Republic of the Philippines

COMMISSION ON HIGHER EDUCATION

VERITAS COLLEGE OF IROSIN
Bulan, Sorsogon

Course Title:Teaching Science In Intermediate Grades

Course & year Level: BEED II
Schedule: Thursday 5:00 p.m.- 8:00 p.m. (Block 1)
Friday 5:00 p.m.- 8:00 p.m.(Block 2)
Lesson No.: 4- 9
Introduction: The lessons in this module would highlight concepts about force and motion,
light, heat and sound. Consequently, students will have in-depth understanding on gravity and
friction, and kinds of energy. These concepts are preliminaries to have a better insight of the
course.

Objectives:
1. Make a concept map about the effects of typhoon
2. Make photo collage of the different effects of earthquake and volcanic eruptions.
3. Post self-pictures of practicing safety precautions on the effects of sun’s heat and light.
4. Identify the different phases of the moon.
5. Illustrate the constellation of the zodiac.
6. Create a model or mock-up of Sun Earth, and Moon as instructional Materials.
7. Select a planet and prepare a promotional brochure

Pre-Test
Direction: Answer the following questions:
1. What are the effects of typhoon?
2. What are different effects of earthquake and volcanic eruptions?
3. How would you protect yourself on the effects of sun’s heat and light?
4. What are the different phases of the moon?

Key Concepts

LEARNING ACTIVITIES/READINGS

I. SOIL AND SOIL EROSION

Soil is the earth’s fragile skin that anchors all life on Earth. It is comprised of countless species
that create a dynamic and complex ecosystem and is among the most precious resources to
humans. Increased demand for agriculture commodities generates incentives to convert forests
and grasslands to farm fields and pastures. The transition to agriculture from natural vegetation
often cannot hold onto the soil and many of these plants, such as coffee, cotton, palm oil,
soybean and wheat, can actually increase soil erosion beyond the soil’s ability to maintain itself.
Half of the topsoil on the planet has been lost in the last 150 years. In addition to erosion, soil
quality is affected by other aspects of agriculture. These impacts include compaction, loss of soil
structure, nutrient degradation, and soil salinity. These are very real and at times severe issues.

The effects of soil erosion go beyond the loss of fertile land. It has led to increased pollution and
sedimentation in streams and rivers, clogging these waterways and causing declines in fish and
other species. And degraded lands are also often less able to hold onto water, which can
worsen flooding. Sustainable land use can help to reduce the impacts of agriculture and
livestock, preventing soil degradation and erosion and the loss of valuable land to
desertification.

The health of soil is a primary concern to farmers and the global community whose livelihoods
depend on well managed agriculture that starts with the dirt beneath our feet. While there are
many challenges to maintaining healthy soil, there are also solutions and a dedicated group of
people, including WWF, who work to innovate and maintain the fragile skin from which
biodiversity springs.
Both weather and climate are the result of the interaction of several Earth systems:

 the movement of moisture in the water cycle that evaporates ocean water into the air
where it condenses into travelling clouds or storms that eventually cause rain or snow;
 the movement of heat that begins at the sun-soaked equator and moves warm air toward
the north and south poles;
 the movement of the oceans that takes icy-cold water from the poles to the tropics,
warming or cooling the air above the water.
These and many other factors, including greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, combine
to form the high and low pressure systems you hear about on the weather report, and
over time add up to the climate of the location you live in.
To understand the complex interactions and patterns of weather and climate, scientists
collect as much observational data as they can on precipitation, temperatures, humidity,
and other atmospheric conditions. They then use that data and the relationships
between the different pieces to create computer models of local, regional, or even
global weather and climate.

TYPHOON

Typhoon refers to a tropical cyclonic storm that originates in the western Pacific Ocean; in the
Atlantic, the same kinds of storms (tropical cyclones) are called hurricanes. Large masses of
clouds that spiral around a central point, or eye, characterize typhoons. Infamous for their
destructive powers, typhoons can generate winds of more than 75 miles per hour and cause
major flooding through their intense rainfall and storm surges. Their effects range from
structural damage to trees, watercraft, and buildings to both immediate and long-term impacts
on human life and livelihood.

Typhoons can bring terrible damage due to thunderstorms, torrential rain and flooding, violent
winds, incredible and extremely high tides, and tidal surges. Typhoon force winds can range
from 25 MPH to 150 MPH. Tropical storm winds can reach 300 mph.

In order to be classified as a typhoon, a tropical storm must reach winds of at least 33 meters
per second (74 miles per hour) and be located in the Northwest Pacific Ocean. Typhoons are
major storms that affect everything they come in contact with, from boats to agriculture to
human beings.
Typhoons cause major flooding, which can drown animals and destroy their
natural environments. When smaller animals and food supplies disappear or get killed,
it affects larger animals because they can no longer find enough food.

The Effects of Typhoons

Humans

People can be killed, injured, or lost during typhoons. Flooding can cause people to drown,
houses to be completely destroyed, property to be swept away, and farms to lose all of their
crops to the winds and relentless rains. Mudslides and power outages are common. Food
shortages, lack of access to good medical care and medical supplies, and limited access to
major roads and cities can further complicate the problems caused by a typhoon.

