Climatology

torrid zone
The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least once a year on all latitudes in between
the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. receives the maximum heat
The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any latitude beyond the Tropic of Cancer
and the Tropic of Capricorn. The angle of the sun’s rays goes on decreasing towards
the poles.

temperate zones
Moderate temperature

frigid zones
Areas lying beyond the Arctic circle and the Antarctic circle are very cold. Here the
sun does not rise much above the horizon. Therefore, its rays are always slanting.

Since the earth makes one complete rotation of 360° in one day or 24 hours, it
passes through 15° in one hour or 1° in 4 minutes. The earth rotates from west to
east, so every 15° we go eastwards, local time is advanced by 1 hour. Thus, the
places east of Greenwich gain time, whereas places west of Greenwich lose time.
Most countries adopt their standard time from the central meridian of their countries.
E.g. IST corresponds to the time at 82.5° E longitude.

One hundred fifty years ago, British colonialists introduced “Chaibagaan time” or
“Bagaan time”, a schedule observed by tea planters, which was one hour ahead of
IST.
The shape of the earth is Geoid (some sources mention it as an oblate spheroid).
That is, the earth is slightly flattened at the poles and bulged at the equatorial
region.
The gravitational force is not the same at different latitudes on the surface. It is
greater near the poles and less at the equator.
At the same time that the Earth spins on its axis, it also orbits or revolves around the
Sun. This movement is called revolution. The plane in which the earth revolves
around the sun is called an orbital plane or the ecliptic.
Daylight saving in temperate regions
Typically, users in regions with summer time (countries in extreme north and south)
adjust clocks forward one hour close to the start of spring and adjust them
backwards in the autumn to standard time.
Equinox
At this position, neither of the poles are tilted towards the sun; so, the whole earth
experiences equal days and equal nights. This is called an equinox.
On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the sun fall on the equator.

Days are always longer than nights at the equator

Even though the actual sun is below the horizon, its apparent image would appear
above the horizon due to refraction. This makes the days longer than nights at the
equator.

How much does the elliptical orbit affect the weather on earth?
● Amount of energy received from the sun : The difference in the amount of
the sun's energy that the earth receives (called the solar constant) doesn't
vary considerably between perihelion and aphelion.
● Duration of seasons : Earth is farther away from the Sun in summer.
Therefore, its orbital velocity is at its lowest, and it requires more time to travel
from the summer solstice point to the autumnal equinox (September 23rd)
than it needs to move between the winter solstice and vernal equinox (21st
March). in the northern hemisphere the summer is slightly longer than the
winter.
● Eclipse : On earth, we experience two kinds of eclipses: 1) solar eclipses that
occur only on a new moon day and lunar eclipses that occur only on a full
moon day.
The Moon's rotation is tidally locked by Earth's gravity; therefore, most of the same
lunar side always faces Earth. This near side is variously sunlit, depending on the
position of the Moon in its orbit.
● During the New moon phase, the Sun and the Moon are aligned on the
same side of the Earth, and the side of the Moon facing Earth is under
darkness.

● Total Solar Eclipse (Umbra) : A total solar eclipse occurs when the
sun and the moon are exactly in line with the Earth and the moon
completely obscures the sun. During a total solar eclipse, the sun’s
corona is visible to the naked eye as a bright ring around the obscured
sun.
● Annular Solar Eclipse : An annular eclipse occurs when the Sun and
Moon are exactly in line with the Earth, but the apparent size of the
Moon is smaller (when the moon is at its apogee) than that of the Sun.
Hence the Sun appears as a very bright ring surrounding the dark disk
of the Moon.
 ● Not every new moon causes a solar eclipse and not every full moon
sees a lunar eclipse. This is because of the moon's tilted orbit around
Earth with respect to the earth’s orbital plane (ecliptic).

Atmosphere
Evolution of Earth’s atmosphere
● Volcanic outgassing created the primordial atmosphere.
● Outgassing from volcanoes, supplemented by gases produced during the
late heavy bombardment of Earth, produced the next atmosphere.
● Over time, the Earth’s surface solidified leaving behind hot volatiles which
resulted in a heavy CO2 atmosphere with hydrogen, nitrogen, inert gases
and water vapour.
● After the formation of oceans, dissolving in ocean water removed most
CO2 from the atmosphere.
● The early atmosphere contained almost no oxygen.
● Most of the lighter gases like hydrogen and helium escaped into space
and are continually escaping even to the present day due to atmospheric
escape (outer layers stripped by solar wind).
● Nitrogen formed the major part of the then stable "second atmosphere". •
Most of the nitrogen in the air was carried out from deep inside the earth
by volcanoes.
● In the late Archean Eon, an oxygen-containing atmosphere began to
develop, apparently produced by photosynthesising cyanobacteria.
● Two main processes govern changes in the oxygen levels in the atmosphere:
○ Plants use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, releasing oxygen.
○ Periods with much oxygen in the atmosphere are associated with rapid
development of animals.
The composition of Earth's atmosphere is largely governed by the by-products of the
life that it sustains. Dry air from Earth's atmosphere contains 78.08% nitrogen,
20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.04% carbon dioxide, and traces of hydrogen,
helium, and other noble gases. The remaining gases are often referred to as
trace gases, among which are the greenhouse gases, principally carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone.
The proportion of gases changes in the higher layers of the atmosphere in such a
way that oxygen will be almost in negligible quantity at the height of 120 km.

Important constituents of the atmosphere

● Oxygen :
● Nitrogen : a relatively inert gas and is an important constituent of all organic
compounds. to control combustion by diluting oxygen
● Carbon Dioxide : Being an efficient absorber of heat, carbon dioxide is a very
important factor in the heat energy budget. More carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere means more heat absorption.
● Ozone (O3) : between 20 km and 30 km altitude (stratosphere) that the
greatest concentrations of ozone are found. formed at higher altitudes (due to
interaction between O2 and UV light) and transported downwards. Ozone
plays a crucial role in blocking the harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
● Water Vapour : one of the most variable gaseous substances present in the
atmosphere – constituting between 0.02% and 4% of the total volume (in cold
dry and humid tropical climates respectively). 90% of moisture content in the
atmosphere exists within 6 km of the surface of the earth. It absorbs not
only the long-wave terrestrial radiation (infrared or heat emitted by earth
during nights), but also a part of the incoming short-wave solar radiation
(visible and UV radiation). Water vapour is the source of precipitation and
clouds.
● Solid Particles : sand particles , pollen grains, small organisms, soot, ocean
salts. These solid particles perform the function of absorbing, reflecting and
scattering the radiation. Consequently, responsible for the orange and red
colours at sunset and sunrise and for the length of dawn (the first appearance
of light in the sky before sunrise) and Twilight (the soft glowing light from the
sky when the sun is below the horizon, caused by the refraction of the sun's
rays by the atmosphere. The blue colour of the sky is also due to selective
scattering by dust particles. nuclei of condensation. Thus, dust particles
are an important contributory factor in the formation of clouds and different
forms of precipitation, fog and hailstones, etc.
Mains 2015: How far do you agree that the behaviour of the Indian monsoon
has been changing due to humanising landscapes? Discuss.
Humanising landscapes refers to the large-scale interaction of humans with the
natural environment and the consequent changes brought upon due to such
interactions. urbanisation, industrialisation, deforestation and desertification,
depletion of water resources, etc.
Consequences : rapid increase in concentration of greenhouse gases and aerosols
in the atmosphere, global climate change, changes in sea surface temperature,
alarming rate of depletion of natural resources, imbalances in ecosystems, etc.

Structure of Atmosphere

Troposphere
● The thickness is greater at the equator because of the heated air that rises to
greater heights.
● Meteorologically the most significant zone in the entire atmosphere (all
weather phenomena like cyclones, rainfall, fog and hailstorm etc. are confined
to this layer).
● It is also called the convective region since all convection stops at
Tropopause.
● Tropopause
● As one goes upwards, T falls (positive lapse rate) at the rate of 6.5 °C per
kilometre.
Stratosphere
● The temperature in this layer remains constant for some distance but then
rises (negative lapse rate) to reach a level of 0 °C at 50 km altitude.
● This rise is due to the presence of ozone
 ● Almost free from clouds and associated weather phenomenon, making
conditions most ideal for flying aeroplanes.
● Ozonosphere : at an altitude between 20 km and 55 km from the earth’s
surface and spans the stratosphere and lower mesosphere. This layer
absorbs and reflects the harmful ultraviolet radiation. also called
chemosphere. Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused by
chlorofluorocarbons, bromofluorocarbons and other ozone-depleting
substances that increase the concentrations of chlorine and bromine
radicals.
Mesosphere
● Most of the meteors burn up in this layer on entering from space. Just below
the mesopause, the air is so cold that even the very scarce water vapour at
this altitude can be sublimated into polar mesospheric noctilucent clouds.
Thermosphere
● Temperature rises (negative lapse rate) very rapidly with increasing height
because of radiation from the sun.
● The Ionosphere is a part of this layer. It extends between 80-400 km.
● Though temperature is high, the atmosphere is extremely rarefied
● The International Space Station and satellites orbit in this layer
● Aurora’s are observed in lower parts of this layer.
Exosphere
● uppermost layer of the atmosphere extending beyond the ionosphere above a
height of about 400 km. • The air is extremely rarefied, and the temperature
gradually increases through the layer. • Light gases like helium and hydrogen
float into the space from here.
Atmospheric escape
Atmospheric escape of gases (atmospheric stripping) happens when gas molecules
achieve escape velocity due to low gravity or due to energy received from the
sun (heat, solar wind). Earth's magnetic field reduces atmospheric escape by
protecting the atmosphere from solar wind that would otherwise greatly enhance
the escape of hydrogen.

Importance of Earth’s Atmosphere

● Life-giving gases
● Regulates the entry of solar radiation
● Temperature balance : In the absence of the atmosphere extremes of
temperature would exist between day and night.
● Blocks harmful radiation
● Shields the earth from impact objects
● Weather and climate :
● Water on earth exists in liquid state due to Atmosphere : Since liquids cannot
exist without pressure
● Scattering of light : Due to a phenomenon called Rayleigh scattering, shorter
(blue) wavelengths scatter more easily than longer (red) wavelengths. This is
 why the sky looks blue. Because the Sun is close to the horizon, the Sun's
rays pass through more atmosphere than normal to reach your eye. Much of
the blue light has been scattered out, leaving the red light in a sunset.

Temperature Distribution on Earth

The differential amount of sun’s energy received by various latitudinal zones on
earth is the primary reason behind the occurrence of seasonal patterns of weather
and climate.
● Ways of Transfer of Heat Energy : Radiation, Conduction, Convection, Heat
from the interior
● Insolation : Earth receives sun’s radiation in the form of short waves (visible
light or wavelengths below visible light – most of it is ultraviolet radiation)
which are electromagnetic. reflects the heat received into space as
long-wave radiation (mostly infrared radiation which is nothing but heat)
during night.
Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution
● The Angle of Incidence or the Inclination of the Sun’s Rays : The sun’s
rays get progressively slanting as one moves away from the equator towards
poles.
● Duration of Sunshine : Heat received depends on day or night; clear sky or
overcast, summer or winter etc.
● Transparency of Atmosphere
● Albedo : proportion of sunlight that the surface can reflect back into space.
Albedo of land is much greater than albedo of oceans and water bodies.
Snow-covered areas reflect up to 70-90% of insolation.
● Land-Sea Differential : water takes longer to get heated up and to cool
down.
● Prevailing Winds : Winds transfer heat from one latitude to another. Winds
also help in exchange of heat between land and water bodies. E.g. Land
breeze and sea breeze.
● Aspects of Slope :
● Ocean Currents : U.K., considering its latitudinal location, has a relatively
moderate climate due to the warm North Atlantic Drift.
● Altitude : With increase in height, pressure falls, the effect of greenhouse
gases decreases and hence temperature decreases
● Earth’s Distance from Sun :
The Mean Annual Temperature Distribution
General Temperature Distribution
● The highest temperatures occur over tropics and subtropics.
● The lowest temperatures occur in polar and subpolar regions and the interiors
of large continental subpolar regions due to the effect of continentality.
● Diurnal (daily) and annual range of temperatures are highest in the interiors of
continents due to continentality. least in oceans because of high specific heat
and mixing.
● The northern hemisphere is warmer because of the predominance of land
over water in the north.
● Temperature gradients are usually low over the eastern margins of
continents because of warm ocean currents.
● Temperature gradients are usually high over the western margins of
continents because of cold ocean currents.
Seasonal Temperature Distribution
January
● Northern Hemisphere : western margins of continents are warmer than their
eastern counterparts since the Westerlies are able to carry high temperature
(from the oceans) into the landmasses. The isotherms deviate to the north
over the ocean. The isotherms deviate to the south over the continents (due
to continentality).
● Southern Hemisphere : The effect of the ocean is well pronounced in, and
the isotherms exhibit a more regular behaviour. The high-temperature belt
runs in the southern hemisphere, somewhere along 30° S latitude (subtropics
are devoid of cloud cover due to anticyclonic circulation at the surface).
● Northern Hemisphere : Over the northern continents, a poleward bend of the
isotherms indicates that the landmasses are overheated, and the hot tropical
winds are able to go far into the northern interiors. The isotherms over the
northern oceans show an equatorward shift indicating that the oceans are
cooler and are able to carry the moderating effect into tropical interiors. The
highest temperature belt runs through northern Africa, West Asia, north-west
India and south-eastern USA.
 ● The earth experiences highest temperatures in the subtropics in the
northern hemisphere rather than at the equator : no cloud cover in the
subtropics because of the subsiding air and the consequent divergence
(anticyclonic circulation) at the surface.

Heat Budget

Vertical Distribution of Temperature

When water vapour in the atmosphere condenses into raindrops latent heat of
condensation is released. Water evaporates from the ocean surface by absorbing
latent heat of evaporation.
● Lapse Rate : considered positive when the temperature decreases with
elevation. GHGs like CO2, water vapor, are the primary absorbers of the
terrestrial radiation and their concentration is highest at the earth’s surface
and goes on decreasing with altitude. Hence, temperature falls with
altitude. averages about 6-6.5 °C per kilometre
● Adiabatic Lapse Rate (ALR) : rate of fall in temperature of a rising or a
falling air parcel adiabatically,
● Rising parcel of air : With the fall in ambient pressure, the volume of the air
parcel increases and hence the temperature of the air parcel falls (gas law).
an adiabatic process as there is no heat exchange between the air parcel and
the external environment. Temperature changes are only due to change in
pressure or volume or both. The fall in temperature aids condensation of
water vapour. The latent heat of condensation is the major driving force
behind tropical cyclones, convectional rain.
● Falling parcel of air : The beginning of fall is a non-adiabatic process as
there is an exchange of heat between the air parcel and the surrounding
environment. When an air parcel is falling, the atmospheric pressure acting on
it will increase, and its internal temperature will increase adiabatically.
 ● Katabatic Wind ➔ a hot dry wind that blows down a mountain slope. It is an
example of a falling parcel of air in which the temperature changes happening
adiabatically.

Temperature Inversion
Temperature inversion is a reversal of the normal behaviour of temperature in the
troposphere, in which a layer of cool air at the surface is overlain by a layer of
warmer air
Ideal Conditions for Temperature Inversion
● Long nights, so that the outgoing radiation is greater than the incoming
radiation.
● Clear skies, which allow unobstructed escape of radiation.
● Calm and stable air, so that there is no vertical mixing at lower levels.
Types of Temperature Inversion
● Temperature Inversion in Intermontane Valley (Air Drainage Type of
Inversion)
○ The top part of the sloping surface radiates heat back to space rapidly
and cools the surrounding air making it denser. The cold air sinks
towards the bottom along the slope and settles as a zone of low
temperature at the bottom while the upper layers are relatively warmer.
○ very strong in the middle and higher latitudes and regions with high
mountains or deep valleys.
 ● Ground Inversion (Surface Temperature Inversion)
○ This type of inversion occurs when air in contact with a colder surface
becomes cooler than the overlying atmosphere. • This occurs most
often on clear nights when the ground cools off rapidly by radiation.
○ very common in the higher latitudes. • In the lower and middle
latitudes, this kind of inversion gets destroyed easily during daytime.
● Subsidence Inversion (Upper Surface Temperature Inversion)
○ Subsidence inversions are common over areas located under large
high-pressure centres.
● Frontal Inversion (Advectional type of Temperature Inversion)
○ A frontal inversion occurs when a cold air mass undercuts a warm air
mass and lifts it aloft.
○ This type of inversion is unstable and is destroyed as the weather
changes.
Effects of Temperature Inversion
● Convection is inhibited. In regions where a pronounced low-level inversion
is present, convective clouds cannot grow high enough to produce rain.
● Pollution is exacerbated: diffusion of dust, smoke, and other pollutants is
limited due to stable conditions.
● Because air near the base of an inversion tends to be cool, fog is frequently
present there. Fog lowers visibility affecting vegetation and human
settlements.
● Inversions also affect diurnal variations in temperature. Diurnal variations
tend to be very small.
Effect on intermontane valley regions
● The temperature of the air at the valley bottom can go below freezing whereas
the air at higher altitude remains comparatively warm.
● The trees along the lower slopes are bitten by frost, whereas those at higher
levels are free from it. • Houses and farms in intermontane valleys are usually
situated along the upper slopes, avoiding the cold and foggy valley bottoms.

Pressure Systems and Wind Systems

Vertical Variation of Pressure
● In the lower atmosphere, the pressure decreases rapidly with height. Since
air pressure is proportional to density as well as temperature, it follows that a
change in either temperature or density will cause a corresponding change in
the pressure.
● The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that of the horizontal
pressure gradient. However, it is generally balanced by a nearly equal but
opposite gravitational force. Hence, we do not experience strong upward
winds.
Factors affecting Wind Movement
● Pressure Gradient Force : This movement (motion) of air is called wind.
Greater the pressure difference, greater is the wind speed. The wind
direction follows the direction of pressure gradient, i.e. perpendicular to the
isobars.
● Buoyant force : The surrounding atmosphere exerts buoyant force on
low-pressure cells and hence the air within a low-pressure cell rises.
Rising air is associated with convergence and unstable weather
(cyclonic conditions) whereas the sinking (subsiding) air is associated
with divergence and stable conditions (anticyclonic conditions).
● Frictional Force : At the surface, due to high friction, the wind direction
makes high angles with isobars.
● Coriolis force : Due to this effect, winds in the northern hemisphere get
deflected to the right of their path and those in the southern hemisphere to
their left (Farrell’s Law). Coriolis force is zero at the equator but increases with
latitude, reaching a maximum at the poles.

Geostrophic Wind
When isobars are straight, and when there is no friction, the pressure gradient
force is balanced by the Coriolis force, and the resultant wind blows parallel to
the isobar (deflection of the wind is maximum). • This wind is known as the
geostrophic wind.

Horizontal Distribution of Pressure

● Equatorial Low-Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’
○ lies between 10°N and 10°S latitudes. The position of the belt varies
with the apparent movement of the Sun.
○ This belt happens to be the zone of convergence of trade winds
(Intertropical Convergence Zone or ITCZ) from two hemispheres
from sub-tropical high-pressure belts.
○ called the doldrums, because of the extremely calm air movements.
○ Formation : Due to intense heating, the air gets heated up creating a
low-pressure region (thermally formed).
○ Climate : The air at the margins of the low-pressure region rises
(convection) giving rise to clouds and turbulent weather along the
margins. the region within the belt is characterised by extremely low
pressure yet calm weather conditions. Vertical winds carrying
moisture from cumulonimbus thunderstorm clouds (convectional
rainfall). No cyclone
Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belt or Horse Latitudes
● So, the high pressure (dynamically formed) along this belt is due to
subsidence of air coming from the equatorial region and the subpolar region.
● Climate : The subsiding air is warm (heated due to increases in ambient
pressure) and dry, therefore, most of the deserts are present along this belt, in
both hemispheres. calm condition (anticyclonic) with feeble winds.
● Also called Horse Latitudes
Sub-Polar Low-Pressure Belt
● located between 45°N and the Arctic circle (66.5° N) and 45°S and the
Antarctic circles (66.5° S) respectively.
● dynamically produced due to : Coriolis Force and Ascent of air as a
result of convergence of westerlies (coming from the subtropical
high-pressure regions) and polar easterlies (coming from the polar regions).
● mainly encountered above oceans.
● During winter, because of a high contrast between land and sea, this belt is
broken into two distinct low centres – one in the vicinity of the Aleutian Islands
and the other between Iceland and Greenland.
● During summer, a lesser contrast results in a more developed and
regular belt.
● Climate : produces polar jet streams which encircles the earth at 60 degrees
latitudes and is focused in these low-pressure areas.
Polar High-Pressure Belt
● They lie around poles between 80 – 90° N and S latitudes.

Factors Controlling Pressure Systems

● Thermal Factors : Formation of equatorial low and polar highs
● Dynamic Factors : arising out of pressure gradient forces, apparent
movement of sun and rotation of the earth (Coriolis force).
● The rate of deflection of wind increases with distance from the equator
(Coriolis force). The defection is higher in the upper troposphere due to less
friction. As a result, by the time the poleward directed winds in the upper
troposphere reach 25° latitude, they are deflected into a nearly west-to-east
flow. Similarly, equatorward directed winds. This produces a blocking effect
and the air piles up. This causes a general subsidence in the areas between
the tropics and 35°N and S, and they develop into high-pressure belts.
Pressure systems and General Circulation
The pattern of planetary winds depends on:
● latitudinal variation of atmospheric heating;
● emergence of pressure belts;
● the migration of belts following apparent path of the sun;
● the distribution of continents and oceans;
● the rotation of earth.
Classification of Winds
Permanent winds or Primary winds or Prevailing winds or Planetary Winds
● Trade Winds
○ blowing from the subtropical high-pressure areas towards the
equatorial low-pressure belt.
○ between 30°N and 30°S throughout the earth’s surface.
○ The trade winds from two hemispheres meet near the equator, and due
to convergence, they rise and cause heavy rainfall.
● The Westerlies
○ winds blowing from the sub-tropical high-pressure belts towards the
sub-polar low-pressure belts.
○ The westerlies of the southern hemisphere are stronger and persistent
due to the vast expanse of water, while those of the northern
hemisphere are irregular because of uneven relief of vast land-masses.
○ best developed between 40° and 65°S latitudes.
● Polar easterlies
○ The Polar easterlies are dry, cold prevailing winds blowing from
north-east to south-west direction in the Northern Hemisphere and
southeast to north-west in the Southern Hemisphere. • They blow from
the high-pressure polar areas of the subpolar lows.
Secondary or Periodic Winds
● These winds change their direction with change in season.
E.g, Monsoons land and sea breeze, mountain and valley breeze,
cyclones and anticyclones, and air masses.
● During the night the slopes get cooled, and the dense air descends into the
valley as the mountain wind. In mountainous regions, during the day the
slopes get heated up, and air moves upslope(Valley Breeze)

Tertiary or Local Winds

Local differences of temperature and pressure produce local winds.
Loo, Foehn or Fohn, Chinook(Foehn of the Rockies), Mistral, Sirocco

Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle)

There is a continuous exchange of water between the atmosphere, the oceans and
the continents through the processes of evaporation, transpiration, condensation and
precipitation.
Water Vapour in Atmosphere
Water vapour in air varies from zero to four per cent by volume of the atmosphere.
Water vapour absorbs both incoming and outgoing radiation and hence plays a
crucial role in the earth’s heat budget. The amount of water vapour present decides
the quantity of latent energy stored up in the atmosphere for development of storms
and cyclones.
Relative Humidity
The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere as compared to its full
capacity at a given temperature. Relative humidity is greater over the oceans and
least over the continents.
Relative humidity can be changed in either of the two ways:
● By adding moisture through evaporation
● By changing temperature of air
Dew point
The temperature at which saturation occurs in a given sample of air is known as dew
point. • Dew point occurs when Relative Humidity = 100%.

Evaporation
The highest annual evaporation occurs in the sub-tropics of the western North
Atlantic and North Pacific because of the influence of the Gulf Stream and the
Kuroshio Current, and in the trade wind zone of the southern oceans.
The land maximum occurs in equatorial regions because of high insolation and
luxuriant vegetation.
Factors Affecting Rate of Evaporation
● Amount of water available.
● Area of evaporating surface
● Temperature.
● Relative humidity
● Wind
● Whenever there is a combination of high temperature, very low relative
humidity and strong winds, the rate of evaporation is exceptionally high. This
leads to dehydration of soil to a depth of several inches.
● Air Pressure : Lower pressure over the open surface of the liquid results in a
higher rate of evaporation.
● Composition of water: Evaporation is inversely proportional to salinity of water.

Condensation
● The transformation of water vapour into water is called condensation.
● hygroscopic condensation nuclei. : Particles of dust, smoke, pollen and salt
● Condensation takes place: when the temperature of the air is reduced to dew
point & when moisture is added to the air through evaporation (increase in
relative humidity)
● Condensation takes place when the dew point is lower than the freezing point
as well as higher than the freezing point.
● The non-adiabatic processes of cooling produce only dew, fog or frost. They
are incapable of producing a substantial amount of precipitation.
Forms of Condensation
● White frost, snow, hailstones and some clouds (cirrus clouds) are produced
when the temperature is lower than the freezing point.
● Dew, fog and clouds result even when the temperature is higher than the
freezing point.
Smog
Smog = smoke + fog (smoky fog) caused by the burning of large amounts of coal,
vehicular emission and industrial fumes (primary pollutants). At least two distinct
types of smog are recognised: sulphurous smog and photochemical smog.
Sulphurous smog
results from a high concentration of sulphur oxides in the air and is caused by the
use of sulphur-bearing fossil fuels, particularly coal. aggravated by dampness and
a high concentration of suspended particulate matter in the air.
Photochemical smog
occurs most prominently in urban areas that have large numbers of automobiles
(nitrogen oxides are the primary emissions). forms when nitrogen oxides (primary
pollutant) and volatile organic compounds (primary pollutants) react together in the
presence of sunlight to form ozone (secondary pollutant).
Ozone in stratosphere it is beneficial, but near the earth’s surface it results in global
warming as it is a greenhouse gas
Effects of Smog
● Smog is a combination of airborne particulate matter, like soot, and invisible
toxic gases including ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide
(SO2), which are carcinogens (cancer-causing agents).
● The atmospheric pollution increased by inversion that traps pollution close to
the ground.
● lowers visibility.

