
Locomotion and Movement

whereas large muscles which require less

fine control, show hundreds of muscle fibres
in a motor unit.
y Hypertrophy:
⚪ The condition involving an overall increase in
the total mass of a muscle.

10.
 ⚪ This occurs due to increase in number of actin
and myosin filaments in each muscle fibre,
resulting in an increase in size of individual
muscle fibre of a muscle (fibre hypertrophy).
⚪ Significant muscular hypertrophy is visible
within 6-10 weeks by only few strong muscular
contractions each day.
y Atrophy:
⚪ Reduction in the total mass of a muscle is Gray Matter Alert!!!
called atrophy.
⚪ It occurs when there is decrease in the size of Ubiquitin is a protein which
individual muscle fibres. specifically labels muscle cells
⚪ If a muscle is not used for many weeks, its to be targeted for proteasomal
contractile proteins undergo degradation degradation.
by large protein complexes called as
proteasomes which perform proteolysis of
unneeded proteins.

TYPES OF MUSCLES
y Muscles are classified based on their location
and functions.
y Based on the location, there are three types of
muscles: skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles.

Skeletal Muscles
y Skeletal muscles are associated with the skeletal
system and so they are found along with bones
of forelimbs and hindlimbs e.g., biceps, triceps,
quadriceps, hamstrings etc. These are also
present in upper part of oesophagus, pharynx
and tongue.
y These are controlled by the central nervous
system (used as per the will of human beings).
Thus, skeletal muscles are also called as
Locomotion and Movement

voluntary muscles.
y Structurally, these muscles are made up of
elongated, cylindrical, multinucleate (syncytial)
and unbranched muscle cells or muscle fibres
which are enclosed by a membrane of sarcolemma
over their cell membrane.

11.
 y Each muscle fibre consists of myofibrils having
striated appearance due to the presence of light
and dark bands. Thus, skeletal muscles are also
called as striated muscles.
y Skeletal muscles show rapid contractions and
fatigue faster.

Smooth Muscles
y Smooth muscles are associated with the
visceral organs of the body, e.g., urinary bladder,
intestine, diaphragm, walls of blood vessels,
walls of intestine, lower part of oesophagus,
stomach, arrector pilli muscle of hair, iris of eye
etc. Therefore, these muscles are also named as
visceral organs.
y These muscles are controlled by the autonomic
nervous system. Thus, smooth muscles are also
called as involuntary muscles.
y Structurally, these muscles are made up
elongated, spindle-shaped, uninucleate and
unbranched muscle fibres and their cell
membrane is not enclosed by sarcolemma.
y Smooth muscles are also called unstriated
muscles, since the muscle fibres do not contain
light and dark bands.
y Smooth muscles show slow contractions and do
not fatigue easily.

Cardiac Muscles
y Cardiac muscles are present in the human heart.
y The signals for contraction of cardiac muscles
are generated within the heart (myogenic). Thus,
these muscles are also involuntary in nature.
Although, stimuli from the central nervous system
Locomotion and Movement

and autonomous nervous system can alter the

heartbeat.
y Structurally, the cardiac muscles consist of
elongated, cylindrical, uninucleate and branched
muscle fibres. Such muscle fibres are not
enclosed by sarcolemma.

12.
y Certain lateral branches, called oblique bridges
join the cylindrical cardiac muscle fibres for Previous Year’s Question
faster spread of the signals of contraction.
y These muscles are also striated because of the
Muscles of the heart are
presence of light and dark bands. At intervals,
(1) voluntary, striated
special areas of cell membrane of two adjacent
(2) voluntary, smooth
muscle fibres make dark intercalated discs
(3) involuntary, striated
which help to transmit contraction signals from
(4) involuntary, smooth
one cardiac muscle cell to another.
y Cardiac muscles show rapid contractions and do
not fatigue.

Table. Differences between Skeletal, Smooth and Cardiac Muscle Fibres

Skeletal Muscle Fibres Smooth Muscle Fibres Cardiac Muscle Fibres

Associated with skeletal Associated with visceral Associated with

system organs heart

Cylindrical Spindle-shaped Cylindrical

Branched (Oblique
Unbranched Unbranched
bridges)

Multinucleate (Syncytial) Uninucleate Uninucleate

Striated (with light and Unstriated (with

Unstriated
dark bands) intercalated discs)
Locomotion and Movement

Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary

Fatigue faster Do not Fatigue Do not Fatigue

13.
 Skeletal Muscle Fibres Smooth Muscle Fibres Cardiac Muscle Fibres

Examples: Muscles in the

Examples: Muscles urinary tract, diaphragm,
associated with bones walls of blood vessels,
like biceps, triceps, walls of intestine, lower Example: Muscles of
quadriceps, upper part of part of oesophagus, heart
oesophagus, pharynx and stomach, arrector pilli
tongue etc. muscle of hair, iris of eye
etc.

Red and White Muscles

There are two types of skeletal muscles, red and
white.

Red Muscle Fibres (Slow or Tonic Muscle Fibbers)

y Red muscle fibres contain large amounts of
myoglobin, an iron containing protein which Definition
functions like haemoglobin present in the RBCs.
Presence of myoglobin gives the characteristic Myogenic: Contraction signals
red colour to these muscle fibres. Oxygen binds originating from muscles tissue.
with myoglobin to form oxymyoglobin and remain
stored in the fibres to be used during muscle
contractions.
y They are highly vascularised i.e., the red muscle
fibres have an extensive blood vascular system
where numerous capillaries supply extra amounts
of oxygen.
y In size, these fibres are small and thinner than
the fast fibres. Rack your Brain
y There is a presence of increased number of
mitochondria to generate more energy in the Why do muscles get fatigue?
Locomotion and Movement

form of ATP.
y Slow fibres do not have an elaborate system of
sarcoplasmic reticulum.
y Mostly aerobic respiration occurs in these muscle
fibres. Therefore, production of lactic acid is very
less.

14.
y Thus, these fibres can contract for a considerably
longer periods (slow and sustained contraction)
without getting fatigued.
y Glycogen is not stored in these fibres to much
extend.
y Examples: Red muscle fibres are more developed
in runners and cyclists. The extensor muscle
(back muscle) in humans consist of slow muscle
fibres to remaining active for long hours to keep
the body erect.
y These muscle fibres are also present in the long
and slow flying birds like kites and migratory
birds like Siberian cranes.