Animals

Typhoons cause major flooding, which can drown animals and destroy their natural
environments. When smaller animals and food supplies disappear or get killed, it affects
larger animals because they can no longer find enough food. Livestock and other
domesticated animals suffer when man-made shelters collapse, when their human caretakers
are unable to care for them, and when they are exposed for long periods of time to violent
winds and torrential rains.

Plants

Plant life can easily be swept away by floods and severe winds. Even trees cannot withstand
the sheer force of a typhoon's strength indefinitely. Excessive rain can cause plants to drown,
and it also causes soil erosion. Mudslides often take plants down with them, ripping up their
roots and killing the plant.

Buildings and Other Infrastructure

Wind and water account for the two most destructive forces associated with typhoons.
Typhoons affect buildings and other structures in two ways: through direct force and through
projectiles. Direct force occurs when a wind gust slams directly into a building or structure and
causes physical damage, such as when wind blows the roof off a home. Wind also inflicts
damage by picking up and launching tree branches, building materials, and other debris into
structures. The heavy and persistent rainfall and coastal storm surges that typhoons bring can
also have devastating effects. In addition to making homes uninhabitable, the flooding
associated with typhoons can cripple rescue and aid efforts by making roads impassable.

Trees and Other Vegetation

The impacts of typhoons extend to the natural environment, of course. The storms may
damage or destroy trees and other vegetation, including crops that communities may rely on
for sustenance or trade, or both. Strong winds can snap branches; detach and injure leaves,
flowers, fruits and seeds; and uproot trees and plants. Flooding can over-saturate soils, drown
vegetation or kill plantlife via salt spray or the saltwater intrusion produced by storm surges.
(It’s important to note that native ecosystems in typhoon-prone areas have adapted with these
disturbances, which may be important influences on plant succession, and that typhoon winds
and floodwaters may in some cases also help disperse tree seeds and seedlings.)

Watercraft and Offshore Operations

In addition to causing mayhem on land, typhoons certainly stir up the seas. Individuals on
watercraft or those performing offshore operations (such as on oil rigs) not only have to
contend with heavy winds and rain, but also massive waves and, in general, turbulent water
conditions. Typhoons caused trouble for U.S. Navy fleets in the Pacific Theater during World
War II. Today, fishing boats, cruise ships and other vessels rely on sophisticated technology
to help them predict and avoid the devastating effects of typhoons.

Impacts to Life and Livelihood

The destructive forces of typhoons also impact – and sometimes take – the lives of both
humans and animals. While this can occur directly, as when flying debris or collapsing
structures injure or kill people, a “silent killer” of sorts is the lack of available resources and
infrastructure that may follow typhoon landfall. Flooding from typhoons may destroy food
stocks and supplies and spread disease. In communities cut off by typhoons, individuals may
not be able to get the medical attention they so desperately need, and starvation becomes a
big risk as well.

Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanically triggered earthquakes have the potential to cause cracks, ground deformation, and
damage to manmade structures. They typically are much smaller than earthquakes caused by
non-volcanic sources. The largest felt volcanic earthquake in the Cascades was a magnitude
5.5 in 1981, under Mount St. Helens. Two types of volcanically generated earthquakes are
volcano-tectonic (VTs) earthquakes and long period earthquakes (LPs).
Please visit our volcano seismicity pages to learn about volcanic activity near our Cascade
Volcanoes.
Volcanic-tectonic earthquakes (VTs) are, simply put, caused by slip on a fault near a volcano.
Volcanoes are often found in areas of crustal weakness and the mass of the volcano its self
adds to the regional strain. Most VT earthquakes have nothing to do with the magmatic system
of the volcano but occur in response to regional strain exerted in an area of weak faults. VTs
can also be generated from changes of pressure under the volcano caused by the injection or
removal of magma (molten rock) from the volcanic system. After the withdrawal of magma from
a system, an empty space is left to be filled. The result is a collapse of surrounding rock to fill
the void, also creating earthquakes. VT earthquakes can result in land deformation, collapse
and/or ground failure but they are usually small and leave no trace on the surface. While these
earthquakes may cause damage, they usually don't due to their small size which produces
weak shaking.
Occasional VTs or even in a significant swarm of dozens of events do not in themselves
indicate an impending eruption. However, if a significant introduction of new magma from depth
occurs in the system, both VTs and long period earthquakes are likely to be generated. USGS
Volcano scientists at the Cascade Volcano Observatory use information obtained from
earthquake activity and patterns in combination with many other data sources from the volcano
including near and far field deformation, gas emissions, geochemistry, heat transfer and more,
to determine the likelihood of an eruption and to estimate how dangerous the eruption is likely to
be.
Volcanically-caused long period earthquakes are produced by vibrations generated by the
movement of magma or other fluids within the volcano. Pressure within the system increases
and the surrounding rock fails, creating small earthquakes. In 2004, Mt. St. Helens began dome
building eruptions as magma was thrust upwards accompanied by long period earthquakes.
These earthquakes are an indication of magmatic activity and may be a precursor to an
eruption. When these earthquakes occur continuously the result is volcanic or harmonic tremor.
Mount St. Helens exhibited these long period earthquakes months in advance of the 1980
eruption.

