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Competence-Based Assessment and the 21st Century Skills

Competence-based assessment.
Competence-based assessment focuses on what an individual can do in his/her
environment using the skills acquired in education. That is the application of knowledge
and skills acquired in performing day-to-day activities and addressing environmental
challenges. This type of assessment is conducted in contrast to content-based
assessment, which focuses on what learners are expected to know.

Recognising the importance of the competence-based assessment, the National

Examinations Council of Tanzania has shifted its emphasis from content-based
assessment to competence--based assessment. The main purpose is to develop skilled
personnel to apply their knowledge, skills and attitudes to different sectors, thereby fitting
well in the new era of advanced technology.
Competence-based assessment focuses on the understanding of concepts and the
acquisition of skills and competences, as it emphasises on higher order thinking skills.
Ultimately, competence-based assessment will produce people who can think critically,
analyse and clarify issues, solve problems in their environment, and give opinions and
suggestions based on evidenc.
Examples for Ordinary Level.

S/N Competence-Based Assessment Content Based Assessment

How does an animal cell differ from a State four key features of an animal
plant cell? Give four key differences. cell.
(Biology).
In five points, argue or against the idea Explain the effects of female genital
that “female genital mutilation is mutilation on today’s world
important in today’s world.” (Civics).
The power consumption in a house Which fuse rate is suitable to use in
whose circuit is connected to the 240 V a circuit connected to the 240 V
main supply is as follows: Electric main supplies with power
kettle 750 W, Bulb 50 W, Television consumption of 750 W, 50 W, 300 W
300 W and Heater 1500 W. Being a and 1500 W?
technical advisor, which fuse rate will A. 10 A
you suggest to use for proper current B. 12 A
flow in the circuit? (Physics) C. 8A
D. 5A
A. 10 A E. 3A
B. 12 A

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 C. 8A
D. 5A
E. 3A

Form Three students were asked by Explain eight pre-survey activities.

their Geography teacher to conduct a
survey around their school. Explain
eight pre-survey activities they needed
to consider. (Geography).

Examples for Advanced Level.

S/N Competence-Based Assessment Content Based Assessment

A Form Five Biology student used a
light microscope and observed a State five roles of a vacuole in plant.
round large organelle located at the
centre of a plant cell. (Biology)
(i) Identify the organelle.
(ii) Give five points to justify the role of
the organelle in plants.

Tathmini upungufu uliojitokeza wakati Taja matatizo sita yaliyojitokeza

wa kusanifisha Lugha ya Kiswahili wakati wa kusanifisha Lugha ya
Tanzania kabla ya uhuru. Toa hoja Kiswahili Tanzania kabla ya uhuru.
sita. (Kiswahili).
Why the Kilimanjaro mountain does Describe the isostacy theory.
not decrease in height despite the
continuous erosion taking place in the
area? (Geography).

“The boiling point of sea water is Give a reason responsible for boiling
slightly higher than that of fresh point elevation of a solution.
water”. Briefly explain this fact and
suggest appropriate term for this
scenario. (Chemistry).

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The 21st Century Skills
What is it?

21st Century Skills refer to the skills that are required to enable an individual to face the
challenges of the 21st century world that is globally-active, digitally transforming,
collaboratively moving forward, creatively progressing, seeking competent human
resource and quick in adopting changes.
Background Literature Review
Over the last twenty five years, several institutions and international organisations have
proposed frameworks and outlined competencies needed to address twenty- first century
challenges.
Wagner (2010) and the Change Leadership Group3 at Harvard University identified
another set of competencies and skills. Informed by several hundred interviews with
business, non- profit and education leaders, Wagner stressed that students
need seven survival skills to be prepared for twenty-first century life, work and citizenship:

 Critical thinking and problem solving

 Collaboration and leadership

 Agility and adaptability

 Initiative and entrepreneurialism

 Effective oral and written communication

 Accessing and analysing information

 Curiosity and imagination

The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) has identified the development of

twenty-first century competencies among youth as a ‘pressing international concern’.
These competencies are defined as the Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes necessary to be
competitive in the twenty-first century workforce to participate appropriately in an
increasingly diverse society, use new technologies and cope with rapidly changing
workplaces.
Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21), a coalition of business leaders and
educators, proposed a Framework for 21st Century Learning, identified essential
competencies and skills vital for success in twenty-first century work and life (P21, 2007a,
2011). These included ‘The 4Cs’ – communication, collaboration, critical thinking and

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creativity, which are to be taught within the context of core subject areas and twenty-first
century themes. This framework is based on the assertion that twenty-first century
challenges will demand a broad skill set emphasizing core subject skills, social and
cross-cultural skills, proficiency in languages other than English, and an understanding of
the economic and political forces that affect societies.