Mains 2015: Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata are the three megacities of the country,
but the air pollution is a much more serious problem in Delhi as compared to
the other two. Why is this so? (200 words)

Clouds
● Cloud is a mass of minute water droplets or tiny crystals of ice formed by the
condensation of the water vapour in free air at considerable elevations. •
Clouds are caused mainly by the adiabatic cooling of air below its dew point.
● According to their height, expanse, density and transparency or opaqueness
clouds are grouped under four types: (i) cirrus; (ii) cumulus; (iii) stratus; (iv)
nimbus.

Precipitation
Condensation of water vapour followed by release of moisture is known as
precipitation. E.g, Drizzle, Rainfall, Snowfall, Sleet, Hail
Types of Rainfall
● Convectional Rainfall : The air on being heated, becomes light and rises in
convection currents. As it rises, it expands and loses heat, and consequently,
condensation takes place, and cumulus clouds are formed. short duration,
highly localised. It occurs mainly during summer and is common over
equatorial doldrums in the Congo basin, the Amazon basin and the
islands of south-east Asia.
 ● Orographic Rainfall

The area situated on the leeward side, which gets less rainfall is known as the
rain-shadow area (some arid and semi-arid regions are a direct
consequence of rain-shadow effect. Example: Patagonian Desert in
Argentina, Eastern slopes of Western Ghats, etc.).
● Frontal Rainfall
● Cyclonic Rain
● Monsoonal Rainfall
World Distribution of Rainfall
Thunderstorm
Thunderstorms and tornadoes are severe local storms that involve rapid
convection or upliftment of air. short duration, occurring over a small area but
are violent. Thunderstorm is a storm with thunder and lightning and typically also
heavy rain or hail. Thunderstorms mostly occur on ground where the
temperature is high.

Tornado
Tornado is a small-diameter column of violently rotating air developed within a
convective cloud and in contact with the ground. Tornadoes generally occur in
middle latitudes because of convergence of warm and cold air masses.
When warm, humid air meets a cold air mass, horizontally spinning winds are
created. The rotating warm air condenses into rain which in turn pulls the
mesocyclone closer to the ground; then the tornado begins to form.
strongest winds known on Earth:
The temperate and tropical regions are the most prone to thunderstorms and
tornadoes.

Lightning and thunder

Water vapour condenses into small ice crystals when it moves upward in the
cumulonimbus cloud. The ice crystals continue to move up until they gather enough
mass that can overcome the buoyant force. This leads to a system where smaller ice
crystals move up while bigger crystals come down. The resulting collisions trigger
the release of electrons, in a process very similar to the generation of electric sparks.
The process results in a situation in which the top layer of the cloud gets positively
charged (cations) while the middle and bottom layers are negatively (anions)
charged.
The electrical potential difference between the top and the bottom layers is huge, -
huge current starts to flow - The heated air column expands and produces shock
waves that result in thunder.
Thunder is the sound caused by the discharge of atmospheric electrical
charge (plasma ― ionised gas medium ― 30,000 °C) by lightning.
Lightning from cloud to Earth
In comparison to the middle layer of the cloud, however, it becomes positively
charged. As a result, a flow of current (about 20-15%) gets directed towards the
Earth as well. It is this current flow that results in the damage to life and property.
The most common way in which people are struck by lightning are by ground
currents.

Hailstorm
Hail is a form of solid precipitation in which frozen pellets fall in showers from a
cumulonimbus cloud. A hailstone is a layered irregular lump of ice. It is made of thick
and translucent layers, alternating with layers that are thin, white and opaque.
Favourable conditions for hail formation
● Strong, upward motion of air (updraft) within the parent thunderstorm.
● Great vertical extent of the cumulonimbus cloud.
● Good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing 0 °C.
● High surface temperatures.
Formation of hail
Hail begins as water droplets in a cumulonimbus cloud. As the droplets rise and the
temperature goes below freezing, they freeze on contact with condensation nuclei.
The storm's updraft with great wind speeds (180 kmph) blows the forming
hailstones up the cloud. It doesn’t fall immediately to the surface because of
melting, friction with air, wind, and interaction with rain and other hailstones that
slow its descent. In the process, it acquires more layers.
Finally, it may fall to the surface as hailstone if it can overcome the frictional
force of the wind and ground temperature.
Delhi and the surrounding regions experienced a very severe hailstorm in February
2019.
Under the right conditions, rainfall from thunderstorms causes flash flooding
(cloudburst). Lightning is responsible for many fires around the world each year and
causes fatalities. Hail damages crops, vehicle windshields, windows, and kills
livestock caught out in the open.

Cloudburst
● Cloudbursts are sudden and extreme rainfall events over a limited area in a
short span of time. As per IMD, a cloudburst is any event where 100
millimetres of rainfall have fallen in a span of an hour over a region that is
20-30 square kilometres in area.
● It is very difficult to predict the cloud bursts due to its very small scale in space
and time.
● National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is the nodal agency
responsible for monitoring the relief operation.
 ● Formation of cumulonimbus clouds
● Cloudbursts do happen in plains as well, but there is a greater probability of
them occurring in mountainous zones.
Impact of Cloudburst
● Flash Flood
● Landslides
● Loss of life and property
Way Forward
● Radar Network: To monitor the cloud burst, there is a need to have a dense
radar network over the cloudburst prone areas or one need to have very high
resolution weather forecasting models to resolve the scale of cloud burst.
● Avoiding constructing settlements in fragile slopes and along the streams.
● Imparting training to the rural people for minimizing damage.
Tropical Cyclones
● Tropical cyclones originate over oceans in tropical areas in late summers.
● They are rapidly rotating violent storms characterised by : a closed
low-pressure centre with steep pressure gradients, closed low-level
atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of
thunderstorms that produce very heavy rain.
● The closed air circulation (cyclonic circulation) is a result of rapid
upward movement of hot moist air which is subjected to Coriolis force.
● Conditions necessary for the Formation of a Tropical Cyclone
○ Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C : Good Source
of Latent Heat
○ Presence of the Coriolis force enough to create a cyclonic vortex
○ A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation
○ Low wind shear
○ Upper-level divergence
● Why do tropical cyclones form mostly on the western margins of the
oceans?
○ Because of warm ocean currents (easterly trade winds drag ocean
waters towards west) that flow from east towards west forming a
thick layer of warm water with temperatures greater than 27°C.
○ The cold currents lower the surface temperatures of the eastern parts
of the tropical oceans making them unfit for the breeding of cyclonic
storms.
● Rising of humid air parcel ➔ ambient pressure on the air parcel decreases
with altitude ➔ adiabatic lapse rate (fall in temperature of air parcel) ➔
condensation of moisture in air parcel due to low temperature ➔ latent heat of
condensation is released in the process ➔ air parcel is heated further due to
the release of latent heat of condensation and becomes less dense ➔ air
parcel is further uplifted ➔ more air comes in to fill the gap ➔ new moisture is
available for condensation ➔ latent heat of condensation is released. The
cycle repeats as long as there is enough supply of moisture.
● Why do cyclones occur mostly in late summers?
○ Due to high specific heat of water, and mixing, the ocean waters in
northern hemisphere attain maximum temperatures in August
○ Whirling motion (cyclonic vortex) is enhanced when the doldrums
(region within ITCZ) over oceans are farthest from the equator
● Low-level Disturbances
○ Low-level disturbance is a low-pressure trough (an extended region
of low-pressure) that moves from east to west in the form of easterly
wave disturbances in the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
○ Easterly wave disturbances act as seedling circulations (birthplace) for
a large number of tropical cyclones.
 ● Why is convective cyclogenesis (tropical cyclogenesis) confined to
tropics?
○ Because of weak vertical wind shear, cyclone formation processes are
limited to latitude equatorward of the subtropical jet stream.
● Why are there very few Tropical Cyclones during the southwest
monsoon season?
○ Large vertical wind shear - southwest monsoon is characterized by
the presence of strong westerly winds
○ Less time for development
● Upper Air Disturbance
○ An upper tropospheric cyclone usually moves slowly from east to west
and is prevalent in summer.
○ The remains of this cyclone (upper tropospheric westerly trough or
tropical upper tropospheric trough) from the westerlies move deep into
the tropical latitude regions.
○ These troughs can assist tropical cyclogenesis and intensification by
providing additional forced ascent.
Cyclogenesis
Cyclogenesis involves any of these three processes:
● Convective cyclogenesis or tropical cyclone formation.
● Frontal cyclogenesis of extratropical cyclone formation.
● Mesocyclones forming as warm core cyclones giving rise to tornadoes and
waterspouts
Tropical depression (maximum sustained wind speed < 63 kmph)
Tropical storm (63 kmph < maximum sustained wind speed < 119 kmph)
Tropical cyclone (maximum sustained wind speed > 119 kmph)

Characteristics of the eye

● a roughly circular area of comparatively light winds and fair weather
● little or no precipitation, and sometimes blue sky or stars can be seen
 ● Along the eye, the air is slowly sinking and is heated due to compressional
warming (adiabatic)
● The eye temperature may be 10°C warmer or more at an altitude of 12 km
than the surrounding environment, but only 0-2°C warmer at the surface in the
tropical cyclone.
● in size from 8 km to over 200 km across
Characteristics of eyewall
● The eye is surrounded by an eyewall, the most violent region of the cyclone.
● Eyewall region experiences the maximum sustained winds, i.e. fastest winds
in a cyclone.
● deep convection (heaviest rainfall in a cyclone).
Mechanism – Mature stage
● At this stage, the spiralling winds create multiple convective cells called
rain bands with successive calm and violent regions.
● Central Dense Overcast (CDO) is the cirrus cloud shield (mostly made up
of hexagonal ice crystals) that results from the thunderstorms in the eyewall of
a tropical cyclone and its rainbands.
Rain bands (Spiral bands)
● A direct circulation develops in which warm, moist air converges at the
surface, ascends through these bands, diverges aloft, and descends on both
sides of the bands.
● Rain bands are mostly made up of cumulonimbus clouds (highest rainfall).
Breeding Grounds for Tropical Cyclones
● Western Pacific (highest number of tropical cyclones): Philippines islands,
eastern China and Japan where they are called typhoons.
● Western Atlantic (South-east Caribbean region) and Eastern Pacific
where they are called hurricanes.
● Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea where they are called cyclones.
● North-west Australia.(Willy-Willies)
Depression(31-49 kmph) < Deep Depression(50-61) < Cyclonic storm(62-87) <
Severe cyclonic storm(88-117) < Very severe cyclonic storm (118-166)< Extremely
severe cyclonic storm(167-221) < Super cyclonic storm(>221)

Path of Tropical Cyclones

● Tropical cyclones generally follow a parabolic path with the parabolic axis
being parallel to the isobars.
● Coriolis force, easterly and westerly winds, and upper tropospheric
westerly trough influence the path of tropical cyclones.
● Westward < NW < Eastward
Why only a few cyclones form over the Arabian Sea as compared to the Bay of
Bengal?
● 4:1 ratio
● More low-level disturbances in Bay of Bengal
● The surface temperature of Bay of Bengal is higher
 ● Arabian Sea surface has higher salinity
● Higher stratification in Bay of Bengal : Freshwater is less dense compared
to saline water. Hence vertical mixing is inhibited in Bay of Bengal.
● high evaporation and low inflow of fresh water increases salinity (water
becomes denser) at the surface in the Arabian Sea, and this increases
vertical mixing.
● Monsoon winds drive away moisture

Damage associated with Tropical Cyclones

● Floods
● Winds
● Storm Surge : Storm surge is accentuated if the landfall time coincides with
that of high tides. (Storm Tide)
Positive effects of Tropical Cyclones
● Tropical cyclones bring rainfall to rain shadow and other parched regions
● Break up Red Tide
● Replenish Barrier Islands
● Speed dispersal to faraway locations : Tropical cyclone wind blow spores and
seeds further inland from where they would normally fall;
Detection of any unusual phenomena in the weather leading to cyclones has three
main parameters: fall in pressure, increase in wind velocity, and the direction
and movement (track) of storm.
4-stage IMD warning system for tropical cyclones
● Pre-Cyclone Watch
● Cyclone Alert (Colour code Yellow)
● Cyclone Warning (Colour code Orange) : Issued at least 24 hours before the
commencement of the bad weather when the cyclone is located within 500
Km from the coast.
● Post-landfall outlook (Colour code Red) : issued 12 hours before the
cyclone landfall when the cyclone is located within 200 km from the coast.
Jet streams
Jet streams are
● Circumpolar, narrow, concentrated bands of, upper tropospheric,
westerly, geostrophic streams, flowing at high velocity, with a degree of
meandering.
When isobars are straight, and when there is no friction, the pressure gradient force
is balanced by the Coriolis force, and the resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar
(deflection of the wind is maximum). This wind is known as the geostrophic wind.
Jet Stream is a geostrophic wind.
● Jet Streams are formed due to pressure difference between air masses
and Coriolis Force.
● Jet stream produced between temperate and tropical air masses is called a
subtropical jet stream. Jet stream produced between polar and temperate
air masses is called a polar jet stream or polar jet.
● Polar jet is stronger; Subtropical jet is higher
● Meandering : When the temperature contrast is maximum, the jet stream
flows in a near straight path. But when temperature contrast reduces (jet
stream is weak), the jet stream starts to follow a meandering path (wavy,
irregular manner with a poleward or equatorward component). The
meandering jet streams are called Rossby Waves.
Permanent jet streams
Polar jet and subtropical jet are permanent jet streams that breeze through the
upper troposphere for most part of the year.

The strongest jet streams are the polar jets, and subtropical jets are somewhat
weaker. The polar front jet is closely related to the polar front (frontogenesis
process in mid-latitudes). The polar front jet is strong and continuous in winter.

Temporary jet streams

● appear only in a particular season
● Somali Jet and The African Easterly Jet
● major high-velocity winds in the lower troposphere, and hence they are
called low level jets (LLJs).
Influence of Jet Streams on Weather
● Jet streams help in maintenance of latitudinal heat balance by mass
exchange of air.
● Subtropical jet stream and some temporary jet streams together influence
Indian Monsoon patterns
● PFJ play a major role in determining the path and intensity of frontal
precipitation and frontal cyclones.
● Weak PFJ also results in slipping of polar vortex into temperate regions.
● Ridges occur where the warm air (at high pressure) pushes against the
cold air. Troughs occur where cold air (at lower pressure) drops into warm air.
This condition occurs due to weak jet stream (lesser temperature contrast
between air masses).
● Jet streams are used by aviators if they have to fly in the direction of the
flow of the jet streams and avoid them when flying in the opposite direction.
Temperate Cyclones
Cyclonic systems developing in the mid and high latitude (35° latitude and 65°
latitude in both hemispheres), beyond the tropics are called temperate cyclones.
known as mid-latitude cyclones, extratropical cyclones, frontal cyclones or
wave cyclones.
Unlike the tropical cyclones (convective cyclogenesis) which have a thermal
origin, the temperate cyclones (frontal cyclogenesis) have a dynamic origin
(complex interaction of air masses under the influence of Coriolis force).

Air Masses
An air mass is a large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and
moisture. They extend from the surface to the lower stratosphere and are across
thousands of kilometres.
Source regions
● The homogenous regions can be the vast ocean surface or vast plains and
plateaus.
● The main source regions are the high-pressure belts in the subtropics
(giving rise to tropical air masses) and around the poles (the source for
polar air masses).
● Source region establishes heat and moisture equilibrium with the
overlying air mass.
● When an air mass moves away from a source region, the upper level
maintains the physical characteristics for a longer period. This is possible
because air masses are stable with stagnant air which do not facilitate
convection.
Conditions for the formation of Air Masses
● Source region should be extensive with gentle, divergent air circulation
(gentle anticyclonic circulation).
● Areas with high-pressure but little pressure difference or pressure
gradient are ideal source regions.
● no major source regions in the midlatitudes as these regions are
dominated by frontal cyclones and other disturbances.
Air masses based on Source Regions
five major source regions
● Warm tropical and subtropical oceans; Maritime tropical (mT);
● subtropical hot deserts; Continental tropical (cT);
● The relatively cold high latitude oceans; Maritime polar (mP);
● The very cold snow covered continents in high latitudes; (cP)
● Permanently ice-covered continents in the Arctic and Antarctica. (cA)
Continental Polar Air Masses (cP)
● Arctic basin, northern North America, Eurasia and Antarctica.
● Dry, cold and stable conditions characterize these air masses.
● The weather during winter is frigid, clear and stable.
Maritime Polar Air Masses (mP)
● Source Regions : oceans between 40° and 60° latitudes.
● The conditions over the source regions are cool, moist and unstable.
● The weather during winters is characterized by high humidity, overcast skies
and occasional fog and precipitation. During summer, the weather is clear, fair
and stable.
Continental Tropical Air Masses (cT)
● tropical and subtropical deserts of Sahara in Africa, and of West Asia and
Australia.
● These air masses are dry, hot and stable and do not extend beyond the
source.
Maritime Tropical Air Masses (mT)
● oceans in tropics and subtropics such as Mexican Gulf, the Pacific and the
Atlantic oceans.
● These air masses are warm, humid and unstable.
● The weather during winter has mild temperatures, overcast skies with fog.
During summer, the weather is characterized by high temperatures, high
humidity, cumulus clouds and convectional rainfall.
Influence of Air Masses on World Weather
● properties of an air mass which influence the accompanying weather :
vertical temperature distribution (indicating its stability and coldness or
warmness) and the moisture content.
● The air masses carry atmospheric moisture from oceans to continents.
● They transport latent heat, thus contributing to latitudinal heat balance.
● Most of the migratory atmospheric disturbances such as cyclones and
storms originate at the contact zone between different air masses called as
fronts.
Fronts
● Front is a three-dimensional boundary zone formed between two
converging air masses with different physical properties. Fronts are the
typical features of mid-latitudes weather (temperate region – 30° - 65° N and
S).
● Front Formation : frontogenesis and frontolysis
● The temperature contrast influences the thickness of the frontal zone in
an inversely proportional manner.
● The frontal activity is invariably associated with cloudiness and precipitation
because of the ascent of warm air which cools down adiabatically,
condenses and causes rainfall.
● Front experiences wind shift since the wind motion is a function of pressure
gradient and Coriolis force.
● Cold Front : when a cold air mass replaces a warm air mass by advancing
into it. Cold front moves up to twice as quickly as warm fronts. The
transition zone between the two is a steep sloped cold front.

● Weather along a cold front : a narrow band of cloudiness and

precipitation (because the slope is steep). Thunderstorms, tornadoes.
Cold fronts produce sharper changes in weather.
● Cloud formation along a cold front : marked by increased wind activity in
warm sector and the appearance of cirrus clouds, followed by lower,
denser altocumulus and altostratus. At actual front, dark nimbus and
cumulonimbus clouds cause heavy showers.
● Warm Front : a sloping frontal surface along which active movement of warm
air over cold air takes place (warm air mass is too weak to beat the cold air
mass).
● Weather along a warm front : unlike a cold front, the temperature and wind
direction changes are gradual. cause moderate to gentle precipitation over
a large area, over several hours.
● Clouds along a warm front : With the approach, the hierarchy of clouds is—-
cirrus, stratus and nimbus (no cumulonimbus clouds as the gradient is
gentle).Cirrostratus clouds ahead of the warm front create a halo around sun
and moon.
● Occluded Front : Occlusion: a process by which the cold front of a rotating
low-pressure system catches up the warm front so that the warm air between
 them is forced upwards.

● Weather along an occluded front : a mixture of cold front type and warm
front type weather. Such fronts are common in western Europe. The
formation mid-latitude cyclones involve the formation of occluded front.
● Cold Front, Warm Front and Occluded front are examples of Temperature
Inversion.
Origin and Development of Temperate Cyclones
● When the pressure drops along the front, the warm air moves northwards,
and the cold air move towards south setting in motion an anticlockwise
cyclonic circulation (Coriolis Force; northern hemisphere).
● The cold front approaches the warm air from behind and pushes the warm air
up. As a result, cumulus clouds develop along the cold front. This leads to a
well-developed extratropical cyclone, with a warm front and a cold front. The
cold front moves faster than the warm front ultimately overtaking the warm
front.
● Thus, temperate cyclones are intense frontogenesis involving mainly
occlusion type fronts.

● Normally, individual frontal cyclones exist for about 3 to 10 days moving in a

generally west to east direction.
 ● The temperate cyclones occur mostly in winter, late autumn and spring.
generally associated with rainstorms and cloudy weather.
Distribution of Temperate Cyclones
● USA and Canada
● belt extending from Iceland to Barents Sea and continuing over Russia and
Siberia
● winter storms over Baltic Sea,
● Mediterranean basin extending up to Russia and even up to India in winters
(called western disturbances) and the Antarctic frontal zone.
Polar Vortex
● Polar vortex (circumpolar vortex) is a polar cyclone. Polar cyclones can also
form quickly (sometimes less than 24 hours), and their direction or movement
cannot be predicted. can last from a day up to several weeks.
● Most frequently, polar cyclones develop above northern Russia and Siberia.
● Polar Vortex is a Cold; Circumpolar; Upper tropospheric low-pressure:
Large cyclonic parcel of air (about 1000 km across) (counter-clockwise in
the Northern Hemisphere)
● Polar vortex is closely associated with jet streams (Rossby waves). It is
formed mainly in winter and gets weaker in summer.
● It surrounds polar highs and lies within the polar front.
Polar Vortex Cold Wave
● Polar Vortex slipping into Mid-latitudes, Breakdown of the polar vortex,
Sudden stratospheric warming, Polar vortex event. All the above terms
mean the same ― Polar Vortex Cold Wave.
● The polar vortex will remain in its place when the westerlies along with
the polar jet are strong (strong polar vortex means that there is huge
temperature contrast between the temperate and polar regions).
● When the polar vortex is weak, it intrudes into the mid-latitude regions by
buckling the general wind flow pattern. This leads to significant cold
outbreaks in the mid-latitude regions.
● How does it slip?
○ But when the temperature contrast is low, the jet starts to meander
(Rossby waves).
○ Meandering jet creates alternating low and high-pressure cells.
○ High-pressure cells are created below the ridges and the low-pressure
cells below the troughs
○ With severe meandering, the high-pressure cells push over to north
and displace the polar cyclone from its normal position i.e. the cyclone
moves away from the pole and slips into the temperate regions.

●
 ● With the strengthening of the jet, the high pressure cells become weak and
retreat to their normal latitudinal positions.
● Polar Vortex and Ozone Depletion at South Pole
○ Photodissociation (under the influence of sunlight) of ozone-depleting
substances (ODS) like halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants,
and foam-blowing agents (CFCs, HCFCs, carbon tetrachloride and
trichloroethane, freons, halons) creates free chlorine atoms that
destroy ozone. break O3 into O2
○ Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs): Nacreous clouds are rare
clouds in frigid regions of the lower stratosphere. PSCs or nacreous
clouds contain water, nitric acid and/or sulfuric acid. formed
mainly during the event of polar vortex in winter; more intense at
the south pole.
○ PSCs convert reservoir compounds into reactive free radicals (Cl
and ClO) thereby significantly increasing the reactive halogen
radicals. These free radicals accelerate depletion of ozone.

Heavy rain, strong winds lash parts of Kerala

● Torrential rainfall and strong winds lashed several Kerala districts on Saturday
under the influence of Cyclone Tauktae, causing extensive damage to crops
and buildings, and forcing district administrations to relocate more people to
relief camps.
● Severe sea erosion persists in all the nine coastal districts, triggering a crisis.
● Seawalls cannot be viewed as the ultimate solution to sea erosion, stressing
the importance of “Punargeham”, the government project to resettle people
residing within 50 m of the tide zone.
● heavy rain with gusty winds that caused massive sea erosion, damaged
some houses, and inundated residential localities.
 ● operational readiness in peninsular India in preparation for the cyclone :
Ahead of Cyclone Tauktae along the west coast, the IAF and Navy deploy
aircraft, vessels, personnel.
● According to the Navy’s Information Fusion Centre for Indian Ocean Region
(IFC­IOR), the cyclone in the Arabian Sea is likely to intensify into a severe
cyclonic storm and further intensify into a very severe cyclonic storm late
hours of May 15 or early hours of May 16.