White Muscle Fibres (Fast or Twitch Muscle

Fibres):
y These muscle fibres are named white muscle
fibres as they are deficit of myoglobin and thus,
are pale-yellow colour.
y The white muscle fibres are less extensively
supplied with blood capillaries, thus showing the
secondary importance of oxidative metabolism in
these fibres.
y The fast muscle fibres are longer and thicker as
compared to the slow muscle fibres.
y An extensive system of sarcoplasmic reticulum is
present in the fast muscle fibres to release large
amounts of calcium ions for initiation of muscle
contraction.
y Fast muscle fibres mostly generate energy by
the process of anaerobic glycolysis, thereby
producing and accumulating more lactic acid. Rack your Brain
y Thus, these muscle fibres can contract for
shorter time periods (fast contraction) and get
Locomotion and Movement

Why are muscles red in colour?

fatigue much faster.
y Glycogen is stored in these fibres as energy
source.
y Examples: White muscle fibres are more in
athletes performing sprints or short distance
running. Muscles used to move eyeballs in
humans have white fibres.

15.
 y These fibres are present in birds which fly
fast but for a short distance like sparrow.
Table. Differences between Red and White Muscle Fibres

Red Muscle Fibres White Muscle Fibres

Decreased amount of myoglobin

Abundant myoglobin present
present

Dark red colour Pale-yellow colour

Smaller and thinner Larger and thicker

Abundant mitochondria present Less amount of mitochondria present

Highly vascularised to supply more

Supplied with less blood vessels
oxygen to mitochondria

Extensive system of sarcoplasmic

Sarcoplasmic reticulum less in number
reticulum present

More calcium ions released in

Less calcium ions released in sarcoplasm
sarcoplasm

Aerobic respiration occurs to liberate Anaerobic respiration occurs to

energy liberate energy

Less production and accumulation of More production and accumulation of

Locomotion and Movement

lactic acid lactic acid

Contract for a longer period (slow and

Contract for short duration
sustained contraction)

Slow rate of contraction Fast rate of contraction

16.
 Red Muscle Fibres White Muscle Fibres

Do not get fatigued easily Get fatigued very soon

Example: Marathon runners Example: Sprinters

Types of Muscles According to the Functions

y Flexor: Muscles which bends of a part over
another, e.g., biceps for the movement of hand
to mouth for feeding.
y Extensor: Straightening of a bent part, e.g., triceps
for the movement of hand away from mouth.
y Adductor: It brings the limbs towards midline or
axis of the body, e.g., latissimus dorsi (brings the
arms towards body).
y Abductor: It pulls the limbs away from midline
or axis of body, e.g., deltoid (pulls the arm away
from body).
y Pronator: It rotates the forearm to turn the palm
downward or backward, e.g., pronator quadratus
in the forearm.
y Supinator: It rotates the forearm to turn the
palm upward or forward e.g., Supinator in human
forelimbs.
y Depressor: It lowers a body organ, e.g., depressor
mandibularis (moves lower jaw downwards for
opening of the mouth).
y Elevator or Levator: It raises a part of the body,
e.g., masseter (raises the lower jaw upwards to
close the mouth).
y Sphincter (Constrictor): It closes an opening or
Locomotion and Movement

aperture, e.g., sphincter ani (closes the anus).

y Rotator: It rotates the part of a body, e.g.,
pyriformis (raises and rotates the thigh in many
directions).
y Invertor: It turns the sole inwards.
y Evertor: It turns the sole outwards.

17.
 Antagonistic Muscles
y A pair of muscles present over the same
joint which on contraction produce opposite
movements are called antagonistic muscles.
y The two antagonistic muscles do not contract
Definition
simultaneously but do so alternately.
y Example: Biceps and triceps for allowing elbow
movement. Biceps is a flexor muscle which Antagonistic Muscles: A pair
lies in front of humerus. Triceps is an extensor of muscles present over the
muscle which lies behind humerus. Contraction same joint which on contraction
of biceps raises the forearm, while contraction of produce opposite movements
triceps causes straightening of forearm. are called antagonistic muscles.

DETAILED STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLES

y A whole skeletal muscle is covered externally
by a sheath of connective tissue called the
epimysium.
y Under the epimysium, many muscle bundles or
fasciculi are present having a large number of
muscle fibres.
y Each muscle bundle or fasciculus has an outer
connective tissue covering called the perimysium.
y Each muscle fibre (about 10-80 mm in diameter)
present inside a fasciculus is further surrounded
by a thin connective tissue layer called the
endomysium.
y On the outer surface, a skeletal muscle cell is lined
by sarcolemma which encloses the muscle cell’s
cytoplasm or the sarcoplasm. Since, a skeletal
muscle cell has a multinucleated sarcoplasm, it
is also called as a syncytium.
y Besides many nuclei arranged towards the
periphery, the sarcoplasm also contains agranular
endoplasmic reticulum (sarcoplasmic reticulum)
Locomotion and Movement

that helps in storage of large amount of calcium

ions for muscular contraction, abundant
mitochondria to produce ATP, glycogen, lipid
droplets, myoglobin, and myofibrils.
y Large number of parallelly arranged filaments
called myofibrils or myofilaments are present
in the sarcoplasm which make a complex of
contractile proteins.

18.
 Previous Year’s Question

What is a sarcomere?
(1) Part between two A-line
(2) Part between two I-line
(3) Part between two Z-line
(4) Part between two H-line

Previous Year’s Question

The functional unit of contractile

system in striated muscle is—
(1) Sarcomere
(2) Z-Band
(3) Cross bridges
(4) Myofibril

y Each myofibril bears alternate light and dark

Locomotion and Movement

bands on it.
y Dark bands are doubly refractive under
polarised light. They are called anisotropic
or A-bands and contain contractile proteins
called myosin.
y Light bands are non-refractive in polarised
light. They are called isotropic or I-bands
and are made up of actin, tropomyosin, and
troponin proteins.
19.
 y Both actin and myosin are polymerised proteins
which are positioned longitudinally along the axis
of the myofibrils and are parallel to each other.
y Accordingly, there are two types of myofibrils or
myofilaments in a muscle fibre which are arranged
parallel to each other, i.e., thick myofilaments Previous Year’s Question
and thin myofilaments.
y Thick myofilaments are made up of myosin
The H-zone in the skeletal muscle
proteins and thin myofilaments are made up
fibre is due to
of actin proteins along with tropomyosin and
(1) extension of myosin filaments
troponin.
in the central portion of the
y At the centre of A-band or thick myofilament, an
A-band
H-zone (Hensen’s zone) is present. An M-line is
(2) the absence of myofibrils in
present in the middle of the H-Zone.
the central portion of A-band
y At the centre of I-band or thin myofilament, a
(3) the central gap between
Z-line is present. Z-line, also called Z-disc or
myosin filaments in the
Krause’s membrane, is made of filamentous
A-band
proteins other than actin and myosin and passes
(4) the central gap between actin
crosswise across the myofibril and crosswise
filaments extending through
from one myofibril to another, all the way across
myosin filaments in the
the muscle fibre. Thus, the entire muscle cell
A-band
shows light and dark bands, as do the individual
myofibrils.
y The part of the myofibril between two successive
Z-lines is called sarcomere. Sarcomere is the
functional unit of muscle contraction.
y Each sarcomere is about 2mm in length in a
resting muscle fibre. Previous Year’s Question

Structure of Contractile Proteins Which of the following is the

y Thick (myosin) myofilaments are formed of many contractile protein of a muscle?
monomeric proteins called meromyosins. (1) Tropomyosin
y A myosin molecule has a molecular weight of (2) Tubulin
480,000 and consist of six polypeptide chains.
Locomotion and Movement

(3) Myosin
y There are two heavy polypeptide chains each (4) All of these
with a molecular weight of 200,000 which wrap
around each other to form a double helix. They
form heavy meromyosin or HMM.
y The rest four polypeptide chains are the light
chains with a molecular weight of 20,000 each.
They constitute light meromyosin or LMM.