Components of 21st Century Skills.

On the basis of the historical development of 21st Century Skills, it can be stated that 21st
century skills broadly consist of three main skill sets or 3 Ls - namely, Learning Skills, Life
Skills and Literacy Skills, that is L3, 4C. IMT and FLIPS. These skills are intended to help
learners keep up with the lightning-pace of today’s modern markets. Each skill is unique
in how it helps learners, but all the skills have one quality in common.

Learning Skills.
Learning Skills: skills required for the acquisition of new knowledge. It includes the 4Cs:
Critical Thinking, Creativity, Collaboration, Communication.

Literacy Skills:
The are skills that help in creating and gaining new knowledge through reading, media
and digital resources. They includes IMT: Information Literacy, Media Literacy and
Technology Literacy
Life Skills.

Skills required for successfully leading everyday life.They includes FLIPS: Flexibility and
Adaptability, Leadership and Responsibility, Initiative and Self-Direction, Productivity and
Accountability ,Social and Cross-Cultural Interaction.

Generally ,the 21st Century Skills are twelve namely; critical thinking, creativity,
collaboration, communication, information literacy, media literacy, technology literacy,
flexibility, leadership, initiative, productivity and social skills.

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LEARNING SKILLS (4Cs)
1. CREATIVITY

Using knowledge and understanding to create new ways of thinking in order to find
solutions to new problems and to create new products and services.
Creativity includes four components:
• Fluency (generating new ideas),
• Flexibility (shifting perspective easily),
• Originality (conceiving of something new), and
• Elaboration (building on others' ideas).

2. CRITICAL THINKING

Applying higher order thinking to new problems and issues, using appropriate reasoning
as they effectively analyze the problem and make decisions about the most effective
ways to solve the problem.
Critical Thinking includes the following qualities:
• Fairness and open-mindedness;
• Activeness and being informed;
• Willingness to question or to entertain doubts;
• Being independent.

3. COMMUNICATION
Communication refers to the ability to express one’s opinions, desires, needs,
apprehensions etc. oneself appropriately, verbally and non-verbally.

Communicating effectively in a wide variety of forms and contexts for a wide range of
purposes and using multiple media and technologies.

COLLABORATION

Collaboration is the ability to effectively work together with others. This skill involves
working together while taking actions respecting others’ needs and perspectives and
contributing to and accepting the finale. Collaboration helps to develop interest and fun in
the teaching and learning process. It effectively broadens the cultural, social, and
environmental boundaries and helps a child to understand social and environmental
concerns better.

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Broad outcomes of 21st Skills.

Learning Skills.

Na. Skills Outcomes.

1 Critical Thinking. 1. Effective reasoning.
Being able to use reasoning appropriate to
the situation
2. Using Systems and Preocess with Intelligent and
Rational Thinking.
Analyze how various parts of a system/
process unite/complement each other for a
complete picture.
3. Judging and Taking Decision on an issue
after proper evaluation of evidences, claims,
arguments etc.
❖ Analyze and evaluate various perspectives.
❖ Making correlation between various types of
information available.
❖ Interpret the available information and form
conclusions after effective analysis.
❖ Reflect the pros and cons of experiences to
solve problems.
❖ Devise innovative solutions of different kinds
of non-familiar problems.
❖ Identify and ask relevant and vital questions
to bring forth various perspectives and for
getting better solutions.
2 Creativity 1. Think Creatively
❖ Use various techniques for creating and
evolving new ideas (such as brainstorming)
❖ Use all available concepts to create or
conceive & perceive novel and useful ideas
❖ Elaborate, refine, analyze and evaluate ideas
to improve one’s own creative efforts.
❖ Work Creatively with Others
❖ Develop, implement and communicate new
ideas to others
❖ Be open and responsive to diversity
❖ Incorporate group input and feedback into
the work
❖ Understand the practical limits for adopting
new ideas
❖ Treat failure as an opportunity to learn and
improve
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 ❖ Implement Innovations
❖ Implement creative ideas for a useful
contribution