Stormy start
● Cyclone Tauktae swelled into an extremely severe cyclonic storm, dumping
enormous volumes of water all along the west coast, and caused loss of life in
Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra and Gujarat, before weakening
overland.
● Once again, the value of creating a trained cadre, supported by the defence
forces in rescue and relief work, is seen. The heralding of the 2021 monsoon
season by a cyclone comes as another reminder that the subcontinent is at
the confluence of more frequent, extreme weather events originating in the
Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea every year.
● How well India is prepared to handle cyclones depends on developing greater
expertise in forecasting and disaster mitigation, and crafting policies to
increase resilience among communities.
● (IMD) launched an impact based cyclone warning system from the
October­December season designed to reduce economic losses by focusing
on districts and specific locations, and incorporating such factors as
population, infrastructure, land use and settlements.
● Arabian Sea has emerged as a major source of severe cyclones, and their
intensity is aggravated by long term rise in sea surface temperatures linked to
pollution over South Asia and its neighbourhood.
● Climate Proofing lives and dwellings is a high priority now, a task that
warrants a multi­sectoral approach: to build sturdy homes of suitable design,
create adequate storm shelters, provide accurate early warnings, and ensure
financial protection against calamities through insurance for property and
assets.

El Nino
●
● Walker circulation (Normal Years) : The Walker circulation (Walker cell) is
caused by the pressure gradient force that results from a high-pressure
system over the eastern Pacific Ocean, and a low-pressure system over
Indonesia. The Walker cell is indirectly related to upwelling off the coasts
of Peru and Ecuador. This brings nutrient-rich cold water to the surface,
increasing fishing stocks.

●
● During El Nino year
○ ENSO = (Warm water in Eastern Pacific + Low pressure over
Eastern Pacific) + (Cold water in Western Pacific + High-pressure
over Western Pacific).
○ This change in pressure pattern causes the trade winds to be
reduced ― Weak Walker Cell. Sometimes Walker Cell might even get
reversed.

○
● Effects of El Nino
○ devastating effect on marine life existing off the coast of Peru and
Ecuador.
○ Severe droughts occur in Australia, Indonesia, India and southern
Africa.
○ Heavy rains in California, Ecuador, and the Gulf of Mexico.
● Normal Conditions
○ Eastern Pacific == Coast of Peru and Ecuador == Cold Ocean Water
== Good for Fishing.
○ Western Pacific == Indonesia and Australia == Warm Ocean Water ==
Plenty of rains.
● El Nino
○ Eastern Pacific == Coast of Peru and Ecuador == Warm Ocean
Water == Fishing industry takes a hit.
○ Western Pacific == Indonesia and Australia == Cold Ocean Water
== Drought.
● Southern Oscillation Index and Indian Monsoons
○ This is the difference in pressure between Tahiti in French
Polynesia (Central Pacific), representing the Central Pacific Ocean
and Port Darwin, in northern Australia representing the Eastern
Pacific Ocean.

○
● Indian Ocean Dipole effect (Not every El Nino year is same in India)
○ (IOD) is defined by the difference in sea surface temperature
between two areas (or poles, hence a dipole) ― a western pole in
the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean) and an eastern pole in the
eastern Indian Ocean south of Indonesia.
○ With a positive IOD winds over the Indian Ocean blow from east to
west (from Bay of Bengal towards Arabian Sea). This results in the
Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean near African Coast) being much
warmer and eastern Indian Ocean around Indonesia becoming colder
and dry.
○ A positive IOD index often negates the effect of ENSO, resulting in
increased Monsoon rains in several ENSO years like 1983, 1994 and
1997.
 ○ Equatorial Indian Ocean Oscillation (EQUINOO: oscillation of warm
water and atmospheric pressure between Bay of Bengal and Arabian
Sea).
○ Positive IOD (Arabian Sea warmer than Bay of Bengal) results in
more cyclones than usual in Arabian Sea. Negative IOD results in
stronger than usual cyclogenesis in the Bay of Bengal.
Cyclogenesis in Arabian Sea is suppressed.
El Niño Modoki
● El Niño Modoki is associated with strong anomalous warming in the central
tropical Pacific and cooling in the eastern and western tropical Pacific.
● Such zonal gradients result in anomalous twocell Walker Circulation
● El Niño Modoki: Droughts in Western and Eastern Pacific; copious rainfall in
the Central Pacific
La Nina
● La Nina: Abnormally heavy monsoons in India and Southeast Asia

●
Koppen’s Scheme of Classification of Climate

Tropical Humid Climates

● Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of
Capricorn.
● The sun being overhead throughout the year and the presence of Inter
Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) make the climate hot and humid.
● Annual range of temperature is very low, and annual rainfall is high.
three types, namely
Tropical Wet Climate
● Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate, Equatorial Rainforest Climate.
● Equatorial Rainforests, Equatorial Evergreen Forests, Tropical Moist
Broadleaf Forest, Lowland Equatorial Evergreen Rainforest.
● Mostly between 5° N and S of Equator, lowlands of the Amazon, the Congo,
Malaysia and the East Indies.
● The climate is dominated by maritime tropical air masses (high humidity).
● Temperature is uniform throughout the year.(27 degree C) There is no winter.
● Cloudiness and heavy precipitation, Regular land and sea breezes assist in
maintaining a truly equable climate.
● Precipitation is heavy and well distributed throughout the year. (250-300 cm).
Double rainfall peaks coinciding with the equinoxes is typical to equatorial
climates.
 ● Equatorial Vegetation : luxuriant tropical rainforest, selvas, The growing
season here is all the year round ― seeding, flowering, and decaying do
not take place in a seasonal pattern. evergreen trees that yield tropical
hardwood, e.g. mahogany, ebony, dyewoods etc.
● In the coastal areas and brackish swamps, mangrove forests thrive.
● In spite of dense forests, countries in equatorial regions are net importers of
timber.
● Life and Economy : Agriculture(Shifting Cultivation), Plantation Boom(Cocoa
is another important crop which is cultivated in West Africa, Malaysia and
Indonesia are the leading producers of Rubber, oil palm)
● Rapid deterioration of tropical soil : Torrential downpours leach out most of
the topsoil nutrients.
● Livestock farming is greatly handicapped by an absence of meadow grass.

Tropical Monsoon Climate

● Unlike equatorial wet climate, monsoon climate is characterized by distinct
wet and dry seasons associated with seasonal reversal of winds.
● Floods in the wet season and droughts in the dry season are common.
● Distribution : Occur within 5° to 30° N and S of the equator. best developed
in the Indian subcontinent, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, parts of
Vietnam and south China and northern Australia.

●
● Mean summer temperature is about 30 °C. In winters, temperature range is
15-30 °C with mean temperature around 20-25 °C.
● Annual mean rainfall ranges from 200-250 cm. In some regions, it is around
350 cm. (Cherrapunji and Mawsynram - funnelling effect.)
● Seasons : The cool, dry season (October to February), hot dry season
(March to mid-June), rainy season (mid-June to September), Retreating
Monsoon
Tropical Marine Climate
● influence of the on-shore trade winds all the year round. evenly
distributed rainfall.
● Central America, West Indies, north-eastern Australia, the Philippines, parts of
East Africa, Madagascar, the Guinea Coast and eastern Brazil.
● Its tendency is towards a summer maximum without any distinct dry
period.
 ● Due to the steady influence of the trades, the Tropical Marine Climate is more
favourable for habitation, but it is prone to severe tropical cyclones, hurricanes
or typhoons.
Tropical Monsoon Forests
● tropical deciduous forest, Broad-leaved hardwood trees are found here.
They are well developed in southeast Asia.
● Monsoonal vegetation is thus most varied, ranging from forests to thickets,
and from savannah to scrubland.
● Most of the forests yield valuable timber and are prized for their durable
hardwood.
● Teak, Neem, Banyan, Mango, Teak, Sal, Acacia, Eucalyptus
Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Climate
● alternate wet and dry seasons, no distinct rainy season like in monsoon
climate. Rains occur in warm summer months.
● Distribution : confined within the tropics and is best developed in Sudan,
hence its name the Sudan Climate. It is a transitional type of climate
found between the equatorial rainforests and hot deserts.

●
● Rainfall : Savanna climate receives considerably less annual rainfall.
Mean annual rainfall ranges from 80 – 160 cm.
● Temperature : between 20 °C and 32 °C for lowland stations. Days are hot
and nights are cold. This extreme diurnal range of temperature
● The prevailing winds of the region are the trade winds, which bring rain to
the coastal areas. strongest in the summer (favourable position of ITCZ)
but are relatively dry by the time they reach the continental interiors or
the western coasts (trade winds are easterlies – flow from east to west.
Hence, rainfall decreases from east to west).
● In West Africa, the North-East Trades blow offshore (continent to sea)
from the Sahara Desert and reach the Guinea coast as a dry, dust-laden
winds.
● Natural Vegetation : typified by tall and coarse grass (6 to 12 feet high)
and short trees. Bush-veld. trees are deciduous. As the rainfall diminishes
towards the deserts, the savanna merges into thorny scrub (semiarid).
Dry Climate
mainly two types: hot like the hot deserts of the Saharan type and temperate or
mid-latitude deserts like the Gobi Desert
Hot Desert Climate
● aridity of the hot deserts is mainly due to the effects of off-shore trade
winds
● located on the western coasts of continents between latitudes 15° and
30°N and S.
● biggest Sahara Desert (3.5 million square miles), Great Australian Desert,
Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar Desert, Kalahari and Namib Deserts.
● In South America, the Atacama or Peruvian Desert is the driest of all deserts
(driest place on earth ― rain shadow effect of the Andes, off-shore trade
winds, westerlies blow to the south of Tropic of Capricorn, cold ocean
currents: upwelling of cold water due to Walker Circulation) with less than
2 cm of rainfall annually.

Mid-Latitude Desert Climate

● rainless because of either continentality (e.g. Gobi Desert) or rain-shadow
effect (e.g. Patagonian Desert due to rain-shadow effect of Andes).
● Ladakh, The Kyzyl Kum, Turkestan, Taklimakan and Gobi deserts of Central
Asia, drier portions of the Great Basin Desert of the western United States
and Patagonian Deserts of Argentina etc.
Desert Climate
● Rainfall (Both Hot and Cold deserts) : annual precipitation of less than 25
cm.
● Rain normally occurs as violent thunderstorms of the conventional type
occasionally causing flash floods.
● Temperature of Hot deserts : no cold season in the hot deserts and the
average summer temperature is high around 30°C. The reasons for the
high temperatures are obvious — a clear, cloudless sky, intense
insolation, dry air and a rapid rate of evaporation. Coastal deserts by
virtue of their maritime influence and the cooling effect of the cold
currents have much lower temperatures. High diurnal temperature range
is a typical feature of hot deserts.
● Climatic Conditions in the Mid-latitude deserts : cut off from the
rain-bearing winds. Occasionally depressions may penetrate the Asiatic
continental mass and bring light rainfall in winter. Due to their coldness and
elevation, snow falls in winter. annual range of temperature is much
greater than that of the hot deserts(Continentality).
● Desert Vegetation : xerophytic or drought resistant. cacti, thorny bushes,
long rooted wiry grasses and scattered dwarf acacias. Trees are rare except
 where there is abundant groundwater to support clusters of date palms.
Intense evaporation increases the salinity of the soil .
● Absence of moisture retards the rate of decomposition and desert soils are
very deficient in humus.
● Most desert shrubs have long roots (in search of groundwater) and are well
spaced out to gather moisture. few or no leaves, and the foliage is either way,
leathery, hairy or needle-shaped.

Steppe or Temperate Grassland Climate

● Temperate Continental Climate
●

● Most of the temperate grasslands lie in the interiors of the continents in

the westerly wind belt. practically treeless due to continentality.
● Pustaz - Hungary and surrounding regions, Prairies - North America
(between the foothills of the Rockies and the Great Lakes), Pampas -
Argentina and Uruguay (Rain-shadow effect), Bush-veld (more tropical) -
Northern South Africa, High Veld (more temperate) - Southern South Africa,
Downs - Australia: Murray-Darling basin of southern Australia
● Temperature - continental with extremes of temperature.
● Precipitation - 25 cm to 75 cm (below 25 cm it is desert climate). The
heaviest rain comes in June and July (late spring and early summer). Most of
the winter months have about 2.5 cm of precipitation, brought by the
occasional depressions of the Westerlies and coming in the form of snow.
● Chinook (Snow eaters) : hot local katabatic wind that blows down the
eastern slopes of the Rockies. Prairies
● Natural Vegetation of Steppe Climate
○ practically treeless, and the grasses are much shorter. Grasses : fresh
and nutritious.
 ○ These areas are less suitable for arable farming and are used for
some form of ranching as in the High Plains of U.S.A.
○ Poleward, an increase in precipitation gives rise to a transitional
zone of wooded steppes where some conifers gradually appear.
● Economic Development of Steppes
○ Wheat and Maize Cultivation, mechanised wheat cultivation and
are now the ‘granaries of the world’ (Prairies).
○ Ranching : leading ranching regions of the globe (e.g. Pampas of
Argentina). Alfalfa: nutrient-rich grass
○ Nomadic herding in Asian Steppes
○ Extensive mechanised wheat cultivation : In the Prairies, the
Argentinean Pampas, the Ukrainian Steppes and the Downs of
Australia, agriculture is completely mechanised.
○ Pastoral farming : major pastoral regions, exporting large quantities of
beef, mutton, wool, hides.

Warm Temperate (Mid-latitude) Climates

Mediterranean Climate
● known as Warm Temperate Western Margin Climate or Warm Temperate
West Coast Climate.

●
● confined to the western portion of continents, between 30° and 45° N and
S of the equator.
● The basic cause of this type of climate is the shifting of the wind belts
(westerly wind belt).
● Mediterranean Sea has the greatest extent of this type of winter rain
climate (winter maxima). California , south-western tip of Africa, south-west
Australia (Swanland)
● Climate : The summers are hot and dry, and the winters are cool and wet.
Mean annual precipitation ranges from 35-90 cm.
 ● A dry, warm summer with off-shore trades : In summer, the belt of
influence of the Westerlies is shifted a little poleward. prevailing trade
winds (tropical easterlies) are off-shore, and there is practically no rain.
● Strong winds from inland desert regions pose the risk of wildfires.
● Rainfall in winter with on-shore Westerlies, in winter when the westerlies
shift equatorward.
● The rain comes in heavy showers and only on a few days with bright sunny
periods between them.
● Natural Vegetation in the Mediterranean Climate
○ Trees with small broad leaves are widely spaced and never very
tall.
○ absence of shade is a distinct feature of Mediterranean lands.
○ Plants are in a continuous struggle against heat, dry air, excessive
evaporation and prolonged droughts. Xerophytic
○ Mediterranean evergreen forests : open woodlands with
evergreen oaks, trees are stunted, with massive trunks, small
leathery leaves and a wide-spreading root system. cork oaks are
valued for their thick barks, used for making wine-bottle corks.
Evergreen coniferous trees(pines, firs, cedars )
○ Conditions in the Mediterranean do not suit grass, because most of
the rain comes in the cool season when growth is slow. not suitable
for animal farming.

● Agriculture in the Mediterranean Climate : Orchard farming, wide range of

citrus fruits, olive trees, many nut trees like chestnuts, walnuts, and almonds.
Transhumance is widely practised. Wine production
● Economy : net exporter of citric fruits and net importer of dairy products.
Tourism

Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Climate

● Humid subtropical climate
● found between 20° and 35° N and S latitude, on the east coast in both
hemispheres.
● Temperate monsoon Climate or China Type Climate, Gulf Type,

●
●
 ●
● China Type :
○ Summer : Intense heating within interiors (Tibet, desert region) sets up
a region of low-pressure in summer attracting tropical Pacific air stream
(South-East Monsoon)
○ Winter : intense pressure over Siberia, and the continental polar air
stream flows outwards as the North-West Monsoon, bitterly cold and
very dry.
● Gulf Type
○ Found in south-eastern U.S.A., bordering the Gulf of Mexico where
continental heating in summer induces an inflow of air from the cooler
Atlantic Ocean.
○ no complete seasonal wind reversal. Hurricanes occur in September
and October.

● Natal Type
○ Found in in New South Wales (Australia), Natal (South Africa),
Parana-Paraguay-Uruguay basin (South America).
○ receives rainfall from onshore Trade Winds all the year round.
○ The narrowness of the continents and the dominance of maritime
influence eliminate the monsoonal elements.
● Climate
○ Characterised by a warm moist summer and a cool, dry winter
(winters are also moist in Natal Type).
○ mean monthly temperature varies between 4 °C and 25 °C and is
strongly modified by maritime influence. Occasionally, the penetration
of cold air (Polar Vortex)
○ Rainfall is more than moderate, anything from 60 cm to 150 cm.
○ In summer, the regions are under the influence of moist, maritime
airflow from the subtropical anticyclonic cells.

● The lowlands carry both evergreen broadleaved forests and deciduous

trees (hardwood). On the highlands - various species of conifers such as
pines and cypresses(Softwoods).
● Agriculture in the Gulf states : corn, cotton and tobacco.

British Type Climate or Cool Temperate Western Margin Climate

● North-West European Maritime Climate : due to greater oceanic influence.
● under the influence of the Westerlies all-round the year. regions of frontal
cyclonic activity (temperate cyclones).
● Distribution of British Type Climate :
○ In Europe, the climate extends far inland into the lowlands of
North-West Europe , UK.
○ confined mainly to the coastlands of British Columbia.
 ○ southern Chile, Southern Australia, Tasmania and most parts of New
Zealand (regions east of Southern Alps).
● Climate : usually between 5 °C and 15 °C. Summers are moderately warm.
Winters are abnormally mild because of the warming effect brought by
warm North Atlantic Drift. Sometimes unusually cold due to polar vortex
event
● Rainfall occurs throughout the year with winter maxima (due to frontal
cyclones).
● four distinct seasons : Winter is the season of cloudy skies, foggy mornings,
and many rainy days from the passing depressions. Spring is the driest and
the most refreshing season when people emerge from the depressing winter.
This is followed by the long, sunny summer. Next is the autumn with the roar
of gusty winds;

Cold Snow-forest Climates

Taiga Climate or Boreal Climate
● known as Siberian Climate or Cool Temperate Continental Climate OR
Continental Sub-Polar Climate (just below the Arctic circle ― 50° to 70°
N).
● found only in the northern hemisphere due to great east-west extent.
● absent in the southern hemisphere because of the narrowness of
landmasses and strong oceanic influence in the high latitudes.
● On its poleward side, it merges into the Arctic tundra; equatorward it fades
into steppe climate.

●
● Temperature : Summers are brief and warm (20-25 °C) whereas winters are
long and cold (30-40 °C below freezing). Annual temperature range is the
greatest due to continentality (almost 50-60 °C in Siberia).
● Permafrost (subsurface layer of soil that remains below freezing throughout
the year) are generally absent as snow is a poor conductor of heat and
protects the ground from the severe cold above.
● Precipitation : quite well distributed throughout the year, with a summer
maximum (convectional rains). ranges from 38 cm to 63 cm.
● Natural Vegetation : evergreen coniferous forest(Pine, fir, spruce and
larch ), Coniferous forests are of moderate density and are more uniform.
The trees in coniferous forests grow straight and tall.
 ● Lumbering is the most important occupation of the Siberian type of climate.
The vast reserves of softwood coniferous forests provide the basis for the
lumbering industry.
Laurentian Climate or Cool Temperate Eastern Marine Climate
● an intermediate type of climate between the British Type Climate
(moderate) and the Taiga Type Climate (extreme).
● found only in two regions and that too only in the northern hemisphere.
North-eastern North America, including eastern Canada, north-east U.S.A.,
and Newfoundland. Eastern coastlands of Asia, including eastern Siberia,
North China, Manchuria, Korea and northern Japan.
● Absent in Southern Hemisphere
● Temperature : Characterized by cold, dry winters and warm, wet
summers.
● Precipitation : Rainfall occurs throughout the year with summer maxima
(easterly winds from the oceans bring rains). Annual rainfall ranges from 75 to
150 cm. Dry westerlies that blow from continental interiors dominate
winters.
● North American region : Precipitation occurs all-around the year due to
the influence of warm Gulf Stream (increases the moisture of easterly
winds in summer) and the Great Lakes (westerlies, temperate cyclones in
winter). Convergence of the warm Gulf Stream and the cold Labrador
Current near Newfoundland produces dense mist and fog and gives rise
to much precipitation.
● Asiatic region : far less uniform when compared to North American Region.
Winters are cold and very dry while summers are very warm and exceptionally
wet. Cool Temperate Monsoon Climate. The climate of Japan is modified
by the meeting of warm and cold ocean currents.
● Natural Vegetation : cool temperate forest. Forest tends to be coniferous
north of the 50° N latitude.
● Lumbering : From Laurentian Climate regions, both temperate hardwood and
temperate softwood are obtained.
● Economic Development :
○ Lumbering, timber, paper and pulp industries dairy farming
○ Regions around the Grand Banks of Newfoundland are the world’s
largest fishing grounds. • Mixing of warm Gulf Stream and cold
Labrador currents make the region the most productive fishing ground
on earth.
Cold Climates
Tundra Climate or Polar Climate or Arctic Climate
● Found in regions north of the Arctic Circle and south of Antarctic Circle.
● The tundra climate is characterized by a very low mean annual temperature.
● The ground remains solidly frozen and is inaccessible to plants. Precipitation
is mainly in the form of snow and sleet.
 ● no trees in the tundra. • Lowest form of vegetation like mosses, lichens etc.
are found here and there.

Oceanography

Ocean Relief
● largely due to tectonic, volcanic, erosional and depositional processes
and their interactions
● Four major divisions in the ocean relief are:
 ○ continental shelf, continental slope, continental rise, & Deep Sea
Plain or the abyssal plain.
● Continental Shelf : gently sloping (gradient of 1° or less) seaward extension
of a continental plate. Shallow seas and gulfs are found along the
continental shelves. The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called
the shelf break.
○ formed mainly due to submergence of a part of a continent, relative
rise in sea level, Sedimentary deposits brought down by rivers, glaciers
○ 20% of the world production of petroleum and gas comes from
shelves.
○ Continental shelves form the richest fishing grounds. sites for
placer deposits and phosphorites
● Continental Slope : connects the continental shelf and the ocean basins.
The depth of the slope region varies between 200 and 3,000 m. The seaward
edge of the continental slope loses gradient at this depth and gives rise to
continental rise. Canyons and trenches are observed in this region. The
continental slope boundary indicates the end of the continents.
● Continental Rise : The continental slope gradually loses its steepness
with depth. With increasing depth, the rise becomes virtually flat and merges
with the abyssal plain.
● Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain : flattest and smoothest regions of the
world because of terrigenous (marine sediment eroded from the land) and
shallow water sediments. The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000 m.
● Minor Ocean Relief Features
○ Oceanic Deeps or Trenches : The trenches run parallel to the
bordering fold mountains or the island chains. Trenches are
associated with active volcanoes and strong earthquakes (Japan).
○ Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine Ridges : Running for a total
length of 75,000 km, these ridges form the largest mountain systems
on earth.
○ Abyssal Hills : Seamount, Guyots
○ Submarine Canyons : Indus canyons, Hudson Canyon,
○ Atoll : low islands found in the tropical oceans consisting of coral reefs
surrounding a central depression.
○ Bank, Shoal and Reef : These marine features are formed as a result
of erosional, depositional and biological activity.
● Marginal Seas
○ a sea partially enclosed by islands, archipelagos, or peninsulas.
○ Arabian Sea, Baltic Sea, Bay of Bengal, Bering Sea, Black Sea, Gulf of
California, Gulf of Mexico, Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea
○ Marginal seas, which are generally shallower than open oceans, are
more influenced by human activities, river runoff, climate, and water
circulation.
 ○ Human Impact on marginal seas : more susceptible to pollution,
fisheries industry, industrial sewage disposal, offshore oil drilling,
accidental releases of pollutants, radioactive waste, etc.
○ Phytoplankton Bloom (Algal Bloom) in Marginal Seas :
○ Marginal seas generally exhibit intermediate levels of primary
production, with the highest rates found in coastal upwelling
regions and the lowest primary production occurring in open
ocean regions.
○ For nearshore regions, the dominant processes influencing primary
productivity are river runoff, water column mixing, and turbidity.
River runoff and water column mixing introduce dissolved nutrients and
trace elements into the photic (light) zones of nearshore regions. the
addition of suspended particles increases water turbidity, which
results in reduced sunlight penetration and decreased primary
productivity.
○ Water circulation patterns in marginal seas depend largely on shape of
the sea, fresh-water input (e.g., river runoff and precipitation) and
evaporation.
○ If river runoff and precipitation exceed evaporation, as is the case
in the Black and Baltic Seas, the excess fresh water will tend to
flow seaward near the sea surface.
○ If evaporation exceeds river runoff and precipitation, as in the
Mediterranean Sea, the marginal sea water becomes saltier, then
sinks and flows towards the less salty open ocean region.
Ocean Movements
● The movements that occur in oceans are categorized as waves, tides and
currents.
● Waves are formed due to friction between wind and surface water layer.
● Horizontal currents arise mainly due to friction between wind and water.
Coriolis force and differences in water level gradient also play a major
role.
● Vertical currents arise mainly due to density differences caused by
temperature and salinity changes.
● Tsunami, storm surge and tides are tidal waves (meaning waves with
large wavelengths).
Ocean Currents
● Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. They represent a regular
volume of water in a definite path and direction.
● influenced by two types of forces namely:
○ primary forces that initiate the movement of water;
○ secondary forces that influence the currents to flow
● Primary Forces Responsible for Ocean Currents
 ○ Influence of insolation : Near the equator, the ocean water is about 8
cm higher in level than in the middle latitudes. Gravity tends to level
the differences by pulling the water down the pile (along the gradient).
○ Influence of wind (atmospheric circulation) : Winds are responsible
for both magnitude and direction (Coriolis force) of the ocean
currents. The oceanic circulation pattern roughly corresponds to the
earth’s atmospheric circulation pattern.
○ Coriolis force : The Coriolis force intervenes and causes the water to
move to the right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the
southern hemisphere.
● Secondary Forces Responsible for Ocean Currents
○ Temperature difference and salinity difference are the secondary
forces. They create density differences.
○ Differences in water density affect vertical mobility of ocean currents
(vertical currents)
○ Denser water tends to sink, while relatively lighter water tends to rise.
● Types of Ocean Currents
○ based on their depth as surface currents and deep water currents:
○ Surface currents constitute about 10 percent of all the water in the
ocean; these waters are the upper 400 m of the ocean.
○ Deep water currents make up the other 90 percent of the ocean
water. These waters move around the ocean basins due to
variations in the density and gravity.
○ Based on temperature ocean currents are classified as cold currents
and warm currents.
○ Cold-water ocean currents occur when the cold water at the poles
sinks and slowly moves towards the equator as subsurface flow.
Cold currents are usually found on the west coast of the continents
in the low and middle latitudes (true in both hemispheres) and on
the east coast in the higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere
○ Warm-water currents travel out from the equator along the
surface, flowing towards the poles to replace the sinking cold
water. Warm currents are usually observed on the east coast of
continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in both
hemispheres). In the northern hemisphere, they are found on the
west coasts of continents in high latitudes.
Pacific Ocean Currents

●
● Equatorial currents – warm
○ Under the influence of prevailing trade winds [tropical easterlies],
This raises the level of western Pacific (near Indonesia and
Australia) ocean by a few centimetres. This creates a
counter-equatorial current which flows between the north equatorial
current and the south equatorial current in the west east direction.
○ Factors that aid the formation of CounterEquatorial current :
Piling up of water in the western Pacific due to trade winds.
presence of doldrums (calm region in equatorial low-pressure belt)
● Kuroshio current – warm
○ The north equatorial current turns northward off the Philippines to
form the Kuroshio current. flows in the sub-tropical high-pressure
belt, and its northern part is under the influence of westerlies.
 ● Oyashio Current and Okhotsk current – cold
○ Oyashio flows across the east coast of Kamchatka Peninsula to
merge with the warmer waters of Kuroshio.
○ The convergence of cold and warm currents makes the zone one of
the richest fishing grounds.
● North-Pacific current – warm
○ From the south-east coast of Japan, under the influence of
prevailing westerlies, the Kuroshio current turns eastwards and
moves as the North-Pacific current, reaches the west coast of North
America, and bifurcates into two.
● Alaska current – warm
● Californian current – cold
● East Australian current – warm
● Peru current or Humboldt Current – cold : The zone where Peru Cold
current meets the warm equatorial ocean waters is an important fishing
zone

Atlantic Ocean Currents

Indian Ocean Currents
● The currents in the northern portion of the Indian Ocean change their
direction from season to season in response to the seasonal rhythm of the
monsoons
● Winter Circulation : Under the influence of prevailing trade winds,
counter-equatorial current which flows between the north equatorial current
and the south equatorial current in westeast direction. The north-east
monsoons drive the water along the coast of Bay of Bengal to circulate
in an anti-clockwise direction.
● Summer Circulation – North Equatorial Current & Counter-Equatorial
Current are Absent : In summer, due to the effects of the strong
south-west monsoon and the absence of the north-east trades, a strong
current flow from west to east, which completely obliterates the north
equatorial current

●
 ●

Effects of Ocean Currents

● Desert formation : Cold ocean currents have a direct effect on desert
formation in west coast regions of the tropical and subtropical
continents. due to desiccating effect
● Rains : Warm ocean currents bring rain to coastal areas and even interiors.
Example: Summer Rainfall in British Type climate (North Atlantic Drift)
● Moderating effect : responsible for moderate temperatures at coasts.
(North Atlantic Drift brings warmness to England. Canary cold current
brings a cooling effect to Spain, Portugal etc.)
● Fishing : Mixing of cold and warm ocean currents bear the richest fishing
grounds in the world. Grand Banks around Newfoundland, Canada and
North-Eastern Coast of Japan.
● Drizzle : Mixing of cold and warm ocean currents create foggy weather where
precipitation occurs in the form of drizzle (Newfoundland).
● Climate : Warm and rainy climates in tropical and subtropical latitudes
(Florida, Natal etc.), Cold and dry climates on the western margins in the
sub-tropics due to desiccating effect, Foggy weather and drizzle in the
mixing zones, Moderate climate along the western costs in the subtropics.
● Tropical cyclones : pile up warm waters in tropics, and this warm water is
the major force behind tropical cyclones.
● Navigation
● Major hot deserts in the northern hemisphere are located between 20-30
degree north and on the western side of the continents. Why?
○ Why on western coast?
○ On the western coasts, the presence of cold currents gives rise to
mists and fogs by chilling the on-coming air. This air is later warmed by
contact with the hot land, and little rain falls. The desiccating effect of
the cold Peruvian Current along the Chilean coast is so pronounced
 that the mean annual rainfall for the Atacama Desert is not more than
1.3 cm.
Tides
● The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or twice a day, mainly due
to the attraction of the sun and the moon, is called a tide.
● The moon’s gravitational pull to a great extent and to a lesser extent the
sun’s gravitational pull, are the major causes for the occurrence of tides.
Another factor is centrifugal force which acts opposite to gravitational pull of
earth.
● Tidal Bulge: Why are there two tidal bulges?
○ The ‘tide-generating’ force is the difference between these two forces;
i.e. the gravitational attraction of the moon and the centrifugal force.
○ On the surface of the earth nearest to the moon, pull or the attractive
force of the moon is greater than the centrifugal force, and so there is a
net force causing a bulge towards the moon.
○ On the opposite side of the earth, the attractive force is less, as it is
farther away from the moon, the centrifugal force is dominant. Hence,
there is a net force away from the moon.

●
● Factors Controlling the Nature and Magnitude of Tides
○ movement of the moon in relation to the earth.
○ Changes in position of the sun and moon in relation to the earth.
○ Uneven distribution of water over the globe
○ Irregularities in the configuration of the oceans
● Tides based on Frequency
○ Semi-diurnal tide : It is the most common tidal pattern, featuring two
high tides and two low tides each day. Southampton experiences
tides 6-8 times a day (2 high tides from North Sea + 2 high tides from
English Channel + 2 low tides from North Sea + 2 low tides from
English Channel)
○ Diurnal tide
 ● Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the Earth Positions
○ Spring tides : When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a
straight line, the height of the tide will be higher. These are called
spring tides and they occur twice a month, one on full moon period and
another during new moon period.
○ Neap tides : At this time the sun and moon are at right angles to
each other, and the forces of the sun and moon tend to counteract
one another. Like spring tides, these tides also occur twice a month.
● Magnitude of tides based on Perigee and Apogee
● Magnitude of tides based on Perihelion and Aphelion
● Importance of Tides
○ Navigation : Since tides are caused by the earth-moon-sun
positions which are known accurately, the tides can be predicted
well in advance. This helps the navigators and fishermen plan their
activities. Tides generally help in making some of the rivers
navigable for ocean-going vessels.
○ Fishing :
○ Desilting : Tides are also helpful in desilting the sediments and in
removing polluted water from river estuaries.
○ to generate electrical power
● Characteristics of Tides :
○ The tidal bulges on wide continental shelves have greater height.
The shape of bays and estuaries along a coastline can also magnify
the intensity of tides.
○ When the tide is channelled between islands or into bays and
estuaries, they are called tidal currents (tidal bore is one such tidal
current).`
○ Funnel-shaped bays greatly change tidal magnitudes. Example:
Bay of Fundy –– Highest tidal range.
○ When a tide enters the narrow and shallow estuary of a river, the
front of the tidal wave appears to be vertical owing to the piling up of
water of the river against the tidal wave and the friction of the river
bed.- Tidal Bore
Temperature Distribution of Oceans
● The ocean water is heated by three processes : Absorption of sun’s
radiation. conventional currents, Heat is produced due to friction caused
by the surface wind and the tidal currents.
● The ocean water is cooled by Back radiation, Exchange of heat,
Evaporation
● The process of heating and cooling of the oceanic water is slower than land
due to vertical and horizontal mixing and high specific heat of water.
Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution of Oceans
● Insolation, Heat Loss, Albedo, The physical characteristics of the sea
surface:, The presence of submarine ridges and sills,
 ● shape of the ocean (enclosed seas) : enclosed seas in the low latitudes
record relatively higher temperature than the open seas, whereas the
enclosed seas in the high latitudes have lower temperature than the
open seas.
● Unequal distribution of land and water
● Prevalent winds generate horizontal and sometimes vertical ocean
currents
● Ocean currents: Warm ocean currents raise the temperature in cold areas
while the cold currents decrease the temperature in warm ocean areas.

Vertical Temperature Distribution of Oceans

● Photic or euphotic zone extends from the upper surface to ~200 m. The
photic zone receives adequate solar insolation.
● Aphotic zone extends from 200 m to the ocean bottom; this zone does
not receive adequate sunrays.
● Thermocline : The profile shows a boundary region between the surface
waters of the ocean and the deeper layers. This boundary region, from
where there is a rapid decrease of temperature, is called the thermocline.
● Three-Layer System :
○ The first layer represents the top layer of warm oceanic water, and it
is about 500m thick with temperatures ranging between 20° and 25° C.
○ The second layer called the thermocline layer lies below the first
layer and is characterized by rapid decrease in temperature with
increasing depth
○ The third layer is very cold and extends up to the deep ocean
floor. Here the temperature becomes almost stagnant.

● Pycnocline is a boundary separating two liquid layers of different

densities. Pycnocline exists in oceans at a depth of 100- 1000 m because
of the large density difference between surface waters and deep ocean
water. Pycnocline effectively prevents vertical currents except in polar

regions.
● Pycnocline is almost absent in polar regions. This is because of the
sinking of cold water near poles. Because the pycnocline zone is
extremely stable, it acts as a barrier for surface processes.
● Thermohaline Circulation
 ○ Winds drive ocean currents in the upper 100 meters of the ocean’s
surface. However, ocean currents also flow thousands of meters below
the surface.
○ These deep-ocean currents are driven by differences in the
water’s density, which is controlled by temperature (thermo) and
salinity (haline). - Thermohaline Circulation( ocean conveyor belt)
○ Ocean bottom relief greatly influences thermohaline circulation.

●
● Horizontal Temperature Distribution
○ The average temperature of surface water of the oceans is about
27°C, and it gradually decreases from the equator towards the
poles.

○
○ In the Arctic and Antarctic circles, the surface water temperatures
are close to 0° C and so the temperature change with the depth is
very slight (ice is a very bad conductor of heat). only one layer of
cold water exists, which extends from surface to deep ocean floor.
○ In cold Arctic and Antarctic regions, sinking of cold water and its
movement towards lower latitudes is observed.
○ The enclosed seas in both the lower and higher latitudes record
higher temperatures at the bottom. The enclosed seas of low
latitudes like the Sargasso Sea, the Red Sea and the Mediterranean
 Sea have high bottom temperatures due to high insolation throughout
the year and lesser mixing.

● Range of Ocean Temperature

○ Therefore, ocean surface temperature is highest at 2 p.m. and the
lowest, at 5 a.m.
○ The average diurnal or daily range of temperature is barely 1 degree in
oceans and seas.
○ The annual range of temperature is influenced by the annual
variation of insolation, the nature of ocean currents and the
prevailing winds.
○ The maximum and the minimum temperatures in oceans are slightly
delayed than those of land areas (the maximum being in August and
the minimum in February.
○ The northern Pacific and northern Atlantic oceans (less intense
prevailing winds) have a greater range of temperature than their
southern parts (more extensive ocean currents).
○ Periodic fluctuation of temperature due to Sunspot cycle.
Ocean Salinity
● It is calculated as the amount of salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of
seawater. (ppt)
● Salinity of 24.7 ppt - upper limit to demarcate ‘brackish water’
● Salinity determines compressibility, thermal expansion, temperature, density,
absorption of insolation, evaporation and humidity.
● It also influences the composition and movement of the sea: water and
the distribution of fish and other marine resources.
● Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity
○ The salinity of water in the surface layer of oceans depends mainly
on evaporation and precipitation.
○ greatly influenced in coastal regions by the freshwater flow from
rivers, and in polar regions by the processes of freezing and
thawing of ice.
○ Wind, Ocean Currents
○ Salinity, temperature and density of water are interrelated.
● Horizontal distribution of salinity
○ The salinity for normal open ocean ranges between 33 and 37.
○ The regions of high salinity in vast oceans coincide with
high-pressure cells. (hardly any rain and subsiding dry winds)
● High salinity regions : landlocked Red Sea, Mediterranean Sea, hot and
dry regions
● Low salinity regions : In the estuaries (enclosed mouth of a river where
fresh and saline water get mixed) and the Arctic and Antarctic, the
salinity fluctuates from 37 0 to 35, seasonally (fresh water coming from ice
caps).
 ● Atlantic : around 36-37,
○ Near the equator, there is heavy rainfall, high relative humidity,
cloudiness and calm air of the doldrums. About 35
○ The polar areas experience very little evaporation and receive large
amounts of fresh water from the melting of ice. This leads to low levels
of salinity, ranging between 20 and 32.
○ Maximum salinity (37) is observed between 20° N and 30° N and
20° W - 60° W (high pressure cells).
● Indian Ocean : around 35, Low salinity in BoB, Higher salinity in Arabian
Sea(high evaporation and low influx of fresh water)

● Marginal seas :
○ The North Sea, in spite of its location in higher latitudes, records
higher salinity due to more saline water brought by the North
Atlantic Drift.
○ Baltic Sea records low salinity due to the influx of river waters in
large quantities.
○ The Mediterranean Sea records higher salinity due to high
evaporation.
○ Salinity is, however, very low in Black Sea due to enormous
freshwater influx by rivers.
● Inland seas and lakes
○ The salinity of the inland seas and lakes is very high because of the
regular supply of salt by the rivers falling into them and become
progressively more saline due to evaporation.
○ Great Salt Lake, (Utah, USA), the Dead Sea and the Lake Van in
Turkey is more than 200.
● Vertical Distribution of Salinity
○ Salinity, generally, increases with depth and there is a distinct zone
called the halocline (compare this with thermocline), where salinity
increases sharply.
○ High salinity seawater general, sinks below the lower salinity water.
This leads to stratification by salinity.
○ also influenced by cold and warm currents.
○ subject to latitudinal difference.
○ In high latitudes, salinity increases with depth. In the middle
latitudes, it increases up to 35 metres and then it decreases. At the
equator, sub-surface salinity is lower.
Coral Reefs
● made up of calcareous skeletons of thousands of tiny marine organisms
called coral polyps. They are shallow warm water organisms which have
a soft body covered by a calcareous skeleton. The polyps live in
colonies fastened to the rocky seafloor.
● When the coral polyps die, they shed their skeleton (coral) on which new
polyps grow. Shallow rock layers created by the depositions of corals is called
a coral reef.
● Coral reefs over a period of time transform or evolve into coral islands
(e.g. Lakshadweep).
● Coral Reef Relief Features : Fringing reef, barrier reef and atoll (coral
islands are formed on atolls)

●
● Fringing Reefs (Shore Reefs) : reefs that grow directly from a shore. A
shallow lagoon exists between the beach and the main body of the reef.
Fringing reef grows from the deep sea bottom with the seaward side sloping
steeply into the deep sea.
● Barrier Reefs : extensive linear reefs that run parallel to the shore and are
separated from it by a lagoon. largest (in size, not distribution) of the three
reefs, runs for hundreds of kilometres and is several kilometres wide.
1200-mile long Great Barrier Reef off the NE coast of Australia is the
world's largest barrier reef.
● Atolls : a roughly circular oceanic reef system surrounding a large central
lagoon. They form on submarine features such as a submerged island or
a volcanic cone which reaches a level suitable for coral growth. far more
common in the Pacific. Fiji atoll, Lakshadweep Islands
● Formation of Lakshadweep Islands (You must include the concept of
Reunion Hotspot)
○ A fringing reef forms first and starts growing in the shallow waters close
to a tropical island.
○ Over time, the island subsides, and the reef grows outwards, and the
distance between the land and the reef increases. The fringing reef
develops into a barrier reef.

○
● Ideal Conditions for Coral Growth
○ Stable climatic conditions : susceptible to quick changes. grow in
regions where climate is significantly stable for a long period
(Equatorial oceans with warm ocean currents).
○ Perpetually warm waters: Corals thrive in tropical waters
○ Why are coral reefs absent on the west coast of tropical continents?
Because of Cold Ocean Currents.
○ Shallow water: Coral requires a fairly good amount of sunlight to
survive.
○ Clear salt water: Clear salt water is suitable for coral growth, while
both freshwater and highly saline water are harmful.
○ Abundant Plankton: Adequate supply of oxygen and microscopic
marine food, called plankton (phytoplankton), is essential for growth.
○ Little or no pollution: Corals are highly fragile and are vulnerable to
climate change and pollution

○
○ Corals and Zooxanthellae : Zooxanthellae live symbiotically within
the coral polyp tissues and assist the coral in nutrient production
through its photosynthetic activities. These activities provide the coral
with fixed carbon compounds for energy, enhance calcification,
and mediate elemental nutrient flux. The corals receive their
colouration from the zooxanthellae living within their tissues.
extremely high productivity and biodiversity, such that they are referred
to as the Tropical Rainforests of the Oceans.
○ Coral Bleaching or Coral Reef Bleaching : when the densities of
zooxanthellae decline and/or the concentration of photosynthetic
pigments within the zooxanthellae fall. related mostly to
anthropogenic impacts (overexploitation, overfishing, increased
sedimentation and nutrient overloading). Natural disturbances which
cause damage to coral reefs include violent storms, flooding, high and
low-temperature extremes, El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
events, subaerial exposures, predatory outbreaks and epizootics.
○ Ecological Causes of Coral Bleaching :
○ Temperature : Coral species live within a relatively narrow temperature
margin, and anomalously low, and high sea temperatures can induce
coral bleaching. sudden temperature drops accompanying intense
 upwelling episodes (El-Nino), acidification has reduced corals
calcifying ability, They are reported to have taken place during times
of low wind velocity, clear skies, calm seas and low turbidity. The
conditions favour localised heating and high ultraviolet (UV)
radiation.
○ Subaerial exposure : extreme low tides, ENSO related sea level
drops or tectonic uplift can potentially induce bleaching.
○ Fresh Water Dilution
○ Inorganic Nutrients : eutrophication leads to lowering of coral
resistance and greater susceptibility to diseases.
○ Xenobiotics : When corals are exposed to high concentrations of
chemical contaminants like copper, herbicides and oil, coral
bleaching happens.
○ Epizootics : Pathogen induced bleaching
○ Nearly all of the world’s major coral reef regions (Caribbean/ western
Atlantic, eastern Pacific, central and western Pacific, Indian Ocean,
Arabian Gulf, Red Sea) experienced some degree of coral bleaching
and mortality during the 1980s.
Resources from the Ocean
● Ocean Deposits :
○ Terrigenous Deposits : mainly inorganic deposits derived from
disintegrated rock material (due to weathering and water erosion). on
the continental shelves and slopes.
○ Pelagic Deposits : cover nearly 75% of the total sea floor. consist of
both organic and inorganic material. ooze which contains
remnants of shells and skeletons. Inorganic material is in the form
of red clay which is of volcanic origin.
● Mineral Resources
○ carried from land to sea by running water. undersea volcanism and
detritus (leftover parts) of marine organisms.
○ Mineral deposits found on continental shelves and slopes
○ Marine Placer deposits : an accumulation of valuable heavy
minerals that have been weathered and eroded from their source
rocks. beach sands of western India, coastal Brazil, Australia have
zircon, monazite (thorium is extracted from monazite sands found
across the Kerala coast). Kerala's placer deposits contain 90 per
cent of the world's monazite reserves. Placer diamonds
○ Marine hydrocarbon deposits : liquid hydrocarbons, natural gas.
Formation of exploitable reservoirs of hydrocarbons requires migration
(from their source rocks) to geological traps comprising a porous
reservoir rocks and overlain by an impermeable horizon. reserves of oil
and gas are located as subsurface deposits almost exclusively on the
continental shelves.
 ○ Challenges : economically unviable, Gas and oil exploration increase
the risk of marine pollution from accidental oil spills.
○ Mineral deposits found on deep sea floor : manganese nodules
(also called as polymetallic nodules) and metalliferous sediments
○ Marine manganese nodules (Polymetallic nodules) : concentrations
of iron and manganese oxides, that can contain economically valuable
concentrations of manganese (~30%), nickel (1.25-1.5%), copper
(~1%) and cobalt (~0.25%). thought to have formed from the
precipitation of metals from seawater, hot springs associated with
volcanic activity and metal hydroxides through the activity of
microorganisms. Their abundance, composition, and their occurrence
as loose material lying on the surface of the seabed make nodules
potentially attractive to future mining.
○ India has exclusive rights to explore polymetallic nodules from seabed
in the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB). These rights are over
75000 sq. km of area in international waters allocated by International
Seabed Authority for developmental activities for polymetallic nodules.
○ Marine gas hydrate deposits : composed of gas molecules,
normally methane, encaged within water molecules. At great ocean
depths due to cold temperatures and high ocean pressure, gas
hydrates remain solid. The source of the dissolved gas is from the
breakdown of organic matter trapped within marine sediment. likely to
occur everywhere the seafloor exceeds 500 m (or 300 m in high
latitudes), and where there is a source of unoxidised organic carbon in
marine sediments.
○ Challenges in economic exploitation of gas hydrate deposits :
extremely challenging as they are stored deep in the ocean. a
greenhouse gas. Mining could unlock excess methane into the
atmosphere.
○ Accumulations of natural gas hydrate in North Indian Ocean
● Energy Resources : Energy from Tides, Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
(OTEC), Geothermal Energy
● United Nations International Conferences on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS)
●
● Territorial waters : full sovereignty
● Contiguous Zone or Pursuit Zone : in which the coastal state can act
against those who break the law (smugglers, pirates, illegal immigrants etc.)
within the true territorial waters.
● Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) : right to exploit all economic resources —
fish, minerals, oil and gas and energy production. The state may extend these
rights to the edge of the shelf.
● High Seas : free for navigation by vessels of all nations.
● Land Disputes in South China Sea: Parcel Islands and Spratly Islands
 ●

Geomorphology
The study of the earth’s interior is essential
● to understand the earth’s surface,
● to understand the geophysical phenomenon like volcanism, earthquakes, etc
● to understand the earth’s magnetic field
 ● to understand the internal structure of various solar system objects
● to understand the evolution and present composition of the atmosphere
● for mineral exploration
Direct Sources of information about the interior
● Deep earth mining and drilling
● Volcanic eruption forms another source of obtaining direct information.
Indirect Sources of information about the interior
● Gravitation and the diameter of the earth help in estimating pressure deep
inside
● Seismic waves : The velocity of seismic waves changes as they travel
through materials with different elasticity and density. They also undergo
reflection or refraction when they come across materials with different
densities. Earth’s internal structure can be understood by analysing the
patterns of reflection, refraction and change in velocity of the seismic waves
when they travel through it.
● Meteorites
● Gravity anomalies give us information about the distribution of mass in
the crust of the earth.
● Magnetic field : The geodynamo effect helps scientists understand what's
happening inside the Earth's core.
Sources of earth’s heat
● Radioactive decay : The nuclear decay happens primarily in the crust and
the mantle. Nuclear fusion doesn’t occur inside the earth. For nuclear fusion
to occur there must be far more pressure and temperature inside the earth.
The earth is not massive enough to cause such conditions.
● Primordial heat : The rest is the heat left over from Earth's formation
● Tidal friction : The daily flexing of the Earth (both solid body and the oceans)
causes loss of energy of the Earth's rotation, due to friction. • This energy
goes into heat, leading to miniscule increase in the Earth's internal
temperature.
Seismic waves
● waves of energy that travel through the Earth's layers and are a result of
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma movement, large landslides and
large human made explosions.
● two types — body waves and surface waves
● Body waves : generated due to the release of energy at the focus and move
in all directions travelling through the interior of the earth.
○ Primary Waves (P-waves) : fastest among the seismic waves and
hence are recorded first on the seismograph. longitudinal waves,
compressional waves, pressure waves. P-waves creates density
differences in the material leading to stretching (rarefaction) and
squeezing (compression) of the material. least destructive, They can
travel in all mediums. velocity of the P-waves in Solids > Liquids >
Gases.
 ○ Secondary Waves (S-waves) : transverse waves or shear waves or
distortional waves. Transverse waves or shear waves mean that the
direction of vibrations of the particles in the medium is perpendicular to
the direction of propagation of the wave. arrive at the surface after the
P-waves. slightly higher destructive power compared to P-waves.
S-waves cannot pass through fluids (liquids and gases) as fluids do not
support shear stresses.
● Surface waves (L-Waves) : The body waves interact with the surface rocks
and generate a new set of waves called surface waves. low-frequency
transverse waves (shear waves). most destructive among the earthquake
waves. Most of the shaking and damage from an earthquake is due to the
Rayleigh wave.
● How do seismic waves help in understanding the earth’s interior?
○ Differences in arrival times, waves taking different paths than expected
(due to refraction) and absence of the seismic waves in certain regions
called as shadow zones, allow mapping of the Earth's interior.
○ Discontinuities in velocity as a function of depth are indicative of
changes in composition and density.
○

The internal structure of the Earth(Read from Book)

Earth’s Magnetic Field
● Dynamo theory: Generation of Earth’s Magnetic Field and Sustaining it
○ Dynamo theory suggests that convection in the outer core,
combined with the Coriolis effect (caused due to the rotation of the
earth), gives rise to self-sustaining (geodynamo) Earth's magnetic
field.
○ The differences in temperature, pressure and composition within the
outer core cause convection currents in the molten iron of the outer
core as cool, dense matter sinks while warm, less dense matter rises.
○ This flow of liquid iron generates electric currents, which in turn
produce magnetic fields.
○

● Magnetic dipole field (simple north-south field like that of a simple bar magnet)
is usually aligned fairly closely with the Earth's rotation axis; in other words,
the magnetic poles are usually fairly close to the geographic poles, which is
why a compass works. However, the dipole part of the field reverses after a
 few thousand years causing the locations of the north and south magnetic
poles to switch.
●

● The current location of the Magnetic Poles

○ The North and South Magnetic Poles wander (Polar Shift Theory) due
to changes in Earth’s magnetic field.
○ The North Magnetic Pole (86֯ N, 172֯ W) lie to the north of Ellesmere
Island in northern Canada and is rapidly drifting towards Siberia. The
location of the South Magnetic Pole is currently off the coast of
Antarctica and even outside the Antarctic Circle.
○ Scientists suggest that the north magnetic pole migrates about 10
kilometres per year.
○ Lately, the speed has accelerated to about 40 kilometres per year and
could reach Siberia in a few decades.
● Because the Earth's Magnetic North Pole attracts the "north" ends of other
magnets, it is technically the "South Pole" of our planet's magnetic field.
● Magnetosphere
○ The magnetosphere is the region above the ionosphere that is defined
by the extent of the Earth's magnetic field in space.
○ protecting the Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind
and cosmic rays that would otherwise strip away the upper
atmosphere, including the ozone layer that protects the Earth from
harmful ultraviolet radiation.
○ Many cosmic rays are kept out of the Solar system by the Sun's
magnetosphere called the heliosphere.
● Auroras
○ luminous glow in the upper atmosphere of the Earth which is produced
by charged particles (solar wind) descending from the planet's
magnetosphere.
○ The charged particles follow magnetic field lines which are
oriented in and out of our planet and its atmosphere near the
 magnetic poles. Therefore, aurorae mostly are seen to occur at high
latitudes.
● A Van Allen radiation belt is a zone of energetic charged particles, most of
which originate from the solar wind, that are captured by and held around a
planet by that planet's magnetic field.
● Geomagnetic storms
○ Periods of intense activity, called geomagnetic storms, can occur when
a coronal mass ejection erupts above the Sun and sends a shock
wave through the Solar System.
○ At the Earth's surface, a magnetic storm is seen as a rapid drop in the
Earth's magnetic field strength.
○ Effects : The ionosphere gets heated and distorted, which means that
long-range radio communication that is dependent upon sub
ionospheric reflection can be difficult. disrupt satellite communication
systems like GPS. Astronauts and high-altitude pilots would face high
radiation levels. Electric power grids would see a high increase in
voltage that would cause blackouts.