20.
y Each heavy chain has one of its ends folded
Gray Matter Alert!!!
into a globular polypeptide structure called the
myosin head. Therefore, the double helix myosin
molecule has two free myosin heads at one end. There is no cross-bridge head
The other end makes its tail. in the centre of the thick
y Each myosin head is associated with two light myofilament for about 0.2 um
chains. Thus, two myosin heads bear four light as the hinged arms extend away
polypeptide chains. Tail is exclusively formed of from the centre.
HMM while, head is formed of both HMM and
LMM.

y Tails of the molecules are bundled together to

Locomotion and Movement

form the body of the myosin filament.

Definition
y Myosin heads along with a part of the myosin
body called ‘arm’ hang outward as cross-bridges
in all the directions from the thick filament. These Cross-bridge: Protruding arm
cross-bridges are flexible at two ends due to the and a head of a myosin together
presence of hinges. makes a cross-bridge.
y Myosin filaments of a sarcomere are connected
to one another in the region of their M-line. The
connections are called M-bridges.
21.
 y Free ends of myosin filaments are also attached
Gray Matter Alert!!!
to Z-discs by very fine filaments of protein titin.
y The globular myosin head act as an active
adenosine triphosphatase (ATPase) enzyme and Titin (one of the largest protein
has binding sites for ATP and actin protein. molecule in the human body)
y Thin (actin) filaments consist of two filamentous are filamentous proteins which
F-actins helically wrapped to each other. Each have a spring like property.
F-actin is a polymer made of monomers which They maintain the side-by-side
are in-turn made of a globular protein, G-actin. positional relationship between
G-actin bears active sites of ADP. These active myosin and active filaments.
sites stagger on the two F-actin strands and
appear as one active site on the actin filament
about every 2.7 nm. The cross-bridges on myosin
interact with these active sites.
Locomotion and Movement

22.
y Two filaments of another protein tropomyosin
form a double helix and present over the actin Previous Year’s Question
myofilament. In a relaxed muscle, the tropomyosin
proteins are placed over the active sites of the
The contractile protein of skeletal
actin filaments to avoid contact between actin
muscle involving ATPase activity
and myosin filaments. For contracting the muscle,
is
the tropomyosin experience conformational
(1) Troponin
changes that uncovers the active sites on the
(2) Tropomyosin
actin molecules.
(3) Myosin
y A complex of three loosely bound protein
(4) Actin
subunits called troponin keeps the active sites on
actin filament masked by attaching tropomyosin
to actin filament. Troponin I (TpI) binds to
actin, troponin T (TpT) to tropomyosin while,
troponin C (TpC) is a calcium-binding polypeptide.

Locomotion and Movement

23.
 Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
y The mechanism of muscle contraction was Previous Year’s Question
proposed independently by A.F. Huxley and H.E.
Huxley in 1954 as Sliding Filament Theory.
y According to sliding filament theory, for a muscle Which statement is correct for
to contract, myosin filaments must slide over muscle contraction?
actin filaments with the help of their lateral (1) H-zone decreases
heads called cross-bridges which results in a (2) Length of A-Band increases
decrease in the size of I-bands and narrowing (3) Length of I-Band increases
or even disappearing of H-zone, thus resulting in (4) Length of two Z lines
shortening of the sarcomere. increases
y There is no change in the size of A-band.
y The lengths of the thick myofilaments and the
thin myofilaments do not change.
Locomotion and Movement

24.
 Electrical and Biochemical Events in Muscle
Contraction
y For making a skeletal muscle contract, the
central nervous system sends signals via a motor
neuron.
y The neural signal reaches to the junction between
the motor neuron and the sarcolemma of the Gray Matter Alert!!!
muscle cell (neuro-muscular junction).
y Synaptic vesicles present in the nerve endings
Electrical and biochemical
releases neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the
events in muscle contraction
synaptic cleft (space between the nerve ending
were studied by Albert Szent
and the sarcolemma).
Gyorgi (1942).
y Acetylcholine interacts with the protein receptors
present on the sarcolemma and changes its
resting potential by allowing inward movement
of sodium ions and outward movement of
potassium ions across it, thus generating an
action potential.
y This action potential is transmitted via T-tubules
to sarcoplasmic reticulum and stimulate the
release of Ca2+ ions from the sarcoplasmic
reticulum. Gray Matter Alert!!!
y Ca2+ ions bind with troponin C (TpC), which in-
turn causes the tropomyosin to dissociate from In a muscle fibre, only 2–4
the actin filament, thereby exposing the active mM of ATP is present which
sites over actin filaments and activate heads of is quickly hydrolysed into ADP
myosin filaments to bind to these active sites. and inorganic phosphate during
y Activation of the myosin head is brought about by muscle contraction. Further
the activity of ATPase in the presence of calcium ATP molecules are then formed
ions and magnesium ions. ATPase enzyme breaks from creatine phosphate in
ATP into ADP and inorganic phosphate, which most vertebrates with the help
release energy in the myosin head. The energized of enzyme phosphokinase. Later,
myosin heads form cross-bridges to bind to ATP molecules are generated in
actin. the muscle cells due to aerobic
Locomotion and Movement

y The cross-bridges pull the attached actin respiration.

filaments towards the centre of A-band. The
actin filaments appear to slide over the myosin
filaments.
y The Z-lines, to which actin filaments are
attached, are also pulled inwards. This causes
the sarcomere to shorten.