3 Collaboration 1. Collaborate with Others

❖ Ability to work effectively and respectfully
in diverse scenarios
❖ Be adaptable to accomplish a common
goal.
❖ Assume shared responsibility for
collaborative work, and value the
individual contributions made by each
team member.
4 Communication 1. Communicate Clearl.
❖ Effective oral, written and nonverbal
communication in a variety of forms and
diverse social, cultural, linguistic contexts.
❖ Listening effectively to infer meaning
❖ Use communication for a variety of
purposes and functions.
❖ Use several forms of media and
technologies and know their effectiveness.

The link between the competence-based assessment and the 21st century
skills
The education system is expected to equip learners with the 21st century skills which will
contribute to their future careers. The National Examinations Council of Tanzania has
been working hard to assess whether learners have acquired the 21st century skills.
Though NECTA conducts only formative and summative assessments, it ensures that
other types of assessments, such as diagnostic assessments, are well conducted to meet
the requirements of competency based assessment and the challenges of the 21st
century.
The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives which is popularly known as Bloom’s Taxonomy

is a useful guide for developing a comprehensive list of instructional objectives. It
attempts to identify and classify all possible educational learning outcomes.

The importance of Bloom’s taxonomy in assessment

i) It helps instructors to design performance tasks, construct questions by
considering learners and provide feedback on learners’ work.
ii) It helps to determine the level of learning outcome one intends to achieve.
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 iii) It assists curriculum developers and teachers in ensuring that all aspects of
developing learners, especially at higher levels of thinking and operation, are
included in the learning process.
iv) It provides an important framework for instructors to focus on higher order thinking.

Major Domains of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives are classified into three major domains:
1. Cognitive domain (Bloom et al., 1956)

2. Affective domain (Krathwohl, 1964)

3. Psychomotor domain (Simpson, 1972)
Cognitive domain

The cognitive domain involves knowledge and development of intellectual skills. There
are six major levels of cognitive processes, starting from the simplest to the most complex
(See Appendix 1 and 2). These are as follows:
❖ Level 1 – Remembering
❖ Level 2 – Understanding

❖ Level 3 – Applying
❖ Level 4 – Analysing
❖ Level 5 – Evaluating.

❖ Level 6 – Creating

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 The key verbs and sample questions for each level of Bloom’s taxonomy are shown in
Table 4.

The Behaviour
S/N Bloom’s Level Key Verbs Sample Questions
Assessed
Level I: The learner’s Define, give, 1. Define the term Chemistry.
Remembering ability to outline,
recall or describe, list, 2. What are the four reasons for
remember name, give, the outbreak of cholera?
information choose, identify, (Biology)
label, find, show,
spell, who, what, 3. Jairus complains of having
when, where burning sensation around the
and which chest. (Biology).
a) What digestive disorder is
he suffering from?
b) Give five measures he
should take to treat the
disorder.
c) Name two breast milk
substitutes. (Biology)

a) Write a number that

follows in the following
sequence
1, 3, 5, 7, ___.
(Basic Mathematics)

Explain, b) You are invited by a Fema

The rephrase, Club of a
learner’s classify, certain secondary school as a
ability to demonstrate, health
Level II: organize, interpret, practitioner. Explain how you
Understanding translate, describe, will educate the members on
interpret illustrate, relate, four different ways of
and state translate, HIV/AIDS transmission.
main ideas summarise, how (Civics).
and why
c) Why are chemical symbols
useful in chemistry? Give
three reasons. (Chemistry).