Geomorphic Movements
● physical and chemical processes that take place on the earth’s surface
(folding, faulting, weathering, erosion, etc.) due to endogenic and
exogenic forces.
● Geomorphic movements: large scale physical and chemical changes that
take place on the earth’s surface due to geomorphic processes.
Endogenic Geomorphic Movements
● The geomorphic processes that are driven by the forces emanating from
deep below the earth’s surface. folding, faulting, etc.
● force behind Endogenic Movements : earth’s internal heat(Earth’s internal
heat is a result of mainly radioactive decay (50% of the earth’s internal heat)
and gravitation (causes pressure gradients)),
● Convection currents(due to density differences due to differences in
temperature and pressure) in the mantle drive the lithospheric plates (crust
and upper mantle) and the movement of the lithospheric plates (tectonics) is
the cause behind endogenic movements
● Classification of Endogenic movements : diastrophic movements and
sudden movements.
● Diastrophism : deformation of the Earth's crust due to diastrophic
movements (deforming movements) such as folding, faulting, warping
(bending or twisting of a large area) and fracturing.
○ Epeirogenic or continent forming movements : They cause
upheavals or depressions of land exhibiting undulations (wavy surface)
of long wavelengths and little folding.
○ Raised beaches, elevated wave-cut terraces, sea caves and
fossiliferous beds above sea level are evidence of upliftment.
 ○ In India, raised beaches occur at several places along the
Kathiawar, Nellore, and Tirunelveli coasts
○ Submerged forests and valleys, as well as buildings, are evidence of
subsidence.
○ Orogenic or the mountain-forming movements : Such plate
convergence forms orogenic belts that are characterised by "the
folding and faulting of layers of rock, by the intrusion of magma,
and by volcanism. Tension produces fissures (since this type of force
acts away from a point in two directions), and compression produces
folds.
● Sudden Movements : Sudden geomorphic movements occur mostly at the
lithospheric plate margins (tectonic plate margins). EQ & Volcanoes

Exogenic Geomorphic Movements

● The geomorphic processes on the earth’s crust or its surface brought down by
the forces emanating from above the earth’s surface (wind, water) are
called exogenic geomorphic processes. E.g, weathering and erosion
● Exogenic processes are a direct result of the sun’s heat. Sun’s heat along
with weather patterns are responsible for stress induced in earth materials
giving rise to exogenic movements (weathering and erosion).
● All the exogenic processes (weathering and erosion) are covered under a
general term, denudation.
● Weathering : disintegration of rocks, soil, and minerals under the influence of
physical (heat, pressure) and chemical (leaching, oxidation and reduction,
hydration) agents. three major groups of weathering processes: 1) chemical;
2) physical or mechanical; 3) biological weathering processes.
● Physical weathering involves mechanical disintegration of rocks due to
temperature changes, freeze-thaw cycles, wet-dry cycles, crystallisation of
salts, animal and plant activity, etc.
● Chemical weathering processes include dissolution, solution, carbonation,
hydration, oxidation and reduction that act on the rocks to decompose,
dissolve or reduce them to a fine state.
● Significance of weathering : first step in the formation of soil from rocks.
weakens soil and rocks and makes it easy to exploit natural resources. leads
to natural soil enrichment. leads to mineral enrichment of certain ores by
leaching unwanted minerals leaving behind the valuable ones.
Tectonics
● Tectonics is the scientific study of forces (convection currents in the mantle)
and processes (collisions of the lithospheric plates, folding, faulting,
volcanism) that control the structure of the Earth's crust and its evolution
through time.
● Continental Drift Theory (Alfred Wegener, 1922)
 ○ According to Continental Drift Theory there existed one big landmass
which he called Pangaea which was covered by one big ocean called
Panthalassa.
○ A sea called Tethys divided the Pangaea into two huge landmasses:
Laurentia (Laurasia) to the north and Gondwanaland to the south of
Tethys. Drift started around 200 million years ago (Mesozoic Era,
Triassic Period, Late Triassic Epoch), and the continents began to
break up and drift away from one another.
○ Forces : equator wards due to the interaction of forces of gravity,
pole-fleeing force (due to centrifugal force caused by earth’s rotation)
and buoyancy (ship floats in water due to buoyant force offered by
water). westwards due to tidal currents because of the earth’s motion.
○ Evidence in support of Continental Drift : Apparent Affinity of
Physical Features, Botanical Evidence, Distribution of fossils, Rock of
same age across oceans, Tillite deposits(sedimentary rocks formed out
of deposits of glaciers), Placer Deposits(Rich placer deposits of gold
are found on the Ghana coast (West Africa) but the source (gold
bearing veins) are in Brazil)
● Seafloor Spreading
○ Convection Current Theory : convection currents in the mantle due to
radioactive elements causing thermal differences in the mantle.
Wherever rising limbs of these currents meet, oceanic ridges are
formed on the seafloor due to the divergence of the lithospheric plates
(tectonic plates), and wherever the failing limbs meet, trenches are
formed due to the convergence of the lithospheric plates (tectonic
plates).
○ Paleomagnetism : Rocks formed from underwater volcanic activity
are mainly basaltic (low silica, iron-rich) that makes up most of the
ocean floor. These minerals align themselves in the direction of
the magnetic field. Paleomagnetism: Strong evidence of Seafloor
Spreading and Plate Tectonics. paleomagnetic rocks (paleo: denoting
rocks) on either side of the mid-ocean or submarine ridges provide the
most important evidence to the concept of SeaFloor Spreading.
○ Rising magma assumes the polarity of Earth’s geomagnetic field at the
time before it solidifies on the oceanic crust.
○ Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in the theory of
plate tectonics.
○ Evidence for Seafloor Spreading : Nature of oceanic rocks around
mid-ocean ridges(polarity and age), Distribution of Earthquakes and
Volcanoes along the mid-ocean ridges
Plate Tectonics
● According to the theory of plate tectonics, the earth’s lithosphere is broken
into distinct plates which are floating on a ductile layer called the
asthenosphere. The movement of these crustal plates (due to convection
currents in the mantle) causes the formation of various landforms and is the
principal cause of all earth movements.
● The oceanic plates contain mainly the Simatic crust and are relatively
thinner, while the continental plates contain Sialic material and are
relatively thicker.
● Force for plate movement : Convection currents in the mantle that are
generated due to thermal gradients.

●
Interaction of Plates
 ● Major geomorphological features such as fold and block mountains,
mid-oceanic ridges, trenches, volcanism, earthquakes etc. are a direct
consequence of the interaction between various lithospheric plates.
● Divergence forming Divergent Edge or the Constructive Edge :
Mid-ocean ridges, East African Rift Valley. sites of earth crust formation
● Convergence forming Convergent Edge or Destructive Edge : Himalayan
Belt
● Transcurrent Edge or Conservative Edge or Transform Edge : In this kind
of interaction, two plates slide past against each other, and there is no
creation or destruction of landform but only deformation of the existing
landform. San Andreas Fault

●
● Evidence in Support of Plate Tectonics : Sea Floor Spreading,
Paleomagnetism, Older rocks form the continents while younger rocks
are present on the ocean floor, Gravitational anomalies(In trenches,
where subduction has taken place (convergent edge), the value of
gravitational constant ‘g’ is less. This indicates a loss of material. ),
Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Movement of The Indian Plate
● The Tethys Sea separated it from the Asian continent till about 225 million
years ago.
● India is supposed to have started her northward journey about 200 million
years (Pangaea broke)
● India collided with Asia about 40-50 million years ago causing rapid uplift of
the Himalayas (the Indian plate and the Eurasian plate were close to the
equator back then).
● The process is continuing, and the height of the Himalayas is rising even to
this date.
 ● During the movement of the Indian plate towards the Asiatic plate, a major
event that occurred was the outpouring of lava and formation of the Deccan
Traps (shield volcano).
● The shield volcanism started somewhere around 60 million years ago and
continued for a long period.
Convergent Boundary
● Along a convergent boundary two lithospheric plates collide against each
other.
Ocean-Ocean Convergence or The Island-Arc Convergence
● The concept of Ocean-Ocean Convergence helps us understand the
formation of Japanese Island Arc, Indonesian Archipelago, Philippine
Island Arc and Caribbean Islands.
● In Ocean-Ocean Convergence, a denser oceanic plate subducts below a
less dense oceanic plate forming a trench along the boundary.
●

● As the ocean floor crust (oceanic plate) loaded with sediments subducts into
the softer asthenosphere, the rocks in the subduction zone become
metamorphosed. Magma (metamorphosed sediments and the melted part of
the subducting plate) has lower density and is at high pressure. It rises
upwards due to the buoyant force offered by the surrounding denser
medium.
● Constant volcanism above the subduction zone creates layers of rocks.
As this process continues for millions of years, a volcanic landform is
created. Such volcanic landforms all along the boundary form a chain of
volcanic islands which are collectively called Island Arcs.
● Formation of the Philippine Island Arc System : due to subduction of
Philippine Sea plate under the Sunda Plate (major continental shelf of
the Eurasian plate). The trench formed here is called Philippine Trench
● Formation of the Indonesian Archipelago : Indo-Australian plate is
subducting below Sunda Plate (part of Eurasian Plate). The trench formed
here is called Sunda trench (Java Trench is a major section of Sunda
trench). Anak Krakatau (child of Krakatau) volcano lies close to the Java
 Trench. It is situated in the Sunda Strait between the Indonesians Islands of
Java and Sumatra.
● In spite of extensive volcanism, there is no island formation along the
divergent boundary (mid-ocean ridge)
○ Basaltic magma flows out along the divergent edge (fissure type or
shield type volcano).
○ Basaltic magma has less silica, and hence it is less viscous. It
flows over a long-distance causing seafloor spreading but not
volcanic islands.
○ On the other hand, along the convergent boundary, andesitic or
acidic magma flows out.
○ Andesitic or acidic magma has more silica content, and hence it has
higher viscosity. It doesn’t move quickly and also solidifies faster.
This helps in building a layer over layer on a confined region giving rise
to a volcanic mountain.
Continent-Ocean Convergence or The Cordilleran Convergence
● When oceanic and continental plates collide or converge, the oceanic
plate (denser plate) subducts or plunges below the continental plate
(less dense plate) forming a trench along the boundary.
● As the ocean floor crust (oceanic plate) loaded with sediments subducts into
the softer asthenosphere, the rocks on the continental side in the subduction
zone become metamorphosed under high pressure and temperature.
● A continuous upward movement of magma creates constant volcanic
eruptions at the surface of the continental plate along the margin. Such
volcanic eruptions all along the boundary form a chain of volcanic
mountains which are collectively called a continental arc. E.g. the
Cascade Range (parallel to the Rockies), the Western Chile range
(parallel to the Andes)
Formation of Fold Mountains
 ●
● Formation of the Andes : due to convergence between Nazca plate
(oceanic plate) and the South American plate (continental plate).
Peru-Chile trench is formed due to subduction of Nazca plate. The
pressure offered by the accretionary wedge folded the volcanic
mountain, raising the mountains significantly.
● Formation of the Rockies : The North American plate (continental plate)
moved westwards while the Juan de Fuca plate (minor oceanic plate) and
the Pacific plate (major oceanic plate) moved eastwards. The
convergence gave rise to a series of parallel mountain ranges.

Continent-Continent Convergence or The Himalayan Convergence

● At continent-continent convergent margins, due to lower density, both of the
continental crustal plates are too light (buoyant) to be carried downward
(subduct) into a trench.
● In most cases, neither plate subducts or even if one of the plates subducts,
the subduction zone will not go deeper than 40 – 50 km. The two plates
converge, buckle up (suture zone), fold, and fault.
 ● As the continental plates converge, the ocean basic or a sedimentary basin
(geoclinal or geosynclinal sediments found along the continental
margins) is squeezed between the two converging plates.
● Huge slivers of rock, many kilometres wide are thrust on top of one another,
forming a towering mountain range. With the building up of resistance,
convergence comes to an end. The mountain belt erodes, and this is followed
by isostatic adjustment.
● The Himalayas, Alps, Urals, Appalachians and the Atlas Mountains.
● Oceanic crust is only 5 – 30 km thick. But the continental crust is 50 – 70 km
thick. Magma cannot penetrate this thick crust, so there are no volcanoes,
although the magma stays in the crust.
● With enormous slabs of crust smashing together, continent-continent
collisions bring on numerous and large earthquakes (Earthquakes in
Himalayan and North Indian Region, Kachchh region).

Why fold mountains at the continental margin?

● Fold mountains are formed due to convergence between two continental
plates (Himalayas, Alps) or between an oceanic and a continental plate
(the Rockies, Andes).
● In both C-C convergence and C-O convergence, there is the formation of
fold mountains and frequent occurrence of earthquakes.
● Volcanism is observed only in C-O convergence and is almost absent in
C-C convergence.
Divergent boundary
● The rising limbs, on the other hand, create positive pressure on the
lithosphere, and this positive pressure (pushing force) creates a
divergent boundary.
● Divergence (divergent boundary) is responsible for the evolution and
creation of new seas and oceans just like convergent boundaries are
responsible for the formation of fold mountains, volcanic arcs.
Evolution – Formation of Rift Valleys, Rift Lakes, Seas and Oceans
● The process of formation of a new sea begins with the formation of a
divergent boundary. New lithosphere is created at the divergent boundary
and the old lithosphere is destroyed somewhere else at the convergent
boundary.
●
● Stage 1: Upwarping, fault zones
○ Rising limbs of the convection currents create a plume that tries to
escape to the surface by upwarping the lithosphere. During
upwarping, a series of faults are created. The divergence of plates
begins.
● Stage 2: Rift Valley Formation
○ Faulting due to divergence creates an extensive rift system (fault
zones, rift valleys). Rifts are the initial stage of a continental
breakup and, if successful, can lead to the formation of a new ocean
basin.
○ The East African Rift is described as an active type of rift. Beneath
this rift, the rise of a large mantle plume is doming the lithosphere
upwards (Ethiopian Highlands), causing it to weaken.
○ Rifting is followed by flood basalt volcanism in some places that
spread around the rift creating plateaus and highlands (Ethiopian
Highlands, Kenya Dome).
● Stage 3: Formation of Linear Sea or Rift Lakes
○ If the rift valleys are formed deeper within the continents, rains waters
accumulate forming rift lakes. Rift lakes form some of the largest
freshwater lakes on earth.
○ Successive volcanism and seafloor spreading create spreading
sites where new crust is formed. Oceanic crust starts to replace
continental crust. This stage is the formation of linear seas.
Example: Red Sea
● Stage 4: Linear Sea transforms into Ocean
○ The intense outpouring of basaltic magma accentuates sea floor
spreading and oceanic crust formation. Crust formation along the
mid-oceanic ridge (divergent boundary) is compensated by crust
destruction (crustal shortening) along the convergent boundary
 (destructive Edge). This is how the continents and oceans get
transformed.
Rift valley lakes
● a lake formed as a result of subsidence related to movement on faults within
a rift zone, an area of extensional tectonics in the continental crust.
● Many of the world's largest lakes are located in rift valleys.
● Lake Baikal in Siberia lies in an active rift valley. largest (by volume)
freshwater lake in the world
● Lake Tanganyika, second largest freshwater lake by volume, is in the
Albertine Rift, world's longest freshwater lake
● The Great Rift Valley is a geographical feature running north to south for
around 6,400 kilometres from northern Syria to central Mozambique in
East Africa.

●
● The Eastern Rift Valley (also known as Gregory Rift) includes the main
Ethiopian Rift, running eastward from the Afar Triple Junction, which
continues south as the Kenyan Rift Valley.
● To the north of the Afar Triple Junction, the rift follows one of two paths: west
to the Red Sea Rift or east to the Aden Ridge in the Gulf of Aden.
● Before rifting, enormous continental flood basalts erupted on the surface and
uplift of the Ethiopian, Somalian, and East African plateaus occurred.
● The East African Rift (EAR) is an active continental rift zone in East
Africa.
● The rift is a narrow zone that is a developing divergent tectonic plate
boundary, in which the African Plate is in the process of splitting into two
tectonic plates, called the Somali Plate and the Nubian Plate (African
Plate), at a rate of 6–7 mm annually.
 ● The EAR is the largest seismically active rift system on Earth today.
How come Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Kenya that formed close to the
divergent boundary are stratovolcanoes when the magma that flows out at the
divergent boundary is basaltic?
● Shield volcanoes are formed from magma that contains a low proportion of
silicates (magma coming from the mantle, like in divergent boundary).
● Stratovolcanoes are formed from magma that contains a high proportion
of silicates (magma formed due to the melting of crustal plates, like in
convergent boundary).
● During the formation of the African rift valley, there was a lot of faulting. The
stress caused in the crustal plates led to the melting of the subsurface
layer into magma, and the volcanoes around Kilimanjaro occurred due to
this magma (high proportion of silicates).

Block Mountains
● Block mountains are created because of faulting on a large scale (when
large areas or blocks of earth are broken and displaced vertically or
horizontally).
● The uplifted blocks are termed as horsts, and the lowered blocks are
called graben.
● The Great African Rift Valley (valley floor is graben), The Rhine Valley
(graben) and the Vosges mountain (horst) in Europe are examples.
● Block mountains are also called fault block mountains since they are
formed due to faulting as a result of tensile and compressive forces.

Volcanism
● Volcanism is the phenomenon of eruption of molten rock, pyroclastics and
volcanic gases to the surface through a vent or fissures.
● The convection currents in the mantle create convergent and divergent
boundaries.
● Andesitic or Acidic or Composite or Stratovolcano lava
○ light-coloured, of low density, and have a high percentage of silica.
highly viscous
○ The resultant volcanic cone is therefore stratified. The rapid
solidifying of lava in the vent obstructs the flow of the out-pouring lava,
resulting in loud explosions, throwing out many volcanic bombs or
pyroclasts.
○ Andesitic lava flow occurs mostly along the destructive
boundaries (convergent boundaries).
● Basic or Basaltic or Shield lava
○ dark coloured basalt, rich in iron and magnesium but poor in silica.
highly fluid
○ They flow out of volcanic vents quietly and are not very explosive.
 ○ Due to their high fluidity, They affect extensive areas, spreading out as
thin sheets over great distances before they solidify.
○ Shield type lava flow is common along the constructive boundaries
(divergent boundary).
● Volcanic Landforms
○ Volcanic landforms are divided into extrusive and intrusive
landforms based on whether magma cools within the crust or above
the crust.
● A cinder cone is a steep circular or oval shaped hill of loose pyroclastic
fragments that have been built around a volcanic vent.

○
○ Conical Vent( andesitic volcanism (composite or stratovolcano))
and Fissure Vent( basaltic volcanism (shield type volcanoes))
○ Mid-Ocean Ridges
○ Composite Type Volcanic Landforms : conical or central type
volcanic landforms. Andesitic lava along with pyroclastic material.
Mount Stromboli (the Lighthouse of the Mediterranean), Mount
Vesuvius, Mount Fuji
○ Shield Type Volcanic Landforms : Hawaiian volcanoes, mostly
made up of basaltic lava (very fluid)
○ Fissure Type Flood Basalt Landforms (Lava Plateaus): Sometimes,
a very thin magma escapes through cracks and fissures in the
earth's surface and flows after intervals for a long time, spreading
over a vast area, finally producing a layered, undulating (wave-like),
flat surface. Siberian Traps, Deccan Traps, Snake Basin, Icelandic
Shield, Canadian Shield.
 ○
● Hawaiian Eruption : calmest types characterised by the effusive
eruption(abundant outpourings of basaltic lava from a vent or fissure) of
very fluid basalt-type lavas from craters, lava lakes, fissures with
little-ejected material (low gaseous content)
● Icelandic Eruptions : characterized by effusions of molten basaltic lava
that flow from long, parallel fissures. Deccan Traps, Siberian Traps
● Strombolian Eruption : Strombolian eruptions are driven by the continuous
formation of large gas bubbles within the magma. Because of the high gas
pressures associated with the magma, episodic explosive eruptions occur.
Anak Krakatoa
Hotspot Volcanism
● a type of volcanism that typically occurs at the interior parts of the
lithospheric plates rather than at the zones of convergence and
divergence (plate margins).
● Iceland Hotspot and Afar Hotspot, Hawaii and Yellowstone, Reunion
Hotspot
● Hotspot volcanism occurs due to abnormally hot centres in the mantle
known as mantle plumes.
● A mantle plume is convection of abnormally hot rock (magma) within the
Earth's mantle. the position of the mantle plumes seems to be relatively
fixed.
● On the continents, mantle plumes have been responsible for extensive
accumulations of flood basalts.
● When a plume head encounters the base of the lithosphere, it flattens out and
undergoes widespread decompression melting to form large volumes of
basalt magma. The basaltic magma may then erupt onto the surface through
a series of fissures giving rise to large igneous provinces.
 ●
● The mantle plume provides a continuous supply of abnormally hot magma to
a fixed location in the mantle referred to as a hotspot.
● Hotspot volcano chain : A new and active volcano develops over the
hotspot creating a continuous cycle of volcanism, forming a volcanic arc that
parallels plate motion. Hawaiian Islands chain

● Other hotspots with time-progressive volcanic chains behind them include

Réunion, the Chagos-Laccadive Ridge, the Louisville Ridge, the
Yellowstone.
● The Chagos-Laccadive Ridge (Lakshadweep is a part of this ridge) and the
southern part of the Mascarene Plateau are volcanic traces of the Reunion
hotspot.
● The Laccadive Islands, the Maldives, and the Chagos Archipelago are
atolls resting on former volcanoes created 60-45 million years ago that
subsequently submerged below sea level.
Geysers and Hot Springs
● Geyser : Steam or water at high pressure, along its path, gets accumulated in
small reservoirs, fissures and fractures. Once the pressure exceeds the
threshold limit, the steam bursts out to the surface disrupting the water at the
mouth. Hence the name geyser. located near active volcanic areas. Iceland is
famous for its geysers.
● Hot water spring : Steam or water at high pressure smoothly flows to the
top through the vent and condense at the surface giving rise to a spring.
very colourful because of the presence of cyanobacteria of different colours.
● Almost all the world’s geysers are confined to three major areas: Iceland,
New Zealand and Yellowstone Park of the U.S.A.
Distribution of Earthquakes and Volcanoes across the World
● Most known volcanic activity and the earthquakes occur along converging
plate margins and mid-oceanic ridges.
● nearly 70 percent of earthquakes occur in the Circum-Pacific belt.
 ● Another 20 percent of earthquakes take place in the
Mediterranean-Himalayan belt.
● More than 80 percent of volcanoes are located in and around the Pacific
Ocean
● The belts of highest concentration are Aleutian-Kuril islands arc, Melanesia
and New Zealand-Tonga belt.
● Pacific Ring of Fire : Volcanic belt and earthquake belt closely overlap along
the 'Pacific Ring of Fire'.
● Volcanoes of the Mediterranean region are mainly associated with the
Alpine folds, e.g. Vesuvius, Stromboli (Light House of the Mediterranean)
and those of the Aegean islands. This type of volcanism is mainly due to
breaking up of the Mediterranean plate into multiple plates due to the
interaction of African and Eurasian plate.
Destructive Effects of Volcanoes
● eruption of Mount Vesuvius
● Tsunamis can be generated in large water bodies due to violent eruptions.
E.g. 1883 Krakatoa eruption, 2018 Sunda Strait tsunami
● can lower temperatures at a regional or global scale.
● Volcanism – Acid Rain, Ozone Destruction

Positive Effects of Volcanoes

● new fertile landforms like islands, plateaus, volcanic mountains etc. E.g.
Deccan traps.
● volcanic ash and dust are very fertile for farms and orchards.
● Mineral resources, particularly metallic ores are brought to the surface by
volcanoes.
● famed Kimberlite rock of South Africa, the source of diamonds
● springs and geysers : geothermal electricity, Puga valley in Ladakh region
and Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh)

Rocks(read from Book)

Earthquakes
● shaking or trembling of the earth’s surface, caused by the seismic waves or
earthquake waves that are generated due to a sudden movement (sudden
release of energy) in the earth’s crust
●
● Causes of Earthquakes :
○ Fault Zones : sudden release of stress along a fault rupture (crack) in
the earth's crust.
○ Plate tectonics : Slipping of land along the faultline along convergent,
divergent and transform boundaries cause earthquakes. Megathrust
earthquakes occur at subduction zones, where one tectonic plate is
forced underneath another. E.g. 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. San
Andreas Fault is a transform fault.
○ Volcanic activity : Earthquakes in volcanic regions are caused by the
consequent release of elastic strain energy both by tectonic faults and
the movement of magma in volcanoes. Circum-Pacific Belt and along
oceanic ridges.
○ Human Induced Earthquakes : e mining, large scale petroleum
extraction, artificial lakes (reservoirs), nuclear tests etc.
○ Reservoir-induced seismicity : The pressure offered by a column of
water in a large and deep artificial lake alter stresses along an existing
fault or fracture. Koynanagar earthquake
● Though comparatively of low magnitude, shallow focus earthquakes( 0 – 70
km) can cause relatively greater damage at the surface (as the whole energy
is directed towards a small area) compared to their deep-focus counterparts.
● The deeper-focus earthquakes commonly occur in patterns called Benioff
zones that dip into the Earth, indicating the presence of a subducting slab
(zone of subduction). They happen as huge quakes with larger magnitudes
(usual range of 6 to 8), as a great deal of energy is released with the forceful
collision of the plates.
● Wadati–Benioff zone: Earthquakes along the Convergent boundary

●
 ● 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, 2011 Tōhoku earthquake
● Effects of Earthquakes
○ Shaking and ground rupture
○ Earthquakes, along with severe storms, volcanic activity, coastal wave
attack, and wildfires, can produce slope instability leading to landslides,
a major geological hazard.
○ Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical power or gas lines.
○ Soil liquefaction
○ Tsunami
○ Floods
EARTHQUAKE MANAGEMENT
● A massive earthquake of 6.4 magnitude on the Richter scale hit Assam
recently.(April 2021)
● India has seen some very damaging earthquakes like Koyna (1967), Assam
(1988) Latur (1993) and Bhuj (2001) earthquakes.
● As per Earthquake Disaster Risk index (EDRI) report (2019), in the last 25
years, India has witnessed several moderate earthquakes that caused around
40,000 deaths, largely due to collapse of buildings.