25.
 y Decrease in the sarcomere results in the
contraction of the muscle. Previous Year’s Question
y There is no shortening of actin and myosin
filaments during muscle contraction, however,
During muscle contraction
the size of I-band and H-zone decreases.
(1) chemical energy is changed
y As a new ATP binds to the myosin head, the
into electrical energy
cross-bridge breaks to bring back the myosin
(2) chemical energy is changed
head in a relaxed state. The next contraction
into mechanical energy
will follow with subsequent hydrolyses of ATP by
(3) chemical energy is changed
the ATPase enzyme of the myosin head and the
into physical energy
entire cycle of cross-bridge formation and sliding
(4) mechanical energy is changed
of actin filaments over myosin filaments will be
into chemical energy
repeated.

y At the time of relaxation, Na+ – K+ pump becomes Previous Year’s Question

operational and restores the resting potential of
Electron microscopic studies of
the sarcolemma which makes the Ca2+ ions to
Locomotion and Movement

the sarcomeres have revealed

actively pass back into sarcoplasmic reticulum.
that during muscle contraction
y This makes the tropomyosin and troponin
(1) the width of A-band remains
molecules to again block the active sites on
constant
the actin filaments. ATPase of myosin head
(2) the width of the H-zone
is inactivated, and the I-bands return to their
becomes smaller
original size as the Z-lines move back to their
(3) the width of I-band increases
original position. This causes the muscles to
(4) the diameter of the fibre
relax.
increases
26.
 Cori’s Cycle y This cycle does not allow
y Carl Ferdinand Cori and Gerty Theresa Cori in significant amount of lactic acid
1947 proposed the Cori’s cycle which involved accumulation in the muscle fibres
cyclic movement of glucose between muscle and thus, protects the neuro-
fibres and liver cells. muscular junction and avoid
y During anaerobic respiration, lactic acid is prolonged muscle fatigue.
produced in muscle fibres. The accumulation of
lactic acid causes muscle fatigue.
y To avoid muscle fatigue, lactic acid is drained out
in the blood and transported in the hepatocytes, Definition
where majority of the lactic acid (about 80%)
is converted to glycogen by the process of Neuro-muscular junction: The
gluconeogenesis. junction between a nerve fibre
y The remaining 20% lactic acid is enzymatically and a muscle fibre is called
oxidized to water and carbon dioxide. It is neuro-muscular junction or
followed by hydrolysis of glycogen to glucose motor end plate.
which is drained in the blood to be transported
back to the muscles, where it again converts into
glycogen and is stored for future use.

Locomotion and Movement

27.
 Oxygen Debt
y While performing strenuous exercises, there is
a decrease in oxygen availability to the muscles
due to rapid consumption of oxygen to carry out Rack your Brain
aerobic respiration to generate more energy for
rapid contractions.
Regular exercise decreases
y To meet the increased oxygen demand, the
oxygen debt. Why?
muscles switch to anaerobic respiration and
produce lactic acid.
y The muscles also use oxygen from oxymyoglobin
and take up phosphate by dephosphorylation of
creatine phosphate.
y During relaxation or resting period, the extra
oxygen is made available to the fibres by
increasing the rate of breathing.
Gray Matter Alert!!!
y The consumption of extra oxygen after strenuous
exercises to recover is called oxygen debt of the
Dystrophin gene: DMD gene or
muscles.
dystrophin gene is the largest
y This extra oxygen is used in regenerating the
human gene which provides
oxymyoglobin, oxidizing the lactic acid and
information to make dystrophin
restoring the lost ATP and creatine phosphate.
protein.
Disorders of Muscular System
y Muscular Dystrophy
⚪ Muscular dystrophies are hereditary diseases
involving progressive weakness and damage
of skeleton muscles.
⚪ It occurs due to mutation in the dystrophin
gene present on the X-Chromosome. Definitions
⚪ Dystrophin protein is responsible for
connecting the cytoplasm to the extracellular Myotonia: It is a neuromuscular
matrix via the cell membrane of a muscle fibre. condition which involves
It relays contraction signals from the nerves impairment of muscle relaxation.
to the calcium storage of muscle fibres. Spasm: It is a sudden and
Locomotion and Movement

⚪ The absence of dystrophin does not allow involuntary contraction of

calcium ions to release from the sarcoplasmic muscle.
reticulum, thus, inhibiting muscle contraction. Cramp: It is an involuntary,
It also allows excess calcium ions to enter forcible and painful contraction
through the sarcolemma resulting in of a muscle that usually lasts
enzymatic destruction of contractile proteins. longer.
⚪ This results in weakness of muscle fibres
and eventually in their degradation. General

28.
 symptoms include progressive muscle
weakness, frequent falls, difficulty in running Previous Year’s Question
and jumping, muscle pain, delayed growth,
mental disabilities, etc.
Select the correct statement
⚪ There are different forms of muscular
with respect to disorders of
dystrophies depending on the age of onset,
muscles in humans
affected body parts and progressiveness of
(1) failure of neuromuscular
the disease.
transmission in myasthenia
⚪ Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy: It is the
gravis can prevent normal
most common and severe form of muscular
swallowing
dystrophy, mostly seen in young boys.
(2) accumulation of urea and
Symptoms include larger calf muscles,
creatine in the joints cause
weakening of leg muscles, curvature of the
their inflammation
spine, etc. Most patients die in their early 20s.
(3) an overdose of vitamin D
⚪ Becker’s Muscular Dystrophy: It is a milder
causes osteoporosis
form of muscular dystrophy affecting older
(4) rapid contractions of skeletal
boys. It shows slower progression. Symptoms
muscles causes muscle
are similar to Duchenne muscular dystrophy.
dystrophy
⚪ Myotonic dystrophy or Steinert’s disease:
This muscular dystrophy is characterised by
muscle stiffness and myotonia along with
muscle weakness. Patients show symptoms
like long thin faces, necks like a swan,
drooping eyelids, etc.
⚪ There is no permanent cure for muscular
dystrophy. However, the course of disease
can be retarded by medications.
y Myasthenia Gravis: It is an autoimmune disease
in which the body produces antibodies against
a transport protein associated with sodium
channels and is activated by neurotransmitter
acetylcholine. Thus, neural signals are not
transported at the neuro-muscular junctions
resulting in the absence of contraction in the
Locomotion and Movement

muscles. The muscles experience paralysis and

become weak.
y Tetany: Rapid involuntary contractions in muscles
due to decrease in calcium ion concentrations
(hypocalcemia) in the extracellular fluid. It is
characterised by spasms, cramps, muscular
twitching and hyperactive nervous reflexes
(hyperreflexia) etc.

29.
 HUMAN SKELETAL SYSTEM in the formation of blood
y The word skeleton corresponds to the hard, (haemopoiesis).
internal or external structures which provide y The cartilaginous rings
shape, support and protection to the body of an present in the trachea and
organism. bronchi avoid collapsing of
y External skeleton is called the exoskeleton, e.g., the respiratory airway.
nails and hair.
y Internal skeleton, also known as the endoskeleton,
consists of specialised connective tissue called
skeletal tissue which consists of cartilage and
bones of mesodermal origin.
y Bones provide attachment sites for skeletal
muscles. The voluntary muscles are attached to
bones by tendons. Thus, both the skeleton system
and muscular system work under the control of
neural system to bring about movement and
locomotion in human beings. Definition
y The skeletal system provides protection to
visceral organs of the body, e.g., brain is covered Tendon: A band of connective
by skull, lungs and heart are protected by the rib tissue with collagen fibres
cage, spinal cord is protected by the vertebral which connects a muscle to a
column, etc. bone.
y Bones also function to amplify sound waves
in the ear, store fat and minerals and help

Table. Difference Between Exoskeleton and Endoskeleton

Exoskeleton Endoskeleton

Skeleton present outside the body Skeleton present inside the body

Ectodermal in origin Mesodermal in origin

Locomotion and Movement

May restrict the growth of the animal

Does not restrict the growth.
(arthropods)

Provides protective framework to

Provides protective and structural
the body (invertebrates and lower
framework to the body.
vertebrates).