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 a) How would you use the principle
of
floatation to teach children how
to swim? (Physics).

b) One angle of the right angled

triangle is 40˚. Find the value of
The the second and the third angle.
learner’s (Basic Mathematics).
ability to use
the develop, apply, c) Eleza kwa ufupi mazingira
Level III: information build, construct, manne ambayo kielezi huweza
Applying learned to make use and kujipambanua. Kisha, tunga
solve solve sentensi moja kwa kila aina ya
problems in mazingira. (Kiswahili).
new
situations d) Three airplanes arrived at
Kilimanjaro International Airport
(KIA) at the intervals of 30
minutes, 40 minutes and 55
minutes. If all three airplanes
arrived at KIA at 2:00 p.m. on
Saturday, when and at what time
would they arrive together
again? (Geography).
Level IV: The learner’s analyse, a) Chambua sentensi ifuatayo kwa
Analysing ability to categorise, kubainisha aina za maneno
differentiate classify, zilizotumika kuunda sentensi hii.
various parts compare, (Kiswahili).
of the contrast/different
whole or to iate and dissect b) Classify rocks based on their
break. mode Of
formation. (Geography)

c) Compare the climate of Kenya to

that of Ghana. (Geography).

The a) With six reasons, defend the

learner’s defend, avaluate opinion
ability to assess, judge, that Mt Kilimanjaro is the
Level V:
make justify, give National asset. (Geography).
Evaluating
judgment opinion, support
about and criticize b) Assess the importance of
information vegetation in the lives of wild
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 or validate animals. (Geography).
ideas/
quality of c) “Betrayal is one of the main
work based sources of
on set conflicts in many societies.”
criteria Support
this statement by referring to
two novels that you have read.
Provide three points from each
novel. (English Language)
The learner’s
ability to Compose an essay on the effects of
create a compose, COVID 19. (The number of words
new product, construct, should be between 200-300).
Level VI: generate a create, design, (Civics)
Creating new idea or develop,
create a formulate, plan Propose six ways that Tanzania can
different and propose use to eradicate neo colonialism.
thought or (History).
process.

DETAILED EXPLANATIONS
Remembering
Assesses the learners ability to recall fundamental facts, key terms, basic concepts,
theories, principles, classifications and laws.
• Suggested action verbs: choose, omit, find, define, label, show, spell, list, name,
tell, recall, enumerate.
• The interrogatives who, what, when, where, which are also used in measuring
Remembering skill.
• Model questions: Define the term history; what are the reasons for emergency of
multipartism in Tanzania?

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Understanding
It assesses the learners ability to organize, translate, extrapolate, interpret, stating main
ideas.
• Suggested action verbs: demonstrate, interpret, explain, extend, describe,
illustrate, outline, relate, rephrase, translate, summarise, show and exemplify.

• The interrogatives how and why can also be used in measuring Understanding
skill.
• Model questions: Write a number that follows in the following sequence 1, 3, 5,
7,Shorten the following text in 20 words.
Applying
Assesses the learners ability to use the knowledge learned and skills gained to solve
problems in different situations.
❑ Suggested action verbs: Apply, build, construct, interview, make use of,
experiment with, solve, utilise and model.

❑ Model questions: one angle of the right angled triangle is 40˚ what is the value of
the second and the third angles?
Analysing

Assesses the learners ability to break information into parts by identifying causes, impacts
and relationships.
❑ Suggested action verbs: analyze, categorise, classify, compare, contrast, dissect,
divide, inspect, simplify, survey, distinguish, and relate.

❑ Model questions: Chambua sentensi ifuatayo kwa kubainisha aina za maneno

zilizomo; (Kilimahewa anatembea kwa umaridadi); Outline four major
characteristics of living things.

Evaluating
Assesses the leaners ability to present and defend opinions by making judgments about
information, validity of ideas or quality of work based on a set of criteria.

• Suggested action verbs: conclude, criticise, defend, determine, dispute,

evaluate, judge, justify, measure, recommend, agree, appraise, opinion, support,
disprove, assess and test.

• Model question: With six reasons, defend the opinion that Mt. Kilimanjaro in
Tanzania is a National asset.
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Creating
Assesses the learners’ ability to invent things, compiling information together in a different
way to form a new pattern or proposing alternative solutions.
❑ Suggested action verbs: build, compile, compose, construct, create, design,
develop, formulate, invent, make up, plan, propose, solve, modify, change,
improve and theorise.
❑ Model question: Write a four stanza poem on the impact of COVID 19 in
Tanzania. Other examples can be on; Jumbled questions, architectural drawing,
drawing a map and labeling.

Using Action Verbs by Bloom’s Taxonomy according to the context

❑ Appropriate use of action verbs by Bloom is governