Summary: Techniques of Integration
We’ve had 5 basic integrals that we have developed techniques to solve:
1. Integration by parts: Three basic problem types: (1) xn f (x): Use a table, if possible.
(2) Exponential times a sine or cosine: Integrate by parts twice to get the same integral
type on both sides of the equation. (3) Some functions, like sin−1 (x) and ln(x), have
special derivatives. When integrating these types of functions, use integration by parts
once, with dv = dx.
2. Trig integrals: Two techniques- (1) Try to keep something with dx and make a u, du
substitution. (2) Use half-angle identities to write powers of sines and cosines as sin(mx)
and cos(mx), which can be integrated directly.
(a) Odd power of sine or cosine: Try u, du.
(b) Both are even powers: Use half-angle identities.
(c) Integrals with other trig functions: First, try to keep out sec(x) tan(x) or sec2 (x)
with the dx to get a substitution. If that doesn’t work, try writing in terms of sines
and cosines to get something that does work.
3. Trig substitutions: The idea here is to substitute trig functions in for x to get an integral
for which we can use the techniques developed in 7.2. Templates:
√ √ p
2 2 x = a sin(θ) √a2 − c2 x2 cx = a sin(θ) pa2 − (x − b)2
√a − x x − b = a sin(θ)
2 2 x = a tan(θ) √c2 x2 + a2 cx = a tan(θ) p(x − b)2 + a2 x − b = a tan(θ)
√x + a
x2 − a2 x = a sec(θ) c2 x2 − a2 cx = a sec(θ) (x − b)2 − a2 x − b = a sec(θ)
Note: To get an expression into the form (x − b)2 − a2 , (x − b)2 + a2 or a2 − (x − b)2 ,
we usually have to complete the square.
q
1
What would we substitute for 4(x + 1)2 − 3?
4. Partial Fractions: In this case, we have a polynomial, P (x) divided by a polynomial
Q(x), and the degree of P is less than the degree of Q (If this is not the case, do long
division). Our goal is to write the fraction, with the factors of Q, as a sum of simpler
fractions, each one having a type of factor from Q. We can summarize this technique
with the following table:
Q(x) has a factor like: The sum has a term like:
A
(ax + b) ax+b
A1 Ak
(ax + b)k ax+b)
+ ... + (ax+b)k
Bx+C
ax2 + bx + c ax2 +bx+c
B1 x+C1 Bk x+Ck
(ax2 + bx + c)k ax2 +bx+c
+ ... + (ax2 +bx+c)k
Remember to solve for the constants by multiplying both sides of the equation by the
denominator, then set x to convenient values.
1
√
4(x + 1) = 3 tan(θ)
1
5. Improper Integrals. The key idea here is that an improper integral is a limit. There
were two types of integrals- One type had ∞ appearing as an integral bound, the other
type occurred if the integrand had an infinite discontinuity:
Z ∞ Z t
f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx
a t→∞ a
Z a Z a
f (x) dx = lim f (x) dx
−∞ t→−∞ t
If f has a vertical asymptote at x = a:
Z b Z b
f (x) dx = lim+ f (x) dx
a t→a t
If f has a vertical asymptote at x = b:
Z b Z t
f (x) dx = lim− f (x) dx
a t→b a
Some techniques from the past to recall:
• L’Hospital’s rule. (For limits like tet , t ln(t), etc.)
• Logarithm rules: ln(a) + ln(b) = ln(ab), ln(a) − ln(b) = ln( ab ).
• Computing horizontal asymptotes.
q q
n n
6. One last technique that might be useful: Given g(x), you might try u = g(x), so
that un = g(x), and nun−1 du = g 0 (x) dx.
7. Formula Table to be given to you on the exam:
• cot(x) dx = ln | sin(x)| + C
R
• tan(x) dx = ln | sec(x)| + C
R
• sec(x) dx = ln | sec(x) + tan(x)| + C
R
• csc(x) dx = ln | csc(x) − cot(x)| + C
R
•
sin(A) cos(B) = 12 [sin(A − B) + sin(A + B)]
sin(A) sin(B) = 21 [cos(A − B) − cos(A + B)]
cos(A) cos(B) = 21 [cos(A − B) + cos(A + B)]
• cos(2x) = cos2 (x) − sin2 (x) = 2 cos2 (x) = 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 (x)
8. Note that you should remember important trig identities like:
sin2 (x) + cos2 (x) = 1
tan2 (x) + 1 = sec2 (x)
sin(2x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x)
cos2 (x) = 21 [1 + cos(2x)]
sin2 (x) = 12 [1 − cos(2x)]