30.
 Locomotion and Movement

y The human skeleton is made of 206 bones which

are arranged into the axial and appendicular
skeleton.

31.
 AXIAL SKELETON
y The axial skeleton is present along the middle
longitudinal axis of the body.
y There are 80 bones in axial skeleton which
forms four different structures — skull, vertebral
column, sternum and ribs.

SKULL
y The skull forms the skeleton around the human Gray Matter Alert!!!
head and consists of 29 bones and four parts—
cranium, facial bones, hyoid bone and ear bones. In infants, the skull possesses
some incompletely ossified
soft regions called fontanelles
(fonticuli).

y The skull provides protection to the brain,

support to the eyes, throat and tongue, bears
nasal chambers, helps in mastication of food by
the jawbones, helps in receiving and amplifying
sound, etc.

Cranium
y Cranium is also called as the brain box as it
encloses and protects the brain.
Locomotion and Movement

y Bones which make the cranium are called as

cranial bone.
y There are 8 cranial bones which are joined
together by sutures. They include one frontal
bone, one occipital bone, one sphenoid bone,
one ethmoid bone, two parietal bones and two
temporal bones.

32.
y Posteriorly, the skull has an opening called
foramen magnum through which the brain Rack your Brain
connects with the spinal cord.
y Laterally, foramen magnum consists of two What causes nodding movement
protuberances called the occipital condyles of the head?
(dicondylic condition in human) which articulate
with the first cervical vertebra, the atlas by a
hinge joint.

Ear Ossicles
y Each middle ear has three small bones called as
the ear ossicles which help in sound amplification.
Ear Ossicles are helpful in the amplification of
sound by 20–22 times.
y Thus, there is a total of 6 ear bones namely, the
outer malleus (hammer shaped), the middle
incus (anvil shaped) and the innermost stapes
(stirrup shaped).

Facial Bones
y There are 14 bones which forms the skeletal
framework of the face.
y Facial bones include two zygomatic bones,
two nasal bones, two maxilla (upper jaw), two
lacrimal bones, two palatine bones, two inferior
nasal conchae, one mandible (lower jaw) and one
vomer.

Hyoid Bone
y Hyoid bone is also called as the tongue bone as
it is present at the base of tongue and above the
larynx.
y It does not articulate with any bone and provides
attachment site for certain muscles of tongue.
Locomotion and Movement

y Upper portion of hyoid bone is the greater cornu,

whereas its lower portion is called the lesser
cornu.

33.
 VERTEBRAL COLUMN
y The vertebral column is a collection of 33
vertebrae or 26 bones joined to each other by
intervertebral disc of fibrocartilage to form
two forward and two backward curves, which
occupies the mid-dorsal region of the human
body.
y These vertebrae collectively make the backbone Definition
of the human body.
Foramen: Oval opening in the
body for the passage of blood
vessels, nerves, etc., from one
place to another.

Previous Year’s Question

y All vertebrae show some common characteristics The vertebrae which bears the
like presence of an anteriorly placed centrum whole weight of the skull is
(a large, disc-like body) and the posteriorly (1) axis
positioned neural arch which surrounds a cavity (2) sacral
called the vertebral foramen. (3) cervical
y The vertebral foramina of 24 vertebrae together (4) atlas
makes the vertebral (neural) canal which encloses
the spinal cord.
y Neural arch has two rounded pedicles in front
Locomotion and Movement

and two flattened laminae at the back.

y A neural spine (spinous process) occurs dorsally
at the tip of neural arch, whereas two transverse
processes occur on the sides.
y Articular facets (articular processes) occur at the
bases of transverse processes. There are two
superior articular facets or pre-zygapophyses

34.
 and two inferior articular facets or post-
zygapophyses.
y Vertebral column is curved at four places which
form four curvatures to have a balanced body
posture.
y Cervical curvature is present in the neck region
and is anteriorly convex, whereas the thorax
curvature is present in the thoracic region and Previous Year’s Question
shows anterior concavity. Lumbar curvature can
be seen in the abdominal region and is anteriorly The number of vertebrae present
convex. The last curvature occurs in the pelvic in cervical, thoracic, lumbar,
region and is called as the sacral curvature which sacral and coccyx regions
shows anterior concavity. respectively are
(1) 12, 7, 5, 1, 1
(2) 1, 7, 5, 12, 1
(3) 7, 5, 1, 12, 1
(4) 7, 12, 5, 1, 1
(5) 5, 12, 7, 1, 1

Previous Year’s Question

Lumbar vertebrae are found in

(1) neck region
(2) abdominal region
(3) hip region
(4) thorax
Locomotion and Movement

35.
 y Vertebral column protects the spinal cord,
supports the head, provides the attachment site Previous Year’s Question
for ribs and girdles, allows forward and backward
bending due to the presence of inter-vertebral
Cervical vertebrae are located in
discs and provides a strong support for the
(1) thoracic region
suspension of visceral organs in the body cavity.
(2) abdominal region
y The vertebral column is made of five types of
(3) neck region
vertebral groups, namely, cervical vertebrae,
(4) lumbar region
thoracic vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae, sacrum
and coccyx (C7T12L5S5C4).

Cervical Vertebrae
y The cervical vertebrae are positioned in the neck
region and are seven in number.
y The first and the second cervical vertebrae are
called as atlas and axis respectively.

Previous Year’s Question

y Atlas has a reduced centrum and neural spine.

Locomotion and Movement

The major function of the

It also consists of concave superior articular
intervertebral discs is to
facets to fit over the two occipital condyles.
(1) absorb shock
This articulation provides the nodding movement
(2) string the vertebrae together
of the head. Atlas has circular inferior articular
(3) prevent injuries
facets and a median facet for odontoid process
(4) prevent hyperextension
of axis.

36.
y Axis is the second cervical vertebra, which
consists of an odontoid process.
y The articulation of odontoid process of the
axis and odontoid canal of the atlas results in
sideways rotation of the head.
y Foramen transversarium is present at the lower
portion of transverse processes of cervical
vertebrae, which forms a canal through which
the blood vessels from the heart reach the brain
and vice versa.

Locomotion and Movement

37.
 Thoracic Vertebrae
y The thoracic vertebrae are stronger and larger
than the cervical vertebrae with long neural
spines and attachment sites for ribs.
y There are twelve thoracic vertebrae which
articulates with the ribs to protect the visceral
organs like lungs and heart.
y Transverse processes of the thoracic vertebrae
have facets for attachment with the tubercles of
ribs.
y Complete facets are present in the first and the
last thoracic vertebrae for articulation with the
rib heads, whereas in the last three thoracic
vertebrae, facets are absent.