● Earthquake Management in India

○ Seismic code: First national seismic code was developed in 1962.
However, effective implementation of the building codes remains a
major challenge.
 ○ Earthquake Engineering: National Information Centre of Earthquake
Engineering (NICEE) undertakes various capacity-building activities by
publishing and disseminating information, and by increasing awareness
among students and professionals through conferences and
workshops.
● NDMA Guidelines (2007): National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
guidelines suggest following six Pillars for Earthquake Management in India:
○ Earthquake-resistant design and Construction of new structures :
■ Training of professionals, Dissemination of documents,
Undertaking pilot projects on earthquake resistant construction,
Undertaking mandatory third party detailed technical audit
○ Seismic strengthening and retrofitting of lifeline and priority
structures
■ Developing inventory of existing built environment, Assessing
vulnerability of constructions and prioritising vulnerable
structures, Undertaking retrofitting to strengthen vulnerable
structures
○ Regulation and Enforcement : Seismic Design Codes, Municipal
Acts, Regulations, & Bye-laws, Licensing & Registration of
Professionals and Certification of Artisans, Scrutiny of Designs and
Building Permissions, Risk Transfer Mechanisms, Participation of
Financial Institutions
○ Awareness and Preparedness : Sensitisation of Different
Stakeholders, Emergency Plans and Mock Drills, National and State
Earthquake Disaster Management Plans, District to Community level
Preparedness Plans, Vulnerability Mapping of the Land Areas
○ Capacity Development (Including Education, Training, R&D and
Documentation) : Technical Education and capacity Building of
Professionals, Earthquake Research and Development,
○ Emergency Response : Response Plans for Different Trigger Levels,
NDRF (National Disaster Response Force) and other Emergency
Response Teams, Emergency Equipment, Logistics and Medical
Response Capability
● International Collaboration:
○ To fulfil the Sustainable Development Goal-9 that focuses on building
resilient infrastructure, India announced the launch of Coalition for
Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI) at the Climate Action Summit in
2019.
○ India also works closely with the United Nations International Strategy
for Disaster Reduction (ISDR). ISDR is a global framework for the
promotion of action to reduce social vulnerability and risks of natural
hazards and related technological and environmental disasters.
Tsunami
● A tsunami is a series of very long wavelength waves in large water bodies like
seas or large lakes caused by a major disturbance above or below the water
surface or due to the displacement of a large volume of water.
● Earthquakes (e.g. 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami), volcanic eruptions (e.g.
tsunami caused by the violent eruption of Krakatoa in 1883), landslides
(tsunami caused by the collapse of a section of Anak Krakatoa in 2018),
underwater explosions, meteorite impacts, etc. have the potential to generate
a tsunami.

●
● Tsunamis are a series of waves of very, very long wavelengths and periods.
Tsunamis behave as shallow-water waves because of their long wavelengths.
● They travel at high speeds in deep waters, and their speed falls when they hit
shallow waters.
● When tsunamis approach shallow water, however, the wave amplitude
increases (conservation of energy).
● 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami : Indian plate went under the Burma plate, there
was a sudden movement of the sea floor, causing the earthquake. The ocean
floor was displaced by about 10 – 20m and tilted in a downward direction. A
huge mass of ocean water flowed to fill in the gap that was being created by
the displacement. After thrusting off the Indian plate below the Burma plate,
the water mass rushed back towards the coastline as a tsunami.
 ● Tsunamis and earthquakes can cause changes in geography. December 26
earthquake and tsunami shifted the North Pole by 2.5 cm. This, in turn,
affected the velocity of earth’s rotation and the Coriolis force which plays a
strong role in weather patterns.
● National Tsunami Early Warning Centre : INCOIS, Hyderabad,

Soil erosion and Landforms

● Erosion by water is termed differently according to the intensity and nature of
erosion: raindrop erosion, sheet erosion, rill and gully erosion, stream
bank erosion, landslides, coastal erosion, glacial erosion.
● Gullies formed over a large area give rise to badland topography
(Chambal Ravines). When a gully bed is eroded further due to headward
erosion, the bed gradually deepens and flattens out, and a ravine is formed.
Further erosion of ravine beds gives rise to canyons.
Fluvial Landforms and Cycle of Erosion
● as a result of degradational action (erosion and transportation) or
aggradational work (deposition) of running water.
● River Valley Formation :
○ At a young stage, the valley is deep, narrow with steep wall-like
sides and a convex slope. predominantly vertical downcutting
nature
○ A deep and narrow ‘V’ shaped valley is also referred to as a gorge.
Most Himalayan rivers pass through deep gorges.
○ As the cycle attains maturity, the lateral erosion (erosion of the
walls of a stream) becomes prominent and the valley floor flattens
out (attains a ‘V’ to ‘U’ shape).
● River course :
○ Youth : Steep-sided "V-shaped' valleys, waterfalls, and rapids are
characteristic features. Rivers flowing in the Himalayas.
○ Maturity : Erosion takes place on the outside of bends, creating
looping meanders in the soft alluvium of the river plain. Rivers
flowing in the Indo-Gangetic Brahmaputra plain.
○ Old Age : As the river becomes shallower more deposition occurs,
forming temporary islands and braiding.
○ As the sediment is laid down, the actual mouth of the river moves
away from the source into the sea or lake, forming a delta.
● The ravines of Chambal Valley in Central India and the Chos of Hoshiarpur
in Punjab are examples of gulleys.
● Meanders : A meander is defined as a pronounced curve or loop in the
course of a river channel.
●
● watershed of Yamuna + watershed of Chambal + watershed of Gandak + ….
= Drainage basin of Ganga.
● Drainage systems (drainage patterns)
○ Concordant drainage : the path of the river is highly dependent on the
slope of the river and topography. The rivers which follow the general
direction of the slope are known as the consequent rivers.(rivers like
the Godavari, Krishna and Cauvery). A tributary stream that is formed
by headward erosion along an underlying rock after the main drainage
pattern (consequent river) has been established is known as a
subsequent river. Chambal, Sind, Ken, Betwa, Tons and Son meet
the Yamuna and the Ganga at right angles. They are the subsequent
drainage of the Ganga drainage system.
○ Discordant or Insequent drainage patterns : the river follows its
initial path irrespective of the changes in topography. two main
types: antecedent and superimposed.
○ A part of a river slope and the surrounding area gets uplifted, and the
river sticks to its original slope, cutting through the uplifted portion
like a saw (vertical erosion) and forming deep gorges. This type of
drainage is called antecedent drainage. Indus, Sutlej, Brahmaputra
and other Himalayan rivers that are older than the Himalayas
themselves
○ When a river flowing over a softer rock stratum reaches the harder
basal rocks but continues to follow the initial slope, it seems to have no
relation with the harder rock bed. This type of drainage is called
superimposed drainage. It is a drainage pattern which exhibits
discordance with the underlying rock structure because it
originally developed on a cover of rocks that has now
disappeared due to denudation. Damodar, the Subarnarekha, the
Chambal, the Banas
 ● Fluvial Depositional Landforms
○ Alluvial Fans and Cones, Natural Levees, Delta, Estuaries

Karst Landforms and Cycle of Erosion

● Karst landforms are characterized by underground drainage systems with
sinkholes, fissures, caves formed from the dissolution (chemical
weathering) and erosion of soluble rocks such as limestone, dolomite.
● The carbonic acid that causes karstic features is formed as rain passes
through the atmosphere picking up carbon dioxide (CO2).
● Conditions for the formation of karst topography :
○ Surface or subsurface strata made up of porous water-soluble
rocks such as limestone.
○ Thinly bedded and highly jointed and cracked rock strata that
make it easy for the water to seep in
○ Moderate to abundant rainfall for chemical weathering of
limestone.
● Sinkhole/Swallow Hole, Cavern(In India, such caves can be seen in Bastar,
Dehradun, Shillong plateau.), Stalactite and Stalagmite

Look at other forms of landforms from book

Lakes
● Temporary lakes,
● Permanent lakes : These lakes are deep and carry more water than could
ever be evaporated. Great Lakes of North America, East African Rift Lakes
● Freshwater lakes
● Saline lakes : form where there is no natural outlet or where the water
evaporates rapidly. Dead Sea, Great Salt Lake of Utah, Pangong Tso.
Playas or salt lakes are a common feature of deserts (arid landforms).
● Tectonic lakes : Due to the warping (simple deformation), subsidence (sliding
downwards), bending and fracturing (splitting) of the earth’s crust, tectonic
depressions occur.
● Rift valley lakes
● Cirque lakes or tarns : due to glaciation
● Rock-hollow lakes : The advance and retreat of glaciers can scrape
depressions in the surface where water accumulates; such lakes are
common in Scandinavia, Patagonia, Siberia and Canada.
● Lakes due to morainic damming of valleys
● Crater and caldera lakes : During a volcanic explosion, the top of the cone
may be blown off leaving behind a natural hollow called a crater. This may be
enlarged by subsidence into a caldera.
● Karst lake
 ● Lakes due to river deposits : Oxbow lakes
● Lakes due to damming of water : Landslides, avalanches
● Man-made lakes
● Lakes and Man
○ Means of communication : Great Lakes-St. Lawrence waterways
○ Economic and industrial development
○ Water storage
○ Hydro-electric power generation
○ Agricultural purposes
○ Regulating river flows
○ Moderation of climate
○ Source of food
○ Source of minerals

Plateau
● A plateau is a flat-topped tableland. They are one of the four major
landforms, along with mountains, plains, and hills.
● Economic significance of plateaus
○ plateau of France (Massif Central), the Deccan plateau of India,
Katanga plateau of Congo (Copper mines), Western Australian
plateau or Kimberly Plateau (diamond mines) and Brazilian
plateau or Brazilian Highlands are very good sources of minerals.
○ Iron, copper, gold, diamonds, Manganese, coal, etc., are found in
these plateaus.
○ In India, huge reserves of iron, coal and manganese are found in the
Chotanagpur plateau.
○ several waterfalls as the river falls from a great height. In India, the
Hundru Falls in the Chotanagpur plateau on the river
Subarnarekha and the Jog Falls in Karnataka. ideal for
hydro-electric power generation.
○ The lava plateaus like Deccan traps are rich in black soil that is
fertile and good for cultivation.
○ Loess Plateau in China has very fertile soils that are good for many
kinds of crops.
● Plateau Formation
○ volcanism (Deccan Plateau, Yellowstone), crustal shortening
(Tibetan Plateau ― thrusting of one block of crust over another, and
folding occurs. Example:), and thermal expansion (Ethiopian
Highlands, Massif Central in France).
Distribution of key natural resources across India and the World
Iron
● Magnetite : black in colour and has a very high content of Iron – upto 72 per
cent. higher iron content than hematite (60-70 per cent). Distribution of
magnetite ore in India: Dharwad and Cuddapah systems – Karnataka
(73%), Andhra Pradesh (14%)
● Haematite : Reddish ore with naturally high iron content – 60 to 70 per cent.
most abundantly available ore in India. Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh
● Limonite, Siderite
● Iron Ore Distribution Across the World
 ○ Africa : Transvaal(South Africa), Liberia
○ China : Manchuria, Sinkiang, Low grade ore, hence depends on
imported ore from Australia, Brazil and Russia
○ Europe : Ruhr, South Wales, Krivoy Rog(Ukraine), Bilbao(Spain),
Lorraine (France). Flourishing automobile industry in Ruhr
○ Iron ore in Russia, Kazakhstan: Ural region(Mineral bank of Russia),
Magnitogorsk
○ Iron Ore in North America: Great Lakes (Mesabi Region), Labrador
○ Iron Ore in South America: Carajas(Brazil), Itabira, Minas
Geriais(Brazilian Highlands)
○ Iron Ore in Australia: Pilbara Region, Most of the ore goes into Chinese
and Japanese blast furnaces
● Iron Ore Distribution in India
○ In India, the main deposits of iron ore are located in the states of
Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka and Goa, with
Odisha contributing ~50% of India’s total production.
○ Important hematite accumulations are in Singhbhum district
(Jharkhand, Noamandi mines), Keonjhar (Orissa, Barabil-Koira
valley), Bellary (Karnataka), Bastar district (Chhattisgarh, Bailadila
mine) and Goa.
○ Magnetite ore deposits are mainly confined to the Chikmagalur
district (Kudremukh (Baba Budan hills)) in Karnataka and Salem
and North Arcot districts in Tamil Nadu.
Coal
● Most of the world’s coal was formed in the Carboniferous age (350 million
years ago – Best quality coal). Heat and pressure produced chemical and
physical changes in the plant layers which forced out oxygen and left rich
carbon deposits. In time, material that had been plants became coal.
● Older the coal, better the carbon content. Oxygen, nitrogen and moisture
content decreases with time while the proportion of carbon increases.
● Peat < Lignite < Bituminous < Anthracite((oldest, best quality coal)

● Distribution of Coal in India

○ Gondwana Coal (formed 250 million years ago) : Around 98 per
cent of India's coal reserves and 99% of total coal production are
from Gondwana fields. Coking as well as non-coking coal and
bituminous coal are obtained from Gondwana coal fields. free from
moisture, but it contains Sulphur and phosphorus.
○ Jharkhand : Damodar belt, Bokaro, Jharia, It stores the best of
metallurgical coal (bituminous coking coal) in the country. More than
90% of India’s Coking coal comes from Jharkhand
 ○ Odisha : Talcher coalfield of Odisha stretches over Dhenkanal and
Sambalpur districts. utilised in thermal power and fertilizer plants at
Talcher
○ Chhattisgarh : Korba coalfield
○ Tertiary coal generally has low carbon and high percentage of moisture
and Sulphur. Lignite deposits occur in the tertiary sediments in the
extra-peninsular region particularly in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Gujarat &
Rajasthan and also in Jammu & Kashmir.
○ Peat deposits occur in Nilgiri hills and Kashmir valley (in the alluvium of
the Jhelum).
● Why does India import coal although it has enough reserves?
○ Inability to exploit reserves(Unavailability of technology, Maoist affected
regions)
○ Short supply of coking coal (metallurgical coal) - an important
ingredient in the manufacture of iron (coke acts as fuel in a blast
furnace).
○ Environmental concerns
○ Lack of dedicated freight corridors : The distribution of coal is uneven. •
The movement of freight in India is slow
○ Coal India is not able to meet the demand of captive power plants

Distribution of Coal across the World

Petroleum and Mineral Oil
● obtained from sedimentary rocks of the earth.
● Constituents of Petroleum include 90 to 95 per cent hydrocarbons and 5 –
10% organic compounds containing oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur
● Conditions for Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oil
○ Porosity (tiny gaps in soil) so as to accommodate sufficiently large
amounts of oil;
○ Permeability (allowing liquids or gases to pass through) to discharge oil
and/or gas
○ Porous sandstone beds or fissured limestone containing oil should be
capped below by impervious beds
● Formation of exploitable reservoirs of hydrocarbons requires migration (from
their source rocks) to geological traps comprising porous reservoir rocks and
overlain by an impermeable horizon.

●
● Common geological traps for hydrocarbons include shales, salt domes
(evaporites; also rich in sulphur), and anticlinal folds of permeable and
non-permeable strata.
● On-shore Oil Production in India
 ○ Brahmaputra valley of north-east India, Barmer area of Rajasthan,
Gujarat coast in western India, Cauvery on-shore basin in Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh has both on-shore and offshore oil reserves.
○ Rajasthan is the largest on shore oil producing state of India.
● Off-Shore Oil Production in India
○ Western Coast(Mumbai High, Bassein and Aliabet(Gulf of
Khambhat))
○ Eastern Coast : basin and delta regions of the Godavari, the Krishna
(K-G basin) and the Cauvery, Rawa field in Krishna-Godavari
off-shore basin
● India’s Oil Imports : Iraq > Saudi Arabia
● Oil Refiners in India

● Crude Oil Pipelines : Paradip-Haldia-Barauni Pipeline (PHBPL),

Mundra-Panipat Pipeline (MPPL)
● Petroleum Product Pipelines : Koyali-Ahmedabad Pipeline,
Barauni-Kanpur Pipeline, Panipat-Delhi Pipeline,
Naharkatia-Nunmati-Barauni Pipeline(1st pipeline),
● Advantages of Pipeline : Ideal to transport liquids and gases, laid
through difficult terrains as well as under water, Economical,
needs very little maintenance, safe, accident-free and
environmentally friendly
 ● Disadvantages of Pipelines : not flexible, Its capacity cannot be
increased once it is laid, difficult to make security arrangements for
pipelines, Detection of leakage and repair is also difficult
World distribution of Petroleum and Mineral Oil

Natural gas
● Natural gas consists of primarily methane and ethane. (LPG is a mixture of
butane and propane). Natural gas is formed during the process of
formation of Petroleum.
● associated gas or wet gas, non-associated gas or dry gas
● Often natural gases contain substantial quantities of hydrogen sulphide -
sour gas
● Coalbed methane is called ‘sweet gas’ because of its lack of hydrogen
sulphide.
Distribution of Natural Gas across Indian and the World
● Russia : Highest proven reserves, Some of the world’s largest gas fields
occur in a region of West Siberia, Volga-Urals,
● North America : Gulf of Mexico,
● Europe : Dutch coast and the North Sea (off the coast of Norway) have
proven reserves.
● Africa : Central basin of Algeria and Niger Delta
● Middle East : Arabian-Iranian basin, Iran and Qatar significant proven
natural gas reserves in the world
India
● KG basin, Assam, Gulf of Khambhat, Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu,
Barmer in Rajasthan etc.
Petroleum and Gas Value Chain

Unconventional Gas Reservoirs

● Conventional reservoirs of oil and natural gas are found in permeable
sandstone.
● Unconventional Gas Reservoirs occur in relatively impermeable
sandstones, in joints and fractures or, absorbed into the matrix of shales
(shale is a sedimentary rock), and in coal seams
● Examples of unconventional gas resources: Tight gas, shale gas, and
coal-bed methane
Coalbed Methane
● Considerable quantities of methane are trapped within coal seams
(underground coal deposits).
● This gas can be accessed by drilling wells into the coal seam and
pumping large quantities of water that saturate the seam.
● Fire Accidents in Coal Mines are mainly due to Coalbed Methane, and Lignite
deposits (undergo spontaneous combustion).
● With one of the largest proven coal reserves, and one of the largest coal
producers in the world, India holds significant prospects for commercial
recovery of coalbed methane.
● At present CBM is produced from some virgin coal mines – Jharia in
Jharkhand, Raniganj East and South in West Bengal and Sohagpur West in
Madhya Pradesh.
● Problems in Exploration, Extraction of Coalbed Methane in India
○ CBM extraction falls under the Ministry of Petroleum & Natural Gas
whereas coal mining falls under the Ministry of Coal. Hence,
contractors are not allowed to mine gas from coal seams or coal bed
methane (CBM) and coal in the same block due to the turf war between
the two ministries and other associated bureaucratic hurdles.
 ○ The state-run firms are holding mines in joint ventures with private
companies and the latter do not have rights to explore unconventional
gas resources –– coalbed methane, shale gas, tight gas.
○ The technology required is very advanced and the public sector
companies have very weak organizational setup to efficiently handle
such technologies and extract gas economically.
Shale Gas
● Shale gas is a mixture of lot of methane + little ethane, propane, & butane
● Shales are fine-grained sedimentary rocks formed of organic-rich mud at
the bottom of ancient seas
● Subsequent sedimentation and the resultant heat and pressure transformed
the mud into shale and also produced natural gas from the organic matter
contained in it
● Extraction of Shale Gas : Extraction is done through horizontal drilling
through the shale seam, followed by hydraulic fracturing, or fracking, of
the rock by the injecting fluid at extremely high pressure. A mixture of
water, chemicals, and sand is then injected into the well at very high
pressures to create a number of fissures in the rock to release the gas.
○ Adding guar gum increases viscosity of water and makes
high-pressure pumping and the fracturing process more efficient. The
guar been is grown mainly by farmers in Rajasthan and Haryana.
● Problems associated with shale gas exploitation : damage to forest cover
and possible contamination of ground water. Huge amounts of water required.
Unviable technology, Water Scarcity
● Distribution across the world : China largest reserves, USA largest producer
● India : Cambay Onland, Ganga Valley, Assam & AssamArakan, Krishna
Godavari (KG) Onland, Cauvery Onland & Rajasthan & Vindhya Basins.
 ● Shale Gas: Low Potential, High Risk and India has a Better Alternative. Coal
bed methane (CBM), in terms of depth, occurs much closer to the land
surface than shale gas and hence it is comparatively easier to extract.
● The difference between shale gas and tight gas is that shale is trapped in
sedimentary shale rocks whereas tight gas is found trapped in sandstone or
limestone formations with relatively low permeability.
● Exploration of tight reservoir has already started in KG-PG, Cauvery and
Cambay basins
Bauxite
● Bauxite ore is the primary source of aluminium. It forms when laterite soils
are severely leached of soluble materials in a wet tropical or subtropical
climate.
● Bauxite Distribution in India
○ Odisha : Largest bauxite producing state. Koraput, Kalahandi and
Rayagada.
○ Chhattisgarh : Second largest producer, Maikala range in Bilaspur,
Durg districts and the Amarkantak plateau.
 ●

Lead & Zinc

● Lead : corrosion-resistant, ductile and malleable metal. a bad conductor.
○ a heavy metal that is denser than most common metals.
○ Galena (lead glance – natural mineral form of lead sulphide), a
principal ore of lead, often bears silver. Galena is found in veins in
limestones, calcareous slates and sandstones.
○ Lead effectively resists corrosive effects of atmospheric gases and
acidic substances.
○ Use : largely used for coating iron-sheets, lining acid tanks,
manufacture of lead-acid storage batteries. as plumbing material
● Zinc : a silvery blue-grey metal with a relatively low melting and boiling point.
○ Sphalerite (zinc sulphide) is the principal ore of zinc. It is usually found
in veins in association with galena, pyrite (iron disulphide), and other
sulphides.
 ○ used as coating to protect iron and steel from corrosion (galvanized
steel) and as alloying metal to make bronze and brass. second most
common trace metal, after iron, naturally found in the human body.
● Distribution of Lead and Zinc ores – India and World
○ Both lead & zinc are found to occur together in ore along with other
metals like silver and cadmium.
○ Almost the entire production of zinc and lead comes from Rajasthan.
Rampura-Agucha mine (Bhilwara district), Zawar group of mines
(Udaipur district)
○ Australia : largest producer of lead and zinc

Pyrites
● Pyrite is a sulphide of iron that occurs in sedimentary rocks. It is a chief
source of sulphur.
● Sulphide occurs naturally in mineral ores, oil and coal deposits.
● Sulphur is used for the production of sulphuric acid which in turn is used for
the production of chemical fertilizers, textiles, galvanising of steel, storage
batteries, refining of petroleum, explosives and other acids.
● Native sulphur deposit has been reported in Puga Valley of Leh district in
Jammu & Kashmir.
● Major reserves are located in Bihar (94%) and Rajasthan (5%).
● India’s imports of sulphur were mainly from UAE (30%), Qatar (28%), Saudi
Arabia (22%).