The volcanic tremor can be used to warn of an impending eruption allowing people living near
the volcano can to be evacuated to safer areas. This method of prediction has been used
successfully to predict the eruptions of Mount St. Helens in the 1980's and the 1991 eruption of
Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines.
Effects of earthquakes and volcanoes on people and the environment

The effects of earthquakes and volcanoes are typically classified as being either primary or
secondary.

Primary effects are the direct result of an earthquake or volcanic eruption, such as buildings
collapsing due to the movement of the earth or loss of life from pyroclastic flows.
Secondary effects are those that occur as the result of primary effects. Examples include fires
caused by the rupture of gas pipes caused by an earthquake or homelessness caused by the
loss of buildings.

WHAT FACTORS AFFECT THE IMPACT OF EARTHQ UAKES?

The amount of damage caused by earthquakes depends on a combination of factors. These

include:

 the strength of the earthquake and subsequent aftershocks

 the depth of the earthquake, the deeper the earthquake, the more energy is absorbed by
the crust above them
 the distance from the epicentre, the further away from the epicentre the weaker the
seismic waves
 the geology of an area, looser rocks, such as sedimentary, are more likely to liquefy and
cause buildings and structures to sink into the ground
 the quality of building and construction materials
 the density of buildings as the higher the density, the greater the chance of swaying
buildings to affect others
 the number of storeys – the taller the buildings, the more likely they are to sway and
collapse
 the population density – the higher the population density, the more likely there are to be
casualties
 the time of the day the earthquake occurs – at night people are likely to be sleeping in
residential areas – older residential areas are more likely to be affected
by earthquake damage
 secondary hazards such as tsunamis close to the coast, landslides and rockfalls in
mountainous areas and fires caused by broken gas pipes in urban areas.
 contamination – caused by water supplies becoming contaminated as they mix with
sewage
WHAT FACTORS AFFECT THE IMPACT OF VOLCANOES?

There are a wide variety of hazards that can injure and kill people and destroy property from
volcanic eruptions. However, unlike earthquakes, volcanic eruptions can affect people and
places hundreds of miles away. In addition to this, volcanic eruptions can even affect global
climate.

Explosive eruptions can result in huge volumes of solid and molten rock fragments, known as
tephra, volcanic gases and ash high into the atmosphere. In some instances, this has been as
high as 20 km above a volcano in just 30 minutes. Volcanic ash in the atmosphere presents a
considerable hazard to aeroplanes. Following the eruption of the
Icelandic volcano Eyjafjallajökull in 2010, large swathes of air space across Europe was closed
due to the hazard ash in the atmosphere presented.

Made of up tiny glass particles and pulverized rock, ash can be spewed tens of thousands of
feet into the air, reaching jet cruising altitude. It’s abrasive enough to erode the blades of the
compressor (which increases the pressure of the air that feeds the jet engine), reducing its
efficiency. The ash that gets into the combustion chamber can melt, producing a substance like
molten glass. That then solidifies on the turbine blades, blocking airflow, and potentially
resulting in engine failure.

Following a significant eruption ash clouds can extend hundreds of kilometres downwind of
the volcano. When this ash falls, it can damage crops, machinery and electronics. Significant
ashfall can result in the collapse of buildings due to its weight.

Volcanic eruptions can emit significant volumes of toxic gasses during eruptions. Even when not
erupting, gases are released through small openings called fumaroles. 90% of all gas emitted is
water vapour; however, carbon dioxide and fluorine gas can also be released with deadly
consequences.

EFFECTS OF SUN’S HEAT AND LIGHT

Most people already know the basic facts about the sun. It’s a star. It’s massive. And it is
considered the center of the solar system galaxy. However, the sun is much more than just
the gravitational center of our galaxy. In truth, it is the center of life for our world. Every living
thing on Earth is in some way sustained by the energy given off by the sun. Hence, the sun’s
nickname: the “Life-Giving Star.”

Description

It is an understatement to say that the sun is big. To put its size in perspective, the sun is
large enough to fit more than a million Earths inside of it. In the most basic definition, the sun
is a continuous nuclear fusion operation turning hydrogen into helium. The result of a
chemical reaction this massive causes enormous amounts of energy that we see in form of
light and feel in the form of heat. The sun is so large that it creates enough gravity to hold
every planet in this solar system on a set orbit.

Function

The sun keeps everything in place. The sun keeps the planets, including Earth, in orbit. This
includes comets and meteors as well. Humans view the functions of the sun on a much
smaller level. Our concern is how the sun sustains life on our planet. The sun’s energy
provides warmth for our planet. Life on this planet would not be possible without the warmth
given off by the sun. At 93 million miles away, Earth is positioned just close enough to the sun
to sustain life. The sun also provides light for our planet. However, humans depend on energy
for much more than just light. The nuclear fusion created by the sun gives off massive
amounts of light and radiation. The light given off by the sun travels a little over eight minutes
before reaching Earth. This energy is a major function in the life-sustaining process of
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy into chemical energy. Almost
all living organisms on this planet depend on the photosynthesis process to survive.