Lumbar Vertebrae
y Abdominal lumbar vertebrae are the strongest,
thickest and the largest among all the vertebrae
and are five in number.
y They consist of short and thick transverse
processes and horizontal neural spines.

Sacrum
y The sacrum is a curved bone, present in between
the innominate bones of the pelvic girdle.
y It is formed by the fusion of five sacral vertebrae.
y The spinal nerves exit through spaces present in
the sacral bone called as sacral foramina.

Coccyx
y Coccyx is a small, triangular, terminal bone of the
vertebral column which is formed by the fusion
of four coccygeal vertebrae.
y It is also called as the tail bone.
Locomotion and Movement

Sternum
y The sternum or the ‘breast bone’ is ventrally
positioned in the centre of the thoracic cage and
has articulation sites for the first seven pairs
of ribs. It protects the internal organs of the
thoracic cavity.

38.
y Manubrium, body and xiphoid process are the
three parts of the sternum. Previous Year’s Question
y Manubrium is the uppermost part of the sternum
and articulates with the clavicles (collar bones)
The number of floating ribs in the
and first pair of ribs.
human body is
y Body is the middle part of the sternum and looks
(1) 3 pairs
like the blade of a dagger. Second to seventh pair
(2) 2 pairs
of ribs attaches with the body of sternum.
(3) 6 pairs
y Xiphoid process is the lowermost tip of the
(4) 5 pairs
sternum.

Ribs
y The lateral part of the thoracic cage is formed
by twelve pairs of ribs which are joined by the
vertebral column posteriorly and with sternum
anteriorly.

Locomotion and Movement

39.
 y Ribs function to protect the heart, lungs and
kidneys. They also help in breathing by providing
attachment sites for the intercostal muscles.
y Generally, a rib consists of a long, bony vertebral
part, which articulates with the facets of thoracic
vertebrae and a short sternal part which is made
of hyaline cartilage and articulates with the facets
of the sternum.
y The vertebral part of the rib consists of a head
region which consists of facets for articulation
with the thoracic vertebrae, a constricted
neck region, a tubercle which articulates
with the transverse and a main body or shaft
which has an angle where its curvature Gray Matter Alert!!!
changes.
y Ribs are divided into three types depending on Because of the presence of
their articulation with the sternum. two points of attachment on
y First seven pairs of ribs are called true ribs as the dorsal side in contact with
they are directly attached to the sternum as well vertebral column, ribs are called
as vertebral column. bicephalic (dicephalic).
y The 8th, 9th and 10th pair of ribs are called
false ribs as they are attached indirectly to the
sternum by articulating with the costal cartilage
of the seventh pair of rib with the help of
cartilage.
y The 11th and 12th pairs of ribs are called floating
ribs. They are named so because their one end is
joined to vertebral column whereas the other end
is free, i.e., not joined to the sternum, directly or
Previous Year’s Question
indirectly. They protect the kidneys.

APPENDICULAR SKELETON The 8th, 9th and 10th pair of ribs

y Appendicular skeleton is present laterally in the are known as false ribs because
body. their external; portions are
Locomotion and Movement

y There are a total of 126 bones in the appendicular attached to

skeleton which form the girdles and limbs of the (1) xiphisternum
body. (2) costal cartilage of 7th rib
y There are two girdles (pectoral and pelvic) and (3) they have no costal cartilage
two limbs (forelimbs and hindlimbs) in the human (4) they are not true ribs
body.

40.
 Pectoral Girdle
y Each pectoral girdle is also called shoulder girdle
and consists of two bones, one clavicle and one
scapula.
y Clavicle (collar bone) is an elongated bone which
shows two curvatures. It is attached to the
manubrium medially. Laterally, it connects with
acromion process of scapula.

Previous Year’s Question

Which of the following

components is a part of pectoral
girdle?
(1) Sternum
(2) Acetabulum
(3) Glenoid cavity
(4) Ilium

y Scapula (shoulder blade) is a triangular bone,

having a sharp ridge and a sharp protuberance
called spine, and extends on the backside of
thorax between second and seventh rib.
y The end of the spine possesses a thick acromion
Previous Year’s Question
process. The acromion process forms an
articulation site for the clavicle.
y The anterior surface of the scapula has a An acromian process is
Locomotion and Movement

projection called the coracoid process which characteristically found in

provides attachment site for the tendons of the mammals in
muscles. (1) pelvic girdle
y Scapula contains a lateral, shallow articulating (2) pectoral girdle
surface called glenoid cavity for articulation with (3) skull
the head of the humerus. (4) sternum

41.
 Pelvic Girdle
y Pelvic girdle is also called hip girdle and consists
of two innominate bones (hip bones) which are
joined together by pubis symphysis having white
fibrous cartilage.

Previous Year’s Question

The pectoral and pelvic girdles

and the bones of limb form
(1) axial skeleton
(2) appendicular skeleton
(3) visceral skeleton
(4) outer skeleton

y Each innominate bone is made by the fusion of

three different bones which are named as the
ilium, the ischium and the pubis.
y Acetabulum is a deep depression on the outer
surface of the innominate bone which makes an
articulation site for femur (hip joint).
y A large foramen called obturator foramen occurs
between pubis and ischium through which blood
Definition
vessels and nerves pass.
y Pelvic girdle is attached posteriorly to sacrum.
y Ilium possesses two depressions, a small lesser Knuckles: The distally expanded
sciatic notch and large greater sciatic notch metacarpals are called knuckles.
(sciatic nerve is the longest nerve in the human
Locomotion and Movement

body that passes through the greater sciatic

notch).

Bones of ForeLimbs
y The three parts of each forelimb (upper arm,
forearm and the hand) collectively consist of
30 bones—one humerus (in each upper arm),
one radius and one ulna (in each forearm) and
twenty-seven different bones in each hand.
42.
y The head of the humerus articulates with the
glenoid cavity of the pectoral girdle. The body
(shaft) of the humerus consists of deltoid
tuberosity (deltoid ridge). Distal end of humerus
has a pulley-like trochlea for the attachment
of ulna bone and a convex capitulum for the
attachment of radius bone.
y Radius and ulna are the two bones of the forearm.
Radius lies towards the thumb side and ulna
towards the little finger side. Radius is shorter
than ulna and articulates with the humerus from
its head. Its lower end consists of two articular
facets for attachment with carpals.
y The upper or proximal end of ulna is elongated to
form an olecranon process that produces elbow
joint.
y Distal end of ulna has one facet for attaching
with the carpal.
y Each hand consists of 27 bones. Out of these, 8
bones are present in the wrist (carpals), 5 bones
occur in the palm (metacarpals) and 14 bones
(two in each thumb and three each in fingers)
make endoskeleton of the fingers (phalanges).
y The 8 bones of the carpals which are arranged
in two rows are scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum,
pisiform (in the first row) and trapezium,
trapezoid, capitate and humate (in the second
row).