Cobalt
● an important ferromagnetic alloying metal having irreplaceable industrial
applications. extracted as a by-product of copper, nickel, zinc or precious
metals. Super alloys made of cobalt are wear & corrosion-resistant at
elevated temperatures.
● Largest demand for cobalt has been from the Rechargeable Battery
Industry (Lithium ion battery).
● Odisha(69%, Keonjhar and Jajpur districts), Jharkhand(20%, Singhbhum
district)
● India is aggressively pushing electric mobility. All electric vehicles at
present use Lithium ion batteries. Hence, India has to aggressively push to
secure lithium and cobalt (strategic minerals) resources both internally and
externally.
● The demand for cobalt is usually met through imports.
● Recycling technologies for recovery of cobalt from waste Li-ion batteries have
been an evolving process.
● China has already taken a substantial lead in the race by aggressively
procuring these minerals from Congo.
Lithium
● Lithium is the lightest known metal.
● Lithium-ion batteries are key to lightweight, rechargeable power for
laptops, phones, electric vehicles, etc. Lithium and another battery
component, cobalt, could become scarce as demand increases
● Lithium is highly reactive and flammable and must be stored in mineral oil.
● It never occurs freely in nature, but only in compounds such as igneous rocks
formed underground.
● China controls most of the lithium supply across the world.
● India currently imports all its lithium needs. It imported lithium batteries
worth $1.2 billion in fiscal 2019, up from $384 million in FY17. Experts say
while India requires lithium for its energy needs, there has been no
comprehensive effort to map local reserves of lithium so far.
● KABIL Set up to Ensure Supply of Critical Minerals
○ A joint venture company namely Khanij Bidesh India Ltd.
(KABIL)(NALCO, HCL, MECL)
○ Objective of constituting KABIL is to ensure a consistent supply of
critical and strategic minerals to Indian domestic market.
○ carry out identification, exploration, development, mining and
processing of strategic minerals overseas for commercial use and
meeting the country's requirement of these minerals.
○ The new company will help in building partnerships with other mineral
rich countries like Australia and those in Africa and South America.
○ Indian is betting big on Electric Vehicle Mobility therefore it is important
to ensure energy storage through batteries.
○ Aviation, Defence and Space Research also require minerals with
lower weight and high mechanical strength.
Rest of the resources distribution(see from Book)
Factors responsible for the location of primary, secondary, and tertiary sector

Primary Activities
● directly dependent on the environment. includes hunting, gathering, pastoral
activities, fishing, forestry, agriculture, mining, quarrying, etc.
● Industries that are involved in primary economic activities are called primary
industries.
● Hunting and Gathering : high latitude zones which include northern Canada,
northern Eurasia and southern Chile. Low latitude zones such as the Amazon
Basin, tropical Africa, Northern fringe of Australia and the interior parts of
Southeast Asia.
● Pastoralism : They move from place to place along with their livestock,
depending on the availability of pastures & water.

● The process of migration from plain areas to pastures on mountains during

summers and again from mountain pastures to plain areas during winters is
known as transhumance. In mountain regions, such as Himalayas, Gujjars,
Bakarwals, Gaddis and Bhotiyas migrate from plains to the mountains in
summers and to the plains from the high altitude pastures in winters.
● Commercial Livestock Rearing : Commercial livestock rearing is more
organised and capital intensive. This is a specialised activity in which only
one type of animal is reared. practised on permanent, large ranches.
○ Meat, wool, hides and skin are processed and packed scientifically and
exported world markets. Rearing of animals in ranching is organised
on a scientific basis.
○ New Zealand, Australia, Argentina, Uruguay and the United States
of America
● Subsistence Agriculture : Primitive Subsistence Agriculture & Intensive
Subsistence Agriculture(densely populated regions)
● Plantation Agriculture : mainly profit-oriented large scale production
systems. introduced by the Europeans in colonies situated in the tropics.
 ○ E.g. tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, palm, sugarcane, banana &
pineapple.
○ characteristic features : large estates or plantations, large capital
investment, managerial and technical support, scientific methods of
cultivation, single crop specialisation, cheap labour, and a good system
of transportation
○ The British set up large tea gardens in India and Sri Lanka, rubber
plantations in Malaysia and sugarcane and banana plantations in the
West Indies.
● Extensive Commercial Grain Cultivation : practised in the interior parts of
semi-arid lands of the midlatitudes. Highly mechanised. Wheat, corn, barley,
oats. best developed in the Eurasian steppes, the North American Prairies,
Pampas of Argentina, Velds of South Africa, the Australian Downs and
the Canterbury Plains of New Zealand.
● Mixed Farming : This form of agriculture is found in the highly developed
parts of the world, e.g. Northwestern Europe, Eastern North America,
○ Animal husbandry is an essential component of mixed farming.
Crop rotation and intercropping play an essential role in
maintaining soil fertility.
○ Mixed farming is characterised by high capital expenditure on farm
machinery and building, extensive use of chemical fertilisers and green
manures and also by the skill and expertise of the farmers.
○ the crops grown are wheat, barley, oats, maize, fodder & root crops
● Dairy Farming : highly capital intensive, Animal sheds, storage facilities for
fodder, feeding and milking machines add to the cost of dairy farming. highly
labour intensive as it involves rigorous care in feeding and milking.
○ practised near urban centres which provide a neighbourhood market
for fresh milk & dairy products.
○ development of transportation, refrigeration, pasteurisation and other
preservation processes have increased the duration of storage of
various dairy products.
○ North Western Europe, Canada, South Eastern Australia, New
Zealand and Tasmania.
● Mediterranean Agriculture : highly specialised commercial agriculture. an
important supplier of citrus fruits. Viticulture or grape cultivation is a speciality
of the Mediterranean region. Best quality wines in the world.
● Market Gardening and Horticulture : cultivation of high-value crops such
as vegetables, fruits and flowers, solely for the urban markets. Farms are
small and are located where there are good transportation links with the urban
centre. Both labour and capital intensive and lays emphasis on the use of
irrigation, HYV seeds, fertilisers, insecticides, greenhouses and artificial
heating in colder regions. well developed in densely populated industrial
districts of northwest Europe, northeastern United States of America and the
Mediterranean regions.
 ● Co-operative Farming : A group of farmers form a co-operative society
voluntarily for more efficient and profitable farming. Co-operative societies
help farmers, to procure all valuable inputs of farming, sell the products at the
most favourable terms and assist in the processing of quality products at
cheaper rates.
● Collective Farming : based on social ownership of the means of
production and collective labour. The farmers used to pool in all their
resources like land, livestock and labour.

Secondary Activities
● Secondary activities transform raw materials into valuable products by
the processes of processing, manufacturing, and construction.
● application of power, mass production of identical products and specialised
labour in factory settings for the production of commodities.
● Modern Manufacturing Industry : Mechanisation, Automation, Technological
Innovation, extreme specialisation and division of labour for producing more
goods with less effort, and low costs, vast capital,

Industries based on Inputs/Raw Materials

● classified as: (a) agro-based; (b) mineral based; (c) chemical-based; (d)
forest based: and (e) animal-based.
● Major agro-processing industries are food processing, sugar, pickles,
fruits juices, beverages (tea, coffee and cocoa), spices and oils fats and
textiles (cotton, jute, silk), rubber, etc.
 ● Timber for the furniture industry, wood, bamboo and grass for the paper
industry, lac for lac industries come from forests.
● Leather for the leather industry and wool for woollen textiles are obtained from
animals.
Industries Based on Output/Product
● The industries whose products are used as raw material to make other goods
are called basic industries.
● E.g. Iron and steel, copper smelting and aluminium smelting industries.
● The consumer goods industries produced goods which are consumed
by consumers directly.
● E.g. industries producing bread, tea, soaps, paper, etc. are consumer goods
or non-basic industries.
FootLoose Industries
● Footloose industries can be located in a wide variety of places. They are
not dependent on any specific raw material, weight losing or otherwise.
● largely depend on component parts which can be obtained anywhere.
They produce in small quantities and also employ a small labour force.
● generally not polluting industries.
● The essential factor in their location is accessibility by road network.
Traditional Large-Scale Industrial Regions
● based on heavy industry, often located near coal-fields and engaged in
metal smelting, heavy engineering, chemical manufacture or textile
production.
Concept of High Technology Industry
● application of intensive research and development (R and D) efforts
leading to the manufacture of products of an advanced scientific and
engineering character.
● Robotics on the assembly line, computer-aided design (CAD) and
manufacturing, electronic controls of smelting and refining processes,
etc. are notable examples of high-tech industry.
● Silicon Valley near San Francisco and Silicon Forest near Seattle, Bangalore
IT park
Services Sector

The areas of shortage are supplied by areas of surplus (bringing sources of supply
and demand together) by a wide network of transport systems. The most
determining factor for the exchange of resources and goods other than supply and
demand is the economic distance.
● Economic distance is the maximum distance a resource or a good can be
transported such that the increase in the value of the transported good is
higher than the cost of transportation.
● The maximum economic distance is determined by the origin and destination
(distance), demand and supply, nature of the good ― weight, size, fragility,
perishability, etc. and other factors like terrain, infrastructure, mode of
transport, competition, costs (fuel, wages, transport, insurance), feasibility,
etc. E.g, maximum economic distance of a perishable product like milk is
much lesser compared to that of iron.
● The economic distance of large quantities of petroleum can be
increased by transporting it through pipelines rather than tankers.
● Transport of goods involve various kinds of costs such as line-haul costs
(cost of movement: fuel, wages) overhead costs (costs of terminal
 facilities – loading and unloading, vehicles, equipment, roads, railway
tracks etc.
● Road transport is, therefore, cheapest over short distances, rail over medium
distances (D1-D2) and ocean transport over long distances

Quaternary Activities
● a segment of the service sector that is knowledge oriented.
● Quaternary activities involve some of the following: the collection,
production and dissemination of information or even the production of
information.
● Quaternary activities centre around research, development and may be
seen as an advanced form of services involving specialised knowledge and
technical skills.
Quinary Activities
● highest level of decision-makers or policymakers perform quinary
activities. Quinary activities are services that focus on the creation,
re-arrangement and interpretation of new and existing ideas, data
interpretation and the use and evaluation of new technologies.
Outsourcing
● Business activities that are outsourced include information technology (IT),
human resources, customer support and call centre services and at times,
also manufacturing and engineering.
● Data processing is an IT related service easily carried out in Asian, East
European and African countries. IT skilled staff with excellent English
language skills are available at lower wages than those in developed
countries. Theory of Comparative Advantages
● The KPO industry is distinct from Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) as it
involves highly skilled workers. Examples of KPOs include research and
development (R and D) activities, e-learning, business research,
intellectual property (IP) research, the legal profession and the banking
sector.
Some of the factors influencing locations of various sectors (industries)
● Location of industries is influenced by several factors like access to raw
materials, power, market, capital, transport and labour, etc.
● Relative significance of these factors varies with time and place.
● Historical Factors : The colonial past greatly influenced industrial nodes
such as Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai.
● Access to Raw Materials : Industries based on cheap, bulky and weight
losing material (ores) are located close to the sources of raw material.
E.g. steel, sugar, pulp, copper smelting and cement industries.
○ This is why most of the iron and steel industries are located either
near coalfields (Bokaro, Durgapur, etc.) or near sources of iron
ore (Bhadravathi, Bhilai, and Rourkela).
 ○ Agro-processing and dairy products are processed close to the
sources of farm produce or milk supply (perishables), respectively.
● Access to energy sources : Industries which use more power are located
close to the source of the energy supply. E.g. aluminium industry,
synthetic nitrogen manufacturing industry, etc.
● Access to Market : The existence of a market for manufactured goods is
the most critical factor in the location of industries. The cotton textile
industry uses a non-weight losing raw material and is generally located in
a large urban centre, e.g. Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Surat, etc. Petroleum
refineries are also located near the markets as the transport of crude oil
is easier, and several products derived from them are used as raw materials
in other industries.
● Access to Transportation and Communication Facilities
○ The concentration of industries in Mumbai, Chennai, Delhi and in
and around Kolkata was due to the fact that they initially became the
nodal point having transport links.
● Supply of cheap labour and skilled workforce : Increasing
mechanisation, automation and flexibility of industrial processes have
reduced the dependence of industry upon the labours. Technopolies such
as Silicon Valley (San Francisco) are highly dependent on skilled IT
professionals.
● Access to Agglomeration Economies/Links between Industries
● Industrial inertia : Industrial inertia is when a firm remains in its original
location even after the initial advantage or alluring factors that led to them
locating it has disappeared.
● Government Policy : Governments adopt ‘regional policies’ to promote
‘balanced’ economic development and hence set up industries in particular
areas.
Iron and Steel Industry
● The iron and steel industry forms the base of all other industries and,
therefore, it is called a basic industry. a heavy industry because it uses
large quantities of bulky inputs and outputs.
● Iron is extracted from iron ore by smelting (heating, melting & separation
of impurities) in a blast furnace with carbon (coke) and limestone. The
molten iron is cooled and moulded to form pig iron. The pig iron is used for
converting into steel by adding strengthening materials like manganese.
● Coke (fuel & reducing agent), iron ore, & limestone (flux) are
continuously added to the blast furnace. Final product ➔ liquid slag,
liquid iron (pig iron) and gases (CO & CO2).
● Coke is a fuel with few impurities and high carbon content (90%).
● Role of limestone ➔ Remove Sulphur, acts as a flux
Factors that influence the location of Iron and Steel Industry
● Raw Material : The essential bulk inputs of the iron & steel industry are iron
ore (gross/weight-losing raw material), fuel (coal; weight-losing), limestone
 (flux) & water (required for cooling & worker safety). These bulk inputs,
especially iron ore and coal, have a significant influence on the location
of the industry.
○ Coal and iron ore: Near Coalfields during the Industrial Revolution
: Processing one tonne of iron ore required 8-12 tonnes of coal (for
smelting and transportation), which meant that it was cost-effective to
have an iron and steel plant near a coalfield rather than at an iron
mine. E.g, Iron industry in Western Europe and NorthEastern USA,
Ruhr Valley in Germany, Lancashire, Yorkshire and South Wales in
Britain. Appalachian-Pennsylvania-Great Lakes region in United
States
○ Coal and Iron ore: Regions with close proximity to Coalfields and
Iron Ore mines - In India, there is a crescent-shaped region
comprising parts of Chhattisgarh, Northern Odisha, Jharkhand and
western West Bengal, which is extremely rich in high-grade iron ore,
good quality coking coal and other supplementing raw materials.
○ IISCO : located very close to Damodar valley coalfields (Raniganj,
Jharia, and Ramgarh). Iron ore comes from Singhbhum in Jharkhand.
Water is obtained from the Barakar River, a tributary of the Damodar.
○ Durgapur Steel Plant : This plant lies in Raniganj and Jharia coal
belt and gets iron ore from Noamundi. Hydel power and water are
obtained from the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC).
○ Bhilai Steel Plant : Durg district of Chhattisgarh. Iron ore comes
from Dalli-Rajhara mine and coal from Korba and Kargali coal
fields. Water comes from the Tanduladam and the power from the
Korba Thermal Power Station. This plant also lies on the
Kolkata-Mumbai railway route. The bulk of the steel produced goes
to the Hindustan Shipyard at Visakhapatnam.
● Transportation: Near coastal areas for cheaper raw material imports
○ With the beginning of the 20th century, colonial powers like Japan,
with no significant iron ore or coal resource base, began to set up
iron and steel plants near the ports. E.g. steel industry in
Osaka-Kobe.
○ In India too, steel plants were set up at Visakhapatnam, Ratnagiri
and Mangalore.
○ The Ruhr, Germany : Coal and iron and steel formed the basis of the
economy. But after the 1950s, the demand for coal declined (due to
competition from cheaper imported coal and oil), and the iron ore was
also exhausted. However, the iron and steel industry thrived using
imported ore brought by the Rhine River waterway to the Ruhr
from deeper water ports such as Rotterdam (Netherlands).
● Transport Cost Minimization
○ Bokaro-Rourkela combine : Bokaro Steel Plant, It receives iron ore
from the Rourkela region and the wagons in return take coal to
 Rourkela. Damodar Valley Corporation supplies water and hydel
power.
○ Ural-Kuznetsk combine : The Ural of Russia is rich in iron ore
deposits. Kuznetsk Basin in Western Siberia is rich in coal deposits.
● Access to markets: Mini Steel plants
○ These are less expensive to build and operate and can be located near
markets because of the abundance of scrap metal, which is the primary
input.
● Economies of Linkages and Agglomerations:
Duluth-Detroit-Cleveland-Pittsburgh
○ Lake Superior region of Michigan has significant iron ore deposits
but has no coal or markets nearby. On the other hand, Pittsburgh’s
(Pennsylvania) iron and steel industry was facing a shortage of
local iron ore but had abundant coal reserves.
○ Ships brought iron ore from Lake Superior region to Cleveland
while the railway wagons brought coal from Pittsburgh. On their
return journey, ships carried coal to Lake Superior region whereas
railway wagons brought iron ore to Pittsburgh.
○ Thus, despite having neither of the resources locally, the region
around Cleveland has a thriving iron and steel industry
● Competition : In the latter half of the twentieth century, the industrial west’s
iron and steel industry began a decline. due to the fall in local demand,
reduced exports, overcapacity and saturation, outdated technology, rise
in mini scrap steel mills, rise in wages, and the emergence of China as
the major steel producer. Today China's steel industry produces roughly
half the steel in the world.
● Technology : A rise in simpler basic oxygen furnaces (BOF) and the recycling
of scrap, led to the decline and consolidation of the industry in the 1970s and
1980s across the industrial west. This further reduced coal requirement and
the new industry could move away from coalfields.
● Quality of ore, economies of scale, Cheap labour : Despite the raw
material imports, Chinese steel is highly competitive in the global markets
due to the ‘economies of scale’ production and cheap labour.
● Industrial Inertia : Though alternate sources of energy are available,
traditional industries are still located around the coalfields, sometimes even
after the coal mines have exhausted. Ruhr in Germany, Pittsburgh in USA
and Lancashire in the UK.
○ The biggest reason for industrial inertia is the high overhead costs
and regulatory clearances associated with the relocation of the
heavy industry.
○ Industries will simply stay put as long as the cost of transportation
of raw materials is well below the cost of relocation. transportation
cost has fallen drastically.
 ○ Industries present for decades would have established a very efficient
supply chain and markets. There is always a risk of relocation
benefitting the competitor more.
○ Areas near coalfields developed into industrial cities with a large pool
of skilled workforce.
● Rules and regulations : POSCO signed a memorandum of understanding in
2005 with Odisha to construct a $12 billion steel plant. The land acquisition
process was not fructified due to the tussle between the Environment
Ministry (Forests Rights Act), the state government, local dwellers and
the Supreme Court.
● Strategic reasons : After WWII, the US government decided to diversify its
industrial base, and some steel plants were set up in the west ― far away
from the highly concentrated industrial East (Great Lakes Pittsburgh
region).
● Government policies : Establishment of iron and steel industry in Bhilai
and Rourkela were based on the decision to develop backward tribal
areas of the country. Three new steel plants set up in the Fourth Plan
period are away from the primary raw material sources. All three plants are
located in South India. Vizag Steel Plant, Vijayanagar Steel Plant at Hospet in
Karnataka (now it uses local iron ore and limestone) and the Salem Steel
Plant in Tamil Nadu.
● In 2018, India becomes the world’s 2nd largest producer of crude steel.
The National Steel Policy, 2017, has envisaged 300 million tonnes of
production capacity by 2030-31.

Cotton Textile Industry

● In the 18th century, power looms facilitated the development of the cotton
textile industry, first in Britain and later in other parts of the world.
● In India, the cotton textiles industry is the single largest organised industry.
● Being labour intensive at all stages, it employs a large number of people.
● Factors that affect the location of the cotton textile industry
○ Raw material : Ahmedabad (Manchester of India), Solapur, Nagpur
& Coimbatore (Manchester of South India) are located in the areas
of large-scale cotton cultivation. Since the cotton industry is not a
weight losing industry, it isn’t always necessary to set up the
industry close to the cotton-producing areas. Cotton textiles
industry in Kanpur (market, local investment), Kolkata (port),
Manchester (market, coal, water) & Bangladesh (cheap labour,
government support).
○ Transportation linkages : most favourable location is the one that is
well connected with cotton-producing areas and markets. because
raw cotton and finished cloth can be transported without adding
much to the total cost of production. In India, dispersal of the
industry from the old nuclei (Mumbai, Ahmedabad) started after 1921
 with railway lines penetrating into the peninsular region (Madurai,
Bengaluru).
○ Access to market for the cotton textiles : The cotton industry is
primarily a market-oriented industry. West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh, Kerala and Odisha do not grow cotton and still have a
cotton textile industry.
○ Access to market for the byproducts of the cotton textile industry
: As a protein-rich feed, cottonseed meal is extensively used as a
feed in poultry and livestock industry, notably in cotton-producing
areas such as India, China and the U.S. All these auxiliary industries
(poultry, cottonseed oil extraction) are located close to the market.
○ Power : growth of this industry (away from Mumbai) in Tamil Nadu
(Coimbatore, Madurai and Tirunelveli) is largely due to the
availability of hydroelectricity from Pykara dam.
○ Climate : The air in the cotton mill has to be hot and humid (18°C to
26°C and 85% humidity) to prevent the thread from breaking.
coastal regions in the tropics and subtropics are preferred
locations. E.g. Mumbai
○ Labour : The industry has shifted from areas of high labour cost
(UK, Germany, Japan) to those with low labour cost (India, China
and Bangladesh). The labour cost factor played a crucial role in
establishing the industry at Madurai, Tirunelveli and Coimbatore.
○ Water : A significant amount of water is required for bleaching and
dyeing of cotton fabric. Mumbai (Mithi River), Ahmedabad
(Sabarmati River) and Coimbatore (Noyyal River).
○ Government interventions : It was the friendly government policy
(coupled with cheap labour) that made Bangladesh a significant
producer of cotton textiles.
○ Technological developments :
● Factors responsible for the Localization of the British Cotton Textile
Industry
○ Raw material : relied on the cotton supply from its colonies like India,
Egypt, West Indies, etc.
○ Capital : East India Company's capital amassed from Bengal after its
1757 conquest was used to invest in British industries.
○ Connectivity and Transportation : An extensive network of canals
and railways made it easy to import cotton and coal and export cotton
textiles to countries like the U.S. and India.
○ Market : monopoly over the Indian market ― there was no tariffs or
import duties on imported British goods whereas high tariffs were
imposed on the locally produced fabric
○ Power & Water : Fast-flowing streams down the Pennines facilitated
the establishment of water-powered mills in Lancashire
 ○ Technology : Steam Engine invention facilitated the establishment of
large cotton mills and improved productivity.
○ Climate : Weather is high in humidity due to Cool Temperate
Western Margin Climate (Westerlies and North Atlantic Drift
Current)
● Factors responsible for the Localization of the Cotton Textile Industry in
India
○ Raw Material : Cotton was an important crop since the Indus valley
civilization.
○ Market : robust domestic textile market.
○ Labour : Skilled labour, lower labour costs
● Localization of Cotton Textile Industry in Mumbai and Ahmedabad
● Tamil Nadu has the largest number of mills, and most of them produce yarn
rather than cloth. (Coimbatore, Tirupur)
● Cotton textile mills were set up at Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh) based on local
investment.
● Mills were set up at Kolkata (Hooghly Region) due to its port facilities. It
enjoys facilities of a port, humid climate, coal from Raniganj, local labour due
to the high density of population and those of dyeing and washing.
Issues Faced by the Cotton Textile Industry in India
● Cotton crop is highly vulnerable to vagaries of monsoon : Approximately
62% of India’s cotton is produced in rainfed areas and only 38% on irrigated
lands. Hence, India suffers from both overproduction and shortages.
● Cotton yields in India are among the lowest in the world due to many varieties
planted, inadequate inputs, and lack of mechanization, fragmented
landholdings.
● Lack of modernization
● Good spinning sector but weak weaving, knitting and processing sector
● Loss of market
● Erratic Power Supply to cotton textile mills
Woollen Textile Industry
● Major wool producing regions : Australia, New Zealand, South
America(sheep ranchers are extremely large in Patagonia, Pampas),
South Africa(The dry climate of Veld, its grassland vegetation and plateau
relief is ideal for sheep. ),
● Factors that affect the location of the woollen textile industry
○ Raw material : not weight losing Hence mills can be established at
faraway places from wool-producing areas. For example, mills in
the northern hemisphere import fine quality wool from faraway
places like Australia and New Zealand.
○ Wool quality : Finer wool can be used for garments, while coarser
grades are used for durable outerwear or rugs. In India, the wool
produced is coarser, and hence the industry tends to focus more on
durable goods.
 ○ Transportation : As wool is nonperishable and lightweight, it can
be transported over longer distances. Mills that work on imported
wool are usually located close to the ports to reduce transportation
costs. E.g. mills in Mumbai and Chennai.
○ Market : The woollen industry is primarily market-oriented. Industry
located in the tropics is mostly export-oriented.
○ Power & Water
○ Labour : Though Australia is the top producer of wool, it does not have
a significant woollen textile industry. attributed to an insignificant
market in the region and high labour costs.
● Despite the added cost of transportation, the wool exports from
southern to northern hemisphere remain competitive. Explain.
○ Economies of scale : Large swathes of land in Australia and
Argentina is not suitable for either agriculture or cattle rearing.
Sheep rearing is the only viable economic activity & the economies
of scale are leveraged to the fullest in the sparsely populated south.
○ Merino sheep : high yielding Merino sheep well suited for the dry
and moderate climate of south-eastern Australia and south-western
Australia, grasslands (Veld) of South Africa, dry rain shadow
region in the Canterbury plains of New Zealand
○ Sheep rearing is relatively less profitable in the northern
hemisphere
● In India, the woollen textiles industry is relatively small compared to the cotton
& synthetic fibre based industry. India does not produce quality raw wool in
sufficient quantities. It imports large quantities of fine wool, mainly from
Australia. However, India is a significant exporter of woollen goods.
Cheap and abundant skilled labour is the favourable factor.
● Punjab : Amritsar-Gurdaspur-Ludhiana belt, Patiala and Dhariwal.
● J&K : pashmina wool