Benefits

The sun’s most important benefit is that it provides energy that is needed to sustain life. This
benefit can be viewed from several different aspects. The sun’s energy has an effect on plant
life. The sun’s energy is absorbed by plants and used in the photosynthesis process to
convert carbon dioxide into oxygen. The oxygen is then released from plants into the
atmosphere. Oxygen along with energy from the sun is absorbed by animals and humans.
Humans use the energy from the sun to help in the process to build bones.

Harmful Effects

While the sun has many benefits, it also has some harmful effects. Too much energy from the
sun can be dangerous. Most of the energy from the sun is filtered in space. The energy that
makes it into the atmosphere must be absorbed in limited amounts. For plants, too much
energy from the sun can disrupt the photosynthesis process and cause the plant to die. For
animals, too much energy from the sun can cause the body to dehydrate and cause death.
For humans, too much energy from the sun can cause dehydration. It also raises radiation
levels, which can cause skin cancer.

Fun Facts

Most people believe that the sun is yellow. That is inaccurate. The sun has a surface
temperature of about 5,510 degrees Celsius, causing it to burn white. We view the sun as
yellow because of atmospheric scattering of light. The sun is so massive that it contains 99.85
percent of the mass in the solar system. One hundred billion tons of dynamite detonated each
second is equal to the energy that is produced by the sun. The sun’s energy is created from
hydrogen burning and being converted into helium. One day, all of the hydrogen from the sun
will burn out completely and helium will be the energy source of the sun.
Effects of sun's heat and light
1. How is heat like a river? They both flow “downhill.” You will never see a river flow up a
mountain. A river only goes one way, down. Heat also goes one way. Heat only flows from
something that is hotter to something that is colder.
2. Most light comes from things that give off heat. Natural light comes from the Sun, other stars,
and certain animals that glow in the dark.
3. Light from the Sun makes Earth warm enough for life. Light from the Sun makes green plants
grow. Plants are food for animals. Plants also give off oxygen that you breathe in the air.
Dead plants provide fuel that we use for energy.
4. Plants need sunlight Houseplants lean toward the Sun, and if they do not get enough light
they wither and die. Plants use sunlight to make their food. This process is called
photosynthesis.
5. Human needs sunlight Solar energy shines down on us every day. Humans need the light
coming from the sun to be able to see and the heat that it gives off as well as the vitamin D
to develop strong bones. You play in sunshine. You see in daylight. The Sun keeps you
warm.
6. Animals need sunlight Cold-blooded animals, such as snakes, lizards, frogs, salamanders,
and insects, cannot produce their own heat and rely on the Sun to warm their bodies.
7. To Plants Hot, dry summers are rough on plants, especially on non-native plants and those
weak from improper care. Since many of our landscape plants aren't naturally adapted to
heat, they need special attention and care. Exposure to the intense sunlight of bright,
cloudless, summer days can be too much for sensitive plants. Reflected light from walls and
other surfaces can also add to the problem. Stunted plant growth and a yellow- white "burn"
on the upper surface of older leaves are familiar symptoms of too much intense sunlight.
8. To Animals The long sunny days produce dry weather or drought. When the lands are too
dry and plants can hardly live, the animals are affected too. Animals depend on plants for
food. When there are few plants, animals will have less to eat. They become sick or they die.

PHASES OF MOON
If you have looked into the night sky, you may have noticed the Moon appears to change shape
each night. Some nights, the Moon might look like a narrow crescent. Other nights, the Moon
might look like a bright circle. And on other nights, you might not be able to see the Moon at all.
The different shapes of the Moon that we see at different times of the month are called the
Moon’s phases.

The Moon’s appearance changes throughout the month. Credit: NASA's Scientific Visualization
Studio

Why does this happen? The shape of the Moon isn’t changing throughout the month. However,
our view of the Moon does change.
The Moon does not produce its own light. There is only one source of light in our solar system,
and that is the Sun. Without the Sun, our Moon would be completely dark. What you may have
heard referred to as “moonlight” is actually just sunlight reflecting off of the Moon’s surface.
The Sun’s light comes from one direction, and it always illuminates, or lights up, one half of the
Moon – the side of the Moon that is facing the Sun. The other side of the Moon is dark.

On Earth, our view of the illuminated part of the Moon changes each night, depending on where
the Moon is in its orbit, or path, around Earth. When we have a full view of the completely
illuminated side of the Moon, that phase is known as a full moon.
But following the night of each full moon, as the Moon orbits around Earth, we start to see less
of the Moon lit by the Sun. Eventually, the Moon reaches a point in its orbit when we don’t see
any of the Moon illuminated. At that point, the far side of the Moon is facing the Sun. This phase
is called a new moon. During the new moon, the side facing Earth is dark.

The eight Moon phases:

� New: We cannot see the Moon when it is a new moon.

� Waxing Crescent: In the Northern Hemisphere, we see the waxing crescent phase as a thin
crescent of light on the right.
� First Quarter: We see the first quarter phase as a half moon.
� Waxing Gibbous: The waxing gibbous phase is between a half moon and full moon. Waxing
means it is getting bigger.
� Full: We can see the Moon completely illuminated during full moons.
� Waning Gibbous: The waning gibbous phase is between a half moon and full moon. Waning
means it is getting smaller.
� Third Quarter: We see the third quarter moon as a half moon, too. It is the opposite half as
illuminated in the first quarter moon.
� Waning Crescent: In the Northern Hemisphere, we see the waning crescent phase as a thin
crescent of light on the left.
The Moon displays these eight phases one after the other as it moves through its cycle each
month. It takes 27 days for the Moon to orbit Earth. That means the Moon's cycle is 27 days
long.