Bones of Hindlimbs
y There are 30 bones in each hindlimb which
include one femur (in the thigh), one tibia and Previous Year’s Question
one fibula (in the shank), one patella (over the
knee) and twenty-six different bones in the foot.
Locomotion and Movement

The total number of bones in

y Femur (longest and strongest bone) articulates each limb is
with the acetabulum of the pelvic girdle through (1) 24
its upper rounded head. Along with the head, (2) 30
femur also consists of a neck, curved shaft (3) 14
and two ridges, greater trochanter and lesser (4) 21
trochanter. Its distal end has a central groove
and two lateral condyles.

43.
 y A triangular disc-shaped patella or kneecap fits
over intercondylar groove. Gray Matter Alert!!!
y Tibia is longer and thicker and is placed medially.
It fits over the condyles of femur by concave Fibula does not support body’s
facets present in its proximal end. weight. It only provides stability
y Fibula is a shorter and thinner bone of shank. to the ankle joint along with tibia.
y Each foot has 7 bones in the ankle (tarsals), 5
bones in the sole (metatarsals) and 14 bones in
the toes (phalanges).
y Tarsals consist of calcaneum, talus, cuboid,
navicular and three cuneiform bones.
Patella is formed by the ossification in the tendon
of quadriceps femoris muscle.

TYPES OF BONES
y According to shape and size, the bones are
classified into four types:
⚪ Long bones, e.g., femur, humerus
⚪ Short bones, e.g., carpals, tarsals
⚪ Flat bones, e.g., scapula, sternum
⚪ Irregular bones, e.g., hip bone
y According to the place of origin, the bones are
classified into four types:
⚪ Cartilage Bones: These bones develop as a
result of ossification of the cartilage, e.g.,
humerus and femur.
⚪ Investing Bones: These bones develop in
dermis of skin as thin plates, e.g., frontal,
parietal, nasal and vomer.
⚪ Sesamoid Bone: It is a bone formed by the
ossification in tendons, e.g., patella.
y According to the texture, bones are classified
into two types:
⚪ Spongy Bone: These light weighted bones
Locomotion and Movement

are also called trabecular or cancellous bone

and have numerous trabeculae consisting of
red bone marrow in its matrix and are highly
vascularised. These occur inside epiphysis
and metaphysis of long bones, interior of
vertebrae flat bone or skull and ribs.

44.
 ⚪ Compact Bone: These bones are also called
periosteal or dense bone that usually occur
in the outer part of all bones especially in the
shaft of long bones, clavicle, scapula, bones
of limbs. They have a continuous matrix from
outside to inside except for narrow supply
channels. The bone contains numerous
Haversian systems.
Previous Year’s Question
JOINTS
y Points of articulation between two bones are The type of joint between the
called joints. human skull bones is called
y On the basis of mobility, joints are classified into (1) cartilaginous joint
three types: fibrous, cartilaginous and synovial (2) hinge joint
joints. (3) fibrous joint
(4) synovial joint
Fibrous or Immovable or Joints (Sinarthroses)
y No movement occurs along the fibrous joints
as the articulating ends of the bones involved
in the fixed joint are interlocked firmly and held
together by collagen fibres.
y Fixed or fibrous joints are of three subtypes—
suture, syndesmosis and gomphosis.
y Fibrous joint occurs in the skull in between
the bones of the skull (sutures), amongst ilium, Previous Year’s Question
ischium and pubis of the pelvic girdle, between
teeth and jawbones.
What will happen if the ligaments
are torn?
Cartilaginous or Imperfect Joints
(1) Bones will move freely at the
(Amphiarthroses)
joint and no pain
y These joints have very less mobility due to
(2) Boneless movable at the joint
presence of a disc of fibrocartilage between the
and pain
articular ends of the bones involved.
(3) Bone will become unfixed
y Cartilaginous joints occur in between the centra
Locomotion and Movement

(4) Bone will become fixed

of two vertebrae (intervertebral discs), pubic
symphysis, ribs and sternum.

Synovial or Perfect Joints (Diarthroses)

y These joints are freely movable, i.e., they allow
considerable number of free movements in one
or more directions. Ends of bones consist of

45.
 synovial membranes which have synovial cavity,
filled with a synovial fluid. This fluid acts as a
cushion and absorbs the shock.
y There are different types of synovial joints in the
body.
⚪ Ball and Socket Joint: In this joint, a ball like
end of one bone articulates with the socket
like end of the other bone and thus, shows
most movement in many directions, e.g.,
shoulder joints, hip joints.
⚪ Hinge Joint: The articulating convex end of
one bone fits into the concave articulating end
of the other bone and thus, allows movement
in only one plane, e.g., knee, elbow, ankle,
interphalangeal joints and the joints between
the occipital condyles of the skull and the
atlas vertebra.
⚪ Angular Joint: Angular joint has an oval
shaped condyle at the end of one bone which
articulates with the elliptical cavity present in
the other bone, permitting back and forth and
side to side movement. Therefore, this joint
is also called ellipsoid or condyloid joint, e.g.,
metacarpophalangeal joints.
⚪ Gliding Joint: The articulating ends of both
the bones involved in the joint are flat which
allows only back and forth and side to side
movements (gliding or sliding movements),
e.g., joints between carpels and wrist, tarsals
and ankle, sternum and clavicle. Superior and
inferior articular facets of adjacent vertebrae
form gliding types of joints.
⚪ Pivot Joint: The articulate end of one bone
is either rounded or pointed which fits into a
Locomotion and Movement

shallow depression of the articulating end of

other bone which allows rotation movement
in one plane, e.g., joint between atlas and
axis vertebrae for side-to-side movement of
head, joint between the upper end of radius
and ulna bone (radio-ulnal joint).

46.
 ⚪ Saddle Joint: There is a projection at articulate
end of one bone which fits in a saddle shaped Previous Year’s Question
depression of the articulate end of the other
bone, allowing free movement same as in an
ellipsoid joint, e.g., joint between carpal and The joint between atlas and axis
metacarpals of human thumb. is called
(1) angular joint
DISORDERS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM (2) hinge joint
(3) pivot joint
Arthritis
(4) saddle joint
It is a painful inflammation of joints caused
by infection, allergy, deficiency or hormonal
imbalance. There are three types of arthritis—
rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis and gouty
arthritis.
y Rheumatoid Arthritis
⚪ It is caused by the inflammation of synovial
membrane in the synovial joints leading to
thickening and excessive production and
secretion of synovial fluid.
⚪ This creates painful joints by putting pressure
on them.
⚪ The presence of rheumatoid factor which
resembles immunoglobulin IgM, conforms
rheumatoid arthritis.
⚪ Synovial membrane secrets an exudate called
pannus which forms abnormal granules over
the membrane which causes erosion of
cartilage surface.
⚪ This results in the ossification of fibrous
tissue attached with the bones.
⚪ This causes extremely painful movements
ultimately immobilising the joint.
⚪ Heat treatment and physiotherapy are helpful
Definitions
Locomotion and Movement

in the early stages. Completely damaged

joints are replaced surgically. Ossification: The formation of
y Osteoarthritis bone.
⚪ Commonly occurring in old age, osteoarthritis Articulation: The juncture
is characterised by degenerative changes in between two bones.
the joints because of loss of articular cartilage
and proliferation of bone and cartilage in the
joint.