Jute Textile Industry

● second most important textile industry in India after cotton.
● Factors responsible for the concentration of Jute Industry in the
Hooghly Basin
○ Geography (agronomic conditions) : Soil and climatic conditions in
the delta region, no better alternative to jute in severely flood-prone
regions of the delta.
○ Raw material : India is the world’s largest producer of jute and WB
alone accounts for 72% of India’s jute production.
○ Historical Factor : was promoted heavily by the British with both
capital as well as expertise.
○ Transportation : Hooghly river, Kolkata port
○ Market : a vast domestic market throughout India for jute products
(gunny bags)
 ○ Power : Damodar Valley Corporation, Raniganj coalfields
○ Climate : humid climate is very convenient for spinning and weaving.
○ Labour : a very high population density, and most of the
population here is poor, so cheap labour
○ Government support keeps the industry alive : Jute Corporation of
India (JCI) procures raw jute at Minimum Support Price (MSP).
compulsory to pack 100 per cent of the food grains and 20
percent of the sugar in diversified jute (gunny) bags.
● Issues faced by the jute industry
○ After partition, most of the jute producing areas went to Bangladesh
while most of the jute mills remained in India.
○ The constant increase in rice cropped area in the delta region further
complicates the situation
○ India imports significant quantities of jute fibre from Bangladesh to
meet the shortfall.
○ Antiquated technology and machinery, shortage of power and
industrial sickness affect production.
○ Adoption of synthetic alternatives (polythene, nylon) has resulted
in the decline of demand for jute.
● Future positives for the jute industry
○ Emerging environment consciousness can turn the fortunes of jute
as it meets all the standards of safe packaging (natural, renewable,
biodegradable).
○ Some advanced countries are already switching to jute. USA, EU,
Canada, Russia, etc.
Silk Textile Industry
● Today, China accounts for over 70% of the global silk production and 90% of
the world's silk exports.
● India is a distant second with 18% of the world's silk production.
● Silk Industry in India
○ India is the only country producing all known commercial varieties of
silk.
○ Mulberry silk (80 percent of the country's total silk; Eri silk is
second) is of superior quality and is produced in the states of
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Jammu and
Kasmir.
○ Muga silk (golden silk) is exclusively obtained from the Brahmaputra
valley of Assam.(GI Tag)
● Important centres of silk industry are Mysore in Karnataka; Varanasi,
Kanchipuram, Murshidabad (W.B.), Dharmavaram (Anantapur District) in
Andhra Pradesh and Bhagalpur in Bihar are famous for silk sarees.
● Factors Responsible for the Localization of the Silk Industry in
Karnataka
○ Historical aspects : Tipu Sultan
 ○ Raw material : Karnataka is the largest raw silk producing state in
India
○ Labour
○ Technology : Central Sericultural Research & Training Institute
(CSRTI) is located in Mysore. developed many high yielding
varieties of mulberry and silkworms.
○ Water : Cauvery and Arkavathi rivers provide water for washing,
bleaching and dyeing.
○ Market : Silk and silk fabric produced in Karnataka are exported to
famous silk saree making centres like Varanasi, Kanchipuram,
Bhagalpur, Jammu and Kashmir, etc.
○ Government support : GI tag
Sugar Industry
● Sugar mill
○ Inputs : Raw sugarcane, water, power
○ Output : Brown sugar that contains impurities like molasses.
Molasses: provides the raw material for manufacturing alcohol
(ethanol). Bagasse (cane residue): used for manufacturing paper
and also as fuel in the mills. Pressmud: used as soil amendment
(compost) to increase fertility.
○ Most determining locational factor : Sugarcane (and also sugar
beet) is bulky, highly perishable and significantly weight losing.
Sugar mills can be operated only during the cane harvesting
period. Hence a sugar mill must be located close to the cane
growing areas.

● Sugar refinery
○ Input : Brown sugar, water, power
○ Output : White refined sugar
○ Most determining locational factor : Brown sugar is neither
perishable nor weight losing. Sugar refining can be done
year-round. Hence a sugar refinery can be set up near or relatively
at a distant location (near ports for export ― Mumbai port, Kolkata
and Haldia ports, etc.) from a sugar mill. Markets are the most
determining factor.
Major Factors that influence the location of sugar industry
● Raw material : confined to the sugarcane growing regions of the tropics (hot,
humid, less windy areas). The quality of sugarcane plays the most important
role in production costs.
● Transportation : Sugarcane is highly perishable and significantly weight
losing raw material. Once the sugarcane is harvested, the cane starts to dry
up, and the sucrose content starts to decline rapidly. Hence the sugar
mills are always located close to the cane growing areas
 ● Water : Sugarcane is a water-intensive crop with a crop season of 12 to
18 months.
● Labour : availability of seasonal labour is critical for both harvesting and
processing. Sugarcane is not harvested year-round & the crushing
season varies from 4 to 8 months.
● Capital : a capital intensive industry. Financial services and policy
support are critical for the industry to remain competitive.
● Policy : In India, lack of proper policy support and timely financial
services have severely hampered the modernization of the industry.
Major Sugar Producers
● Approximately 80% of the world's sugar is produced from sugarcane in
tropical and subtropical climates with the remaining 20% derived from sugar
beet.
● India the largest producer, Brazil(2nd)
● Uttar Pradesh is the leading sugarcane producing State.
● In Feb 2020, for better use of surplus sugar stock, GOI approved an increase
in the price of ethanol to be procured by public sector oil marketing companies
(OMCs) from sugar mills for blending with petrol.

●
● Sugar Industry in Peninsular India vs Sugar Industry in North India
●
North India (Sutlej-Ganga plain from South India (Maharashtra,
Punjab to Bihar) Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh)

Low yield and productivity, High The tropical climate gives a higher
summer temperatures ranging from yield per unit area as compared to
30° to 35°C and Loo (dry, scorching north India.
wind in May and June with a No winds like 'loo' during summer.
desiccating effect) leads to low Frost-free climate throughout the
 growth and fibrous crop. year.
In winter months (December and High maritime influence = moderate
January) the crop is likely to be climate = decreased crop duration
damaged by severe cold and frost. and higher sucrose content.

Perennial rivers and large scale Irrigational facilities

irrigation facilities.

The crushing season ranges from 4 Mills are comparatively large and
to 8 months. modern.

Has more mills than the south but The co-operative sugar mills are
they are of comparatively smaller better managed in the south than in
size and use antiquated technology. the north.

The co-operative sugar mills are Maritime influence (moderate

under the pressure of undue political climate) and fertile soils ― high
& social interferences. yield per hectare, higher sucrose
content, high recovery rate and
long crushing season
● As a result of better conditions prevailing in peninsular India, the sugar
industry is gradually shifting from north India to peninsular India.
● South India offers more favourable climatic conditions for the growth of
sugarcane, but the most important sugarcane belt is in north India. What
is the reason for this paradoxical situation?
○ Historical Factors : decline of Indigo after WWI and replacement by
sugarcane
○ Water availability
○ In the South, competition from cotton, tobacco, groundnut, coconut,
etc.
● Challenges faced by the sugar industry in India
○ The Indian sugarcane has low sucrose content and gives poor
yields compared to the global average.
○ The production cost of sugar in India is one of the highest in the
world.
○ Issues faced by mills : the crushing is confined to a limited period,
and the sugar factories remain idle for the rest of the period. Due to
low profitability, the industry is unwilling to modernize. Low rate of
recovery
○ Fluctuating availability of sugarcane for mills : Too heavy rainfall
results in low sugar content & deficiency in rainfall produces a fibrous
crop. Sugarcane has to compete with several other crops like cotton,
oilseeds, rice, etc.
○ Government apathy : high excise duty on sugar exports. Dual
pricing leads to distortion
Tea Industry
 ● Factors that determine the location of the tea industry
○ Climate : Tea bush requires warm (20°-30°C), moist (150-300 cm),
frost-free climate through the year. Frequent showers evenly
distributed over the year ensure continuous growth of tender leaves.
E.g. Darjeeling tea. High humidity, heavy dew, and morning fog
favour rapid development of young leaves.
○ Vegetation : Tea is a shade-loving plant and develops more
vigorously under shade
○ Topography : Waterlogging is detrimental to its roots. Hence good
soil drainage is a must for tea cultivation.
○ Soil : Virgin forest soils rich in humus and iron content are
considered to be the best. E.g. Darjeeling tea. A relatively large
proportion of phosphorus and potash in the soil gives a special
flavour to the tea. E.g. Darjeeling tea.
○ Capital : Tea cultivation and processing is a capital intensive
industry. Tea plants take about four years to mature.
○ Labour : a labour-intensive industry that requires abundant, cheap,
and skilled labour at every stage (from plantation to blending).
● Major tea producing areas in India
○ Darjeeling district : Climate, soil, Topography, Labour, Historical
Factors(The Plantation Act permitted bonded labourers from Bihar
& Bengal to work and settle on the plantations.), Capital
○ Market: Darjeeling tea, because of its distinctive aroma, is highly
valued in the international markets. Transport: Kolkata port for
exports.
○ Whereas the British planters had developed tea gardens all along
the Shivaliks and Lesser Himalayas from Assam to Himachal
Pradesh, in effect, they did not succeed beyond the Darjeeling
area. Explain.
○ Tea industry of the Western Ghats and Nilgiri Hills of TN, Kerala,
and Karnataka :
Coffee Industry
● Factors that determine the location of coffee industry
○ Climate : hot (15°C and 28°C) and humid climate (150 to 250 cm).
It does not tolerate frost, drought, high temperature (>30°C) and
strong sunshine. Northern and eastern aspects of slopes of Western
Ghats are preferred as they are less exposed to intense afternoon sun
and the south-west monsoon winds.
○ Vegetation : generally grown under shady trees
○ Topography : Stagnant water is harmful. So, this crop is grown on hill
slopes at elevations from 600 to 1,600 meters above sea level. Sea
facing slopes are ideal as the sea breeze, and mist provides
continuous moisture.
 ○ Soil : Well-drained, rich, friable loams rich in humus and minerals like
iron and calcium are ideal for coffee cultivation.
○ Capital : capital intensive industry
○ Labour : a labour-intensive industry that requires abundant, cheap,
and skilled labour.
● Coffee Industry in Nilgiris : The red soils of the Nilgiris are best suited
for coffee cultivation. Almost the entire production is shared by three
states, namely Karnataka (71%), Kerala (22%) and Tamil Nadu (6.5%).
● Although India contributes only a small percentage of world production, Indian
coffee has created a niche for itself in the international market.
Rubber Industry
● Rubber industry majorly involves the following stages:
○ obtaining and processing of natural rubber latex near the rubber
plantation site
○ producing synthetic rubber from the byproducts of the petrochemical
refining industry
○ manufacture of tyres and other items using natural and synthetic
rubber in a factory set up near the ports (if export-oriented) and
markets.
● Natural Rubber : Latex is collected in vessels by making slanting incisions in
the bark of the tree in a process called tapping. tapping is a high accuracy
task that requires skilled and experienced labour force. The latex contains
only 30-40% of rubber content. Hence it is processed near the plantation
itself. In India, natural rubber is mainly grown in Kerala (90%), Tamil Nadu
and Karnataka.
● Both natural and synthetic rubber is used in the manufacture of tyres, tubes,
surgical gloves, conveyor belts, hoses (rubber pipes), etc.
● Southeast Asian vs South American Natural Rubber Industry
●
Southeast Asia (Thailand, South America (Amazonian Brazil
Malaysia & Indonesia): & Bolivia): Dominance & Collapse
Dominance since 1930s 1879-1912

Climatic Condition : Favourable: Favourable: Warm, humid tropical

Warm, humid tropical climate climate

Lateritic soils (rich in iron Lateritic soils (rich in iron content;

content; aids growth) and hill aids growth) and hill slopes up to
slopes up to 700m in altitude 700m in altitude

British planters were successful in They relied on the trees in the wild
domesticating the rubber tree. and had to venture deep into the
This enabled the plantations to be forests for more rubber.
operated on a scientific basis in an
 economical way within a confined
area.

The British planters brought Indian Labour shortages were a usual

indentured labourers into Malaysia. occurrence as many suffered death
by tropical diseases such as malaria
a

Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry

Lumbering Industry in the Temperate Regions vs Lumbering Industry in
the Tropical Regions
Despite the presence of dense forests, countries in the equatorial
regions are net importers of timber and timber products. Comment.

Lumbering Industry in Temperate Lumbering Industry in Tropical

Regions Regions

North-western Russia, U.S.A., Teak in Myanmar and hardwoods of

Canada, Fennoscandian countries Amazon, Congo, Southeast Asia, etc.

Softwoods like conifers (pines, Hardwoods, (mahogany, ebony,

spruces, cedar, Douglas fir, yew, larch, rosewood, dyewood, etc.)
hemlock, etc.) are obtained from the The tropical deciduous hardwood
temperate forests. species: teak, axlewood, rosewood,
Softwood is the source of about 80% red sanders, etc.
of the world's production of timber.

Very little softwood is burnt as fuel as its mostly used to make durable,
industrial uses are far more significant. high-quality furniture, flooring, and
mainly used in construction materials construction.
and to produce paper pulp and as fuel in the poor tropical countries.
papercard products.

occur in homogeneous or pure Multiple species of trees occur in a

stands ( particular area making commercial
exploitation a laborious task.

Softwoods readily float on water, and Many of the tropical hardwoods (very
 hence they can be easily transported heavy) do not float readily on water,
with the help of water bodies. and this makes transportation an
In winters, the snow makes haulage expensive matter.
(commercial transport of goods) easy.

The open forests with sparse The dense undergrowth in tropical

undergrowth mean that logging and evergreen forests makes it
haulage can be easily mechanized. challenging to mechanize logging
and haulage.

High labour productivity: temperate Low labour productivity: excessive

regions have the optimum climate for heat (sunstroke), high humidity
maximum human output. (communicable diseases) and
poisonous snakes and insects create
severe physical and mental handicaps.

lumbering is a highly profitable and very lumbering is expensive, and capital

well organized industry. inflows come with many social
(persecution of tribals) and political
costs

Sustainable lumbering • Unsustainable lumbering •

Softwood trees grow much quicker, Hardwood trees are slow-growing and
sometimes in as little as 25 years. take many decades to fully mature.

Factors affecting the location of the sawmills (lumbering) industry

● Raw material : a bulky and weight losing raw material (less than 60% of
the roundwood is turned into lumber), the sawmills need to be located
closer to the forests.
● Power : an energy-intensive industry. Availability of cheap, uninterrupted
electricity is essential for the economic success of a sawmill.
● Transportation : The means and modes of transportation need to be
economical both for importing roundwood and for exporting lumber.
Slippery (snowy) surfaces (e.g. winters in the temperate region), rivers (e.g.
teak transport by Irrawaddy river) and lakes (e.g. Lake Ladoga and Lake
Onega in Western Russia) reduce the transportation cost of the raw material.
● Labour : In temperate regions, lumbering highly mechanised so minimal
labour required. In the tropics, most of the industry is based on obsolete
technology and manual labour.
● Capital : Lumbering is a capital intensive industry. It is well-developed in
the prosperous North American Region.
● Hence, the availability of timber resources, excellent transportation facilities
and cheap electricity are the major factors that determine the location of a
sawmill.
Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry in Canada
● Raw material : Coniferous forests cover as much as 60 percent of Canada.
● Transport : numerous rivers and St. Lawrence-Great Lakes Waterway.
 ● The rivers provide clear, unpolluted water for soaking and bleaching the paper
pulp.
● Power : Cheap hydroelectricity from numerous rivers falling from the
highlands to the lowlands of St. Lawrence valley.
● Capital : The U.S. and the British have significant investments in Canadian
forest industries.
● Mechanization : mechanization has reduced the dependence on seasonal
climatic conditions, and the occupation is becoming more of a permanent
activity.
● Market : a large surplus of timber products for export. largest newsprint
producer in the world. Canada's pulp and newsprint production find ready
markets in north-eastern U.S.A.
Lumbering, Pulp and Paper Industry in India
● Sal, teak, neem, rosewood are the few species exploited for furniture making.
● In India, lumbering is discouraged for the sake of conserving the environment.
Eucalyptus plantations are nowadays discouraged due to their groundwater
depletion potential.
● However, due to poor levels of processing by domestic sawmills, India imports
more lumber than logs (lost employment and wealth generation opportunities).
● Paper Industry in India :
○ The raw materials for the industry include bamboo, sabai grass,
wastepaper, imported pulp and bagasse.
○ Bamboo has the advantage of possessing long fibre, dense stands and
quick regeneration. Assam, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
Madhya Pradesh, etc. are important producers of bamboo
○ Sabai Grass mainly grows in the sub-Himalayan tracts of Shiwaliks and
Terai area. It is hence the chief raw material in the paper mills of Uttar
Pradesh.
○ The location of the industry is influenced by raw materials and to a
lesser extent by market. Therefore, there is a strong tendency among
the paper mills to be located near the forest tracts along the Western
Ghats, the Eastern Ghats, central India and the Terai-Bhabar area.
○ Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, UP and W.B. are the main
producers of paper and paper boards.
○ No paper mills in the Himalayan Region : The vast temperate forests
in the Himalayan region hold large quantities of softwood. But because
of the rugged terrain and poor means of transportation, these areas are
inaccessible. Also, the regeneration of softwood forests takes more
than two decades, while bamboo forests are replenished within 2-3
years.
● Problems of Indian Paper Industry
○ shortage of raw material, including bamboo and sabai grass.
○ Cost of production is high due to labour troubles, low grade of
coal used and high transportation costs.
 ○ The current per capita consumption of paper and newsprint in India is
too meagre.
○ Even now, large quantities of bagasse used as fuel in the sugar
industry is not made available to the paper industry.
○ The small size of the manufacturing units with obsolete
technology makes them uneconomic.
○ The production of paper, paper board and above all, newsprint
has always fallen short of the demand. This has forced the country
to resort to heavy imports. Pulp, paper, paper board, newsprint and
waste paper are imported from Norway, Sweden, Canada, etc.
○ Effluents released by the paper mills into open drains and rivers
cause severe environmental issues.

Commercial Marine Fishing Industry

● China, Indonesia, India, U.S.A., Russia, Peru, Japan, Vietnam, Norway,
Denmark, Canada, etc. are the major marine fishing nations.
● Factors that create the most fertile marine fishing grounds
○ Water temperature : best developed in oceans of the high latitudes
whose waters are at temperatures lower than 20 °C. because the
fish feed on minute marine organisms called plankton, and the
plankton multiplies best in colder waters. In the tropics, the warmer
waters significantly inhibit the growth rate of the plankton population.
○ Ocean topography : Plankton of all kinds are abundantly available in
shallow waters (continental shelves) where they have access to
both sunlight as well as nutrients (brought by rivers). Hence the
most exceptional fishing grounds are found above continental
shelves in the higher latitudes.
○ Ocean water mixing and upwelling zones : Plankton need both
sunlight and nutrients (such as nitrate and phosphate) to be able
to photosynthesize. During photosynthesis, the nutrients are quickly
used up by phytoplankton, so they are not available for long periods in
the upper layers under normal circumstances. Hence the cold &
warm current mixing zones (e.g. Grand Banks) and nutrient rich
cold water upwelling zones (e.g. upwelling near Peruvian coast)
form fertile fishing grounds.
● Factors that determine the location of the commercial fishing industry
○ Proximity to the fishing grounds : Proximity to the fishing grounds
reduces refrigeration and transportation costs. However, with the highly
mechanized modern trawlers, proximity to the fishing grounds is no
longer a significant factor.
 ○ Climate : The cold climate of the higher latitudes makes refrigeration
(preservation and storage of fish) economical. • Whereas in tropics, the
warmer climate and higher humidity (fungal and bacterial attacks)
make preservation and storage (refrigeration) more expensive.
○ Ports : Both the Atlantic and Pacific coastlines of the middle and high
latitudes in the northern hemisphere are very much indented and are
backed by strong relief.
○ Capital : The commercial success of marine fishery depends on cost
optimization with the help of efficient technology. Hence a lot of
capital is required for R&D, mechanization and infrastructure.
○ Market : Fish are used as food, and raw material for fertilizers,
lubricants, cosmetics, etc. Fish meat is the most affordable option in
many countries like Norway (hilly terrain; ice-covered land; little scope
for agriculture and dairying; most of the population living along the
coast). Just like Norway, Japan has very few dietary alternatives to fish.
○ Employment : Lack of viable alternate employment opportunities in
the primary sector since time immemorial has played a significant role
in the high dependence of Japan and Norway on the fishing industry.
Japan has high population pressure, hilly terrain & forests and very
little cultivable land.
● The major commercial marine fishing grounds of the world
○ The continental shelves of North-East Atlantic, North-West
Atlantic and North-West Pacific are the most important global
commercial fishing grounds.
○ The continental shelf around the Falkland Islands and upwelling
zones along the Peruvian and Chilean coast are other major fishing
regions.
○ North-East Atlantic Region : Colder atmospheric temperatures,
and warmer oceanic temperatures (influenced by warm North
Atlantic Drift), cause mixing and nutrient upwelling in the
North-East Atlantic Region. This explains the abundant fish
resources in the region (Iceland continental shelf & North Sea
continental shelf). Dogger Bank
○
○ North-West Atlantic Region : Mixing of warm Gulf Stream and cold
Labrador currents and gently sloping continental shelves makes the
region around the Grand Banks of Newfoundland the world's
largest fishing ground.
○ North-West Pacific Region : Within the enclosed seas ― the Sea of
Okhotsk, Sea of Japan, Yellow Sea and the East China Sea ―
intensive forms of inshore (close to the shore) as well as deep-sea
fishing are carried out.
○ Why is fishing the dominant primary sector occupation of Japan?
■ Fishing is the only reliable primary sector activity : rugged
(mountainous) nature of Japan and parts of mainland
eastern Asia support little agricultural activity. not well
endowed with natural resources.
■ Geographical advantage : The continental shelves around
the islands of Japan are rich in plankton, due to the meeting
of the warm Kuroshio and the cold Oyashio currents.
indented coastline of Japan provides sheltered fishing ports
■ Ready market
■ Capital, technology and infrastructure : The Japanese fishing
trawlers venture far and wide into the Arctic, Antarctic and the
Atlantic waters.
■
 ○
● In India, the west coast is more significant for fishing than the east coast
as the west coast has a more extensive continental shelf. However, just
like in China, aquaculture and inland fisheries produce far more fish (70-
80%) than commercial marine fishing. Technological lag and financial
constraints have been the major bottlenecks in the take-off of the
commercial marine (inshore and deep-sea) fishing industry in India.
● In South-East Asia, the South China Sea and the Sunda continental shelf are
major fishing grounds.
● Commercial marine fishing is little developed in the southern
hemisphere. Explain
○ Topography: The continents in the southern hemisphere have very
narrow continental shelves (except for the region around the Falkland
Islands)
○ Market: Cattle rearing in Pampas of South America and Eastern
Australia, dairying in New Zealand and agriculture in South Africa
means that the southern hemisphere has more affordable alternatives
to fish.

● Commercial marine fishing is little developed in the tropics. Explain

○ Climate: Warm ocean waters are less favourable for plankton
growth. Warm and humid climate increases the cost of
refrigeration.
○ Economies of scale: Fish occur in smaller and scattered groups
which make fishing relatively expensive.
○ Market: Fish are not the primary dietary choice as the tropics have
abundant agricultural resources and cheaper proteinaceous foods
like poultry.
○ Export potential: Tropical fish have higher oil content compared to the
proteinaceous temperate fish.
○ Capital: The poor tropical countries do not stand a chance against their
affluent temperate counterparts in the capital intensive commercial
fishing industry.
○ Coastline: Most of the tropics have a straight coastline, unlike the
temperate region where most of the coast is indented and deep.