STARS

Solar-type Stars
A Solar-type star has about the same mass as our Sun and is fusing hydrogen into helium at its
core. The result is the familiar yellow-ish glow that characterises many of the stars we see in the
sky, and a long-lived, stable star with a lifetime of billions of years.
The brightest Solar-type star in the sky is Alpha Centauri, which is very close to us. Alpha Cen
is actually a double-star system we call a binary, but the brighter component is only a little larger
than our own Sun. Unfortunately, Alpha Cen is in the southern hemisphere. In fact most of the
nearby sun-like stars are in the south! The ones in the northern hemisphere tend to be fainter,
but if you can find the constellation Draco, some of its brighter stars are the Solar-type.

Hot Blue Stars

Stars which are much more massive than our Sun burn hotter but for much less time, living and
dying within a few million years. Just as a hot gas flame burns blue, so these stars show a bright
blue light and because they’re so bright, we can see a lot of them from the ground.
An example in the sky is the bright star Spica in the constellation of Virgo. You can find it by
looking for the Plough (the “Big Dipper”) and following along the curve of its handle. If you keep
going you’ll pick up first Arcturus (a red giant described below) and then Spica.

Red Dwarf Stars

Stars which are much less massive than our Sun burn cooler, and live longer – potentially for
hundreds of billions of years. The resulting dull red stars are actually the most common type in
our galaxy but since they’re quite dim, they’re hard to see.
The nearest red dwarfs are probably Proxima Centauri and Barnard’s Star, but both of these are
too faint to see with the unaided eye. If you have access to one, Barnard’s Star should be visible
with a small telescope.

Red Giant Stars

When a star runs of hydrogen fuel in its core, it has to adjust and find alternate ways to power
itself – one of the ways it does this is to start burning hydrogen outside the core and this makes
the star swell up. The result is a cool, puffy red giant star. Because these stars are so large,
they tend to be bright, and we can see several in our skies.
As the hydrogen is used up, these stars can start burning helium and then heavier elements in
their cores, heating up and producing blue and yellow supergiants and hypergiants. Again, there
are examples of these visible in the night sky.
Arcturus is a very large red giant star. In fact, it’s big enough that if it replaced the Sun, it would
engulf not only the Earth but Mars too. Betelgeuse is also a red giant star and forms the
shoulder of Orion, so is a great one to spot in the winter when Orion is high in the sky.

White Dwarfs
When a star about the size of our Sun, or a little larger, has burnt all the material it can, it
collapses into a new type of object – a kind of giant crystal supported by the wonders of
quantum physics (specifically the degeneracy pressure of electrons) rather than its own heat.
The result is a very small star – only about the same size as planet Earth – which is very hot but
very faint. This is a white dwarf. Since these stars are so small and emit a lot of their light in
the ultraviolet part of the spectrum they can be very hard to see in our skies.
You’ll have to wait for the winter, but if you can find the brightest star in the sky, Sirius in the
constellation of Canis Major, you’ll be looking at a white dwarf: the bright star you see is a very
large hot blue star, but orbiting it, moving it around in almost imperceptible ways, is a hidden
white dwarf companion.

Neutron Stars and Black Holes

White dwarfs aren’t the only type of exotic object that’s made when stars collapse. If a star is
about five times the mass of the Sun, the collapse when it stops burning is sufficient to force
electrons and protons in its atoms to merge, creating a neutron star made up of “neutronium”.
This incredibly dense material would squeeze a star the
mass of the Sun into a ball the size of Coventry (and it’s also what Thor’s famous
hammer Mjölnir is made of). Neutron stars are very small, dark objects which can generally only
be seen by their effects on their neighbours.
Stars more than about eight times the mass of the Sun don’t stop there – even the quantum
physics of neutrons cannot stop their material from collapsing inwards, and instead general
relativity takes over: the stars collapse all the way into a black hole. We can’t see any black
holes in our night sky except by their effect on other stars, but the galaxy has been shaped by
one: a supermassive black hole lurks in the very centre of the Milky Way.

CONSTELLATION
What's a constellation?
A constellation is a group of stars that appears to form a pattern or picture like Orion the Great
Hunter, Leo the Lion, or Taurus the Bull. Constellations are easily recognizable patterns that
help people orient themselves using the night sky. There are 88 “official” constellations.

Are the stars in a constellation near each other?