47.
 ⚪ In older people, degeneration of hyaline cap
by the regular use and deposition of calcium
Keywords
makes the joint surface hard. This causes
painful movement of one bone over the other.
Š Rheumatoid Arthritis
Gouty Arthritis or Gout Š Rheumatoid factor
y It is a disease associated with increased uric Š Pannus
acid concentration in blood. Excess uric acid Š Osteoarthritis
is converted into monosodium urate crystals Š Osteoporosis
that precipitate from the blood and become Š Bursitis
deposited in joints and other tissues resulting in
the disease.

Osteoporosis
y It is characterised by bone mass reduction due
to the loss of minerals and fibres from the bone
matrix resulting in making the bones fragile,
painful and prone to fracture.
y Post-menopausal hormonal imbalance in women,
decreased organic matter in bones at old age,
pregnancy, hormonal imbalances, prolonged
cortisone treatment, dietary deficiency of Ca2+
and vitamin D are some of the various reasons
for osteoporosis.

Bursitis
y It is the inflammation of bursae of the joints.
y It is due to the infection, injury or excessive
or traumatic exercise. The chief symptom is
severe pain in the affected joint, particularly on
movement.

Dislocation
y The displacement of any articular surface of
Locomotion and Movement

Definition
joint from its normal position, like coming out of
ball-like head from the socket of the other bone.
Ligaments are also damaged. There is a severe Ligament: A band of connective
pain and inflammation. Movement is restricted. tissue with collagen fibres
Resetting of the joint is required. which connects one bone to
another bone.

48.
 Strain
y Twisting of tendons between bone and muscle.
It is less severe.

Sprain
y It is twisting, stretching or tearing of ligaments.
Ligament has poor power of regeneration. It
causes severe pain. It is a minor disorder which Definition
can however, become chronic.
Bursae: A fluid filled cavity which
Prolapsed Disc (Slipped Disc)
counters friction at a joint.
y Displacement of intervertebral disc from its
normal position. It is due to the mechanical injury
or wrong sitting posture. It causes severe pain
due to the pressure on adjacent nerves.

Fracture
y It is a break in a compact bone due to mechanical
injury. It is very rare in children because their
bones have more organic matter and are quite
flexible.
y Fracture is common in old age because of less
organic matter and more inorganic matter, as
their bones become hard and brittle.
y Fracture is of the following types:
⚪ Simple: Bone is completely broken into two
parts.
⚪ Compound: Bone completely breaks into two
parts and the fractured pieces pierce into the
skin.
⚪ Comminuted: When a bone breaks down into
more than two pieces, it is called multiple or
comminuted fracture.
⚪ Evulsive: A chip breaks out but remains
Locomotion and Movement

attached to the ligament.

⚪ Green Stick Fracture: When a bone undergoes
simple crack, but the bone remains intact.
It is very common in children, having high
recovering power.

49.
Locomotion and Movement

Summary

50.
 Summary

51.
Locomotion and Movement
Locomotion and Movement

Summary

52.
 Summary

53.
Locomotion and Movement
Locomotion and Movement

Summary

54.
 Summary

55.
Locomotion and Movement
 SOLVED EXERCISE

Q1 Which of the following stores calcium ions (Ca2+) in a muscle fibre?

(1) Sarcoplasm (2) Sarcoplasmic reticulum
(3) Mitochondria (4) Sarcolemma

A1 (2)
Sarcoplasmic reticulum stores calcium ions in a muscle fibre.

Q2 Deltoid (shoulder) muscle functions as a/an

(1) Flexor (2) Supinator (3) Abductor (4) Rotator

A2 (3)
Deltoid muscle functions as an abductor as it pulls the forelimb away from
the axis of the body.

Q3 Which of the following is correct regarding muscle contraction?

(1) There is no change in the size of I-band.
(2) Myosin filaments are attached at their one end to Z-disc.
(3) Calcium ions bind with troponin protein to initiate muscle contraction.
(4) Length of a sarcomere is about 2 mm.

A3 (3)
y During muscle contraction, there is no change in the size of A-band.
y Actin filaments are attached at their one end to Z-disc.
y Length of a sarcomere is about 2 µm.
Locomotion and Movement

56.
Q4 Which of the following is not correct about red muscle fibres?
(1) Red muscle fibres contain a large amount of myoglobin.
(2) Slow muscle fibres have increased number of mitochondria.
(3) Tonic muscle fibres have an extensive blood vessel system.
(4) Sarcoplasmic reticulum present in red muscle fibres is comparatively
more developed.

A4 (4)
Sarcoplasmic reticulum present in red muscle fibres is comparatively less
developed.

Q5 A motor unit consists of

(1) A single motor nerve innervating a single muscle fibre.
(2) Many motor nerves innervating a single muscle fibre.
(3) A single motor nerve innervating a group of muscle fibres.
(4) Many motor nerves innervating a group of muscle fibres.

A5 (3)
A motor unit consists of a motor neuron and a group of skeletal muscle
fibres it innervates.

Q6 Select the incorrect pair of skull bones from the following options.
(1) Ear Ossicle - 6 bones
(2) Facial Bones - 14 bones
(3) Cranium - 6 bones
(4) Hyoid Bone - 1 bone

A6 (3)
Locomotion and Movement

There are 8 bones in the cranium.

57.
 Q7 How many cervical vertebrae are present in the vertebral column?
(1) 5 (2) 7 (3) 12 (4) 4

A7 (2)
There are seven cervical vertebrae in the vertebral column.

Q8 Glenoid cavity is related to

(1) Pectoral girdle (2) Sternum
(3) True ribs (4) Pelvic girdle

A8 (1)
Scapula of the pectoral girdle contains glenoid cavity for attachment with the
head of humerus.

Q9 Which of the following is an example of a hinge joint?

(1) Hip joint (2) Ankle joint
(3) Metacarpophalangeal joints (4) Joint of skull

A9 (2)
Ankle joint, knee joint, elbow joint are examples of hinge joint.

Q10 Deficiency of dystrophin causes

(1) Myasthenia gravis (2) Rheumatoid arthritis
(3) Bursitis (4) Muscular dystrophy
Locomotion and Movement

A10 (4)
Muscular dystrophy is a genetic disorder involving degeneration of muscles
due to deficiency of dystrophin protein.

58.