Not necessarily. Each constellation is a collection of stars that are distributed in space in three
dimensions – the stars are all different distances from Earth. The stars in a constellation appear
to be in the same plane because we are viewing them from very, very, far away. Stars vary
greatly in size, distance from Earth, and temperature. Dimmer stars may be smaller, farther
away, or cooler than brighter stars. By the same token, the brightest stars are not necessarily
the closest. Of the stars in Cygnus, the swan, the faintest star is the closest and the brightest
star is the farthest!
How are constellations named?
Most of the constellation names we know came from the ancient Middle Eastern, Greek, and
Roman cultures. They identified clusters of stars as gods, goddesses, animals, and objects of
their stories. It is important to understand that these were not the only cultures populating the
night sky with characters important to their lives. Cultures all over the world and throughout time
— Native American, Asian, and African — have made pictures with those same stars. In some
cases the constellations may have had ceremonial or religious significance. In other cases, the
star groupings helped to mark the passage of time between planting and harvesting. There are
48 “ancient” constellations and they are the brightest groupings of stars – those observed easily
by the unaided eye. There actually are 50 “ancient” constellations; astronomers divided one of
the constellations (Argo) into 3 parts.

“Modern” constellations — like the Peacock, Telescope, and Giraffe — were identified by later
astronomers of the 1500s, 1600s, and 1700s who used telescopes and who were able to
observe the night sky in the southern hemisphere. These scientists “connected” the dimmer
stars between the ancient constellations. There are 38 modern constellations.

In 1930 the International Astronomical Union officially listed 88 modern and ancient
constellations (one of the ancient constellations was divided into 3 parts) and drew a boundary
around each. The boundary edges meet, dividing the imaginary sphere — the celestial sphere
— surrounding Earth into 88 pieces. Astronomers consider any star within a constellation
boundary to be part of that constellation, even if it is not part of the actual picture.

Are all stars part of a constellation?

No, there are billions of stars, and only a fraction of them make up the shapes of our
constellations — these are the stars that are easily seen with the unaided eye. Ancient
observers connected these stars into the star pictures.

All stars, however, fall within the boundaries of one of the 88 constellation regions. As
astronomers studied the night sky with modern telescopes, they were able to discern stars in
the dark spaces around the constellations — stars that were not part of the original star pictures.
You can see some of these stars by observing the sky on a dark night. If you look at the sky
with binoculars, you will see even more stars. If you have a telescope, you will see even
more! All the stars you see belong to one special group of stars — the stars in our own galaxy,
the Milky Way.

How are stars and other objects in the sky named and located?
Hundreds of the brightest stars, those visible with the unaided eye, were given names in ancient
times. These include Eltanin of Draco, the Dragon, and Vega in Lyra, the Lyre. Many of these
stars have multiple names, having been observed by different cultures.

Today stars are named by their coordinates on the celestial sphere. This is an imaginary sphere
surrounding Earth. Earth’s north and south poles can be extended in space to this sphere,
marking the north and south celestial poles, the poles around which the sphere spins. Polaris
marks the intersection of the extended north pole and the sphere. Earth’s equator, extended into
space, intersects the sphere at the celestial equator, dividing it into northern and southern
hemispheres. All stars and objects in space, such as constellations, can be mapped relative to
the poles and equator of the celestial sphere. Their position north or south of the celestial
equator — essentially their latitude — is called “declination.” Their position east or west
essentially is their longitude, or right ascension, measured in hours, minutes, and seconds. On
Earth, we measure our longitude east or west from Greenwich, England; right ascension on the
celestial sphere is measured from the intersection of the ecliptic (plane of Earth’s orbit) and the
celestial equator.

There are numerous catalogs of stars, each with a different scheme for annotating position; this
means that each star has even more names! One of the most famous catalogs from the 1800s,
the Bonn Survey, divides the sky into 1°-wide bands of declination and numbers the stars from
west to east using right ascension. In the Bonn Survey ("Bonner Durchmusterung"), Vega is
"BD+38° 3238” — the 3238th star in the band between 38° and 39° north. Another catalog, the
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory (SAO) catalog, integrated 10 catalogs to include the
positions of over 250,000 stars. Vega is SAO 067174 in this catalog. The Hubble Space
Telescope has allowed astronomers to see even more stars! The Hubble Space Telescope
Guide Star Catalogue currently lists the coordinates of over 19 million bright objects — 15
million of which are classified as stars!

Why Do Most Stars and Constellations Move?

The stars are distant objects. Their distances vary, but they are all very far away. Excluding our
Sun, the nearest star, Proxima Centauri, is more than 4 light years away. As Earth spins on its
axis, we, as Earth-bound observers, spin past this background of distant stars. As Earth spins,
the stars appear to move across our night sky from east to west, for the same reason that our
Sun appears to “rise” in the east and “set” in the west.

Stars close to the celestial poles, the imaginary points where Earth’s north and south axes point
in space, have a very small circle of spin. So if you find Polaris, Earth’s north “pole star,” you will
observe it move very, very, very little in the night sky. The farther from Polaris, the wider the
circle the stars trace. Stars that make a full circle around a celestial pole, like those in the Big
and Little Dippers in the northern hemisphere, are called “circumpolar stars.” They stay in the
night sky and do not set. At the equator, there are no circumpolar stars because the celestial
poles are located at the horizon. All stars observed at the equator rise in the east and set in the
west.

Why Do We See Different Constellations During the Year?

If observed through the year, the constellations shift gradually to the west. This is caused by
Earth’s orbit around our Sun. In the summer, viewers are looking in a different direction in space
at night than they are during the winter.

What is the Zodiac?

Earth orbits our Sun once each year. Viewed from Earth, our Sun appears to trace a circular
path. This path defines a plane called the plane of the ecliptic (or just the ecliptic). The zodiac is
the group (or “belt”) of constellations that fall along the plane of the ecliptic. It is through these
constellations that our Sun appears to “pass” during the year. While there are
12 astrological constellations of the zodiac, there are 13 astronomical zodiac constellations:
Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces, Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpius,
Sagittarius, and Ophiuchus. The annual cycle of the zodiac was used by ancient cultures to
determine the time of year.
Most of the planets (except Pluto) also have orbits that are very close to the ecliptic plane
defined by Earth’s motion (within about 8 degrees above or below). If you include all the
constellations encompassed by this broadened definition of the ecliptic plane, you have 21 to 24
constellations of the zodiac!

Why Don’t the Constellations Line Up with the Astrological Dates?

The astrological signs were identified and connected to the calendar about 2500 years ago.
However, since that time, the timing of Earth’s seasons has shifted. This is partly due to the fact
that Earth wobbles a little like a top, making its axis point in different directions at different times.
This is a predictable cycle of change over a period of about 23,000 years. Because the direction
of the Earth's axis of rotation determines at which point in the Earth's orbit the seasons will
occur, this wobble will cause a particular season (for example, northern hemisphere winter) to
occur at a slightly different place over time. Through time, then, the seasons have shifted with
respect to the background of the zodiac constellations. Five thousand years ago, our Sun
passed through Taurus during the spring equinox; today it is in Pisces at the start of spring. So if
you ever wonder why your horoscope may be off a bit … perhaps by several thousand years …
this shift may be the reason!

VI. SOLAR SYSTEM

The planetary system we call home is located in an outer spiral arm of the Milky Way galaxy.

Our solar system consists of our star, the Sun, and everything bound to it by gravity — the
planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, dwarf planets such
as Pluto, dozens of moons and millions of asteroids, comets and meteoroids.

Beyond our own solar system, there are more planets than stars in night sky. So far, we have
discovered thousands of planetary systems orbiting other stars in the Milky Way, with more
planets being found all the time. Most of the hundreds of billions of stars in our galaxy are
thought to have planets of their own, and the Milky Way is but one of perhaps 100 billion
galaxies in the universe.

While our planet is in some ways a mere speck in the vast cosmos, we have a lot of company
out there. It seems that we live in a universe packed with planets — a web of countless stars
accompanied by families of objects, perhaps some with life of their own.

Size and Distance

Our solar system extends much farther than the eight planets that orbit the Sun. The solar
system also includes the Kuiper Belt that lies past Neptune's orbit. This is a sparsely occupied
ring of icy bodies, almost all smaller than the most popular Kuiper Belt Object, dwarf planet
Pluto.

Pluto nearly fills the frame in this image from the Long Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI)
aboard NASA's New Horizons spacecraft, taken on July 13, 2015, when the spacecraft was
476,000 miles (768,000 kilometers) from the surface. Image Credit: NASA/JHUAPL/SWRI

And beyond the fringes of the Kuiper belt is the Oort Cloud. This giant spherical shell surrounds
our solar system. It has never been directly observed, but its existence is predicted based on
mathematical models and observations of comets that likely originate there.

Formation

Our solar system formed about 4.5 billion years ago from a dense cloud of interstellar gas and
dust. The cloud collapsed, possibly due to the shockwave of a nearby exploding star, called a
supernova. When this dust cloud collapsed, it formed a solar nebula—a spinning, swirling disk
of material.
At the center, gravity pulled more and more material in. Eventually the pressure in the core was
so great that hydrogen atoms began to combine and form helium, releasing a tremendous
amount of energy. With that, our Sun was born, and it eventually amassed more than 99
percent of the available matter.

Matter farther out in the disk was also clumping together. These clumps smashed into one
another, forming larger and larger objects. Some of them grew big enough for their gravity to
shape them into spheres, becoming planets, dwarf planets and large moons. In other cases,
planets did not form: the asteroid belt is made of bits and pieces of the early solar system that
could never quite come together into a planet. Other smaller leftover pieces became asteroids,
comets, meteoroids, and small, irregular moons.

Structure

The order and arrangement of the planets and other bodies in our solar system is due to the
way the solar system formed. Nearest the Sun, only rocky material could withstand the heat
when the solar system was young. For this reason, the first four planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth
and Mars—are terrestrial planets. They're small with solid, rocky surfaces.

Meanwhile, materials we are used to seeing as ice, liquid or gas settled in the outer regions of
the young solar system. Gravity pulled these materials together, and that is where we find gas
giants Jupiter and Saturn and ice giants Uranus and Neptune.

Potential for Life

Our solar system is the only place we know of that harbors life, but the farther we explore the
more we find potential for life in other places. Both Jupiter’s moon Europa and Saturn’s moon
Enceladus have global saltwater oceans under thick, icy shells.

Moons

There are more than 150 known moons in our solar system and several more awaiting
confirmation of discovery. Of the eight planets, Mercury and Venus are the only ones with no
moons. The giant planets grab the most moons. Jupiter and Saturn have long lead our solar
system’s moon counts. In some ways, the swarms of moons around these worlds resemble mini
versions of our solar system. Pluto, smaller than our own moon, has five moons in its orbit,
including the Charon, a moon so large it makes Pluto wobble. Even tiny asteroids can have
moons. In 2017, scientists found asteroid 3122 Florence had two tiny moons .

VII. PLANETS
When many of us grew up, there were nine planets in the Solar System. It was like a
fixed point in our brains. As kids, memorizing this list was an early right of passage of nerd
pride: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto.
But then in 2005, Mike Brown discovered Eris, an icy object thought to be about the
same size as Pluto, out beyond its orbit. That would bring the total number of planets to ten.
Right? There's no turning back, textbooks would need to be changed.
In order to settle the dispute, the International Astronomical Union met in 2006, and
argued for, and against Pluto's planethood. Some astronomers advocated widening the number
of planets to twelve, including Pluto, its moon Charon, the Asteroid Ceres, and the newly
discovered Eris. In the end, they changed the definition of what makes a planet, and sadly,
Pluto doesn't make the cut:

Here are the new requirements of planethood status:

1. A planet has to orbit the Sun. Okay fine, Pluto does that.
2. A planet needs enough gravity to pull itself into a sphere. Okay, spherical. Pluto's fine there
too.
3. A planet needs to have cleared out its orbit of other objects. Uh oh, Pluto hasn't done that.

For example, planet Earth accounts for a million times the rest of the material in its orbit, while
Pluto is just a fraction of the icy objects in its realm.

The final decision was to demote Pluto from planet to dwarf planet.

There's Ceres, the first asteroid ever discovered, and the smallest of the dwarf planets. The
surface of Ceres is made of ice and rock, and it might even have a liquid ocean under its
surface. NASA's Dawn mission is flying there right now to give us close up pictures for the first
time.

Haumea, named after the Hawaiian goddess of fertility, is about a third the mass of Pluto, and
has just enough gravity to pull itself into an ellipsoid, or egg shape. Even though it's smaller, it's
got moons of its own.

Makemake, a much larger Kuiper belt object, has a diameter about two-thirds the size of Pluto.
It was discovered in 2005 by Mike Brown and his team. So far, Makemake doesn't seem to have
any moons.

Eris is the most massive known dwarf planet, and the one that helped turn our definition of a
planet upside-down. It's 27% more massive than Pluto and the ninth most massive body that
orbits the Sun. It even has a moon: Dysnomia.

And of course, Pluto. The founding member of the dwarf family.

Want an easy way to remember the eight planets, in order? Just remember this
mnemonic: my very excellent mother just served us noodles.

The more we discover about our Universe, the more we realize just how strange and wonderful
it is. When Pluto was discovered 80 years ago, we never could have expected the variety of
objects in the Solar System. Categorizing Pluto as a dwarf planet helps us better describe our
celestial home.
So, our Solar System now has eight planets, and five dwarf planets.
ASSESSMENT: Perform the following activities

1. Make a concept map about the effects of typhoon

2. Make photo collage of the different effects of earthquake and volcanic eruptions.
3. Post self-pictures of practicing safety precautions on the effects of sun’s heat and light.
4. What are the different phases of the moon? Give each characteristic.
5. Illustrate the constellation of the zodiac.
6. Create a model or mock-up of Sun Earth, and Moon as instructional Materials.
7. Select a planet and prepare a promotional brochure

Post-Test
Direction: Answer the following questions:
1. What are the effects of typhoon?
2. What are different effects of earthquake and volcanic eruptions?
3. How would you protect yourself on the effects of sun’s heat and light?
4. What are the different phases of the moon?

SCORING RUBRICS

Promptness Submitted 10 days Submitted 8 days Submitted 6 days Submitted 4 days Submitted 2 days
before due date before due date before due date before due date before due date
Assignment: Perform the following activities:
1. Download and Study the Curriculum Guide in Science for Intermediate Level.
2. Explain how Constructivist Theory can be applied in teaching Science.
3. Explain the Teaching Cycle.

Feedback: Send the soft copy of your outputs at the google classroom on or before March 31,
2021. Feel free to send any questions regarding the activities on any of my social platforms
during the scheduled time of consultation.

References:
Abutay, Lelani R. et.al., Science Grade 4 Learner’s Materials.Pasig City: Philippines,
Lexicon Press Inc., 2015
https://pnsn.org/outreach/earthquakesources/volcanic#:~:text=Volcanically%20triggered
%20earthquakes%20have%20the,caused%20by%20non%2Dvolcanic%20sources.
https://sciencing.com/what-effects-do-typhoons-cause-on-animals-humans-plants-
13667558.html
https://sciencing.com/suns-energy-5454679.html
https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/moon-
phases/en/#:~:text=The%20eight%20Moon%20phases%3A&text=%F0%9F%8C%94%
20Waxing%20Gibbous%3A%20The%20waxing,half%20moon%20and%20full%20moon
. https://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/skytellers/constellations/
Sarte, Evelyn T., et.al., Science Beyond Borders 5. Quezon City, Philippines: Vibal
Group, Inc., 2016
Sarte, Evelyn T., et.al., Science Beyond Borders 6. Quezon City, Philippines: Vibal
Group, Inc., 2016
www.worldwildelife.org

Prepared by:

LORENZO G. HATE, Ph. D.

[email protected]
09102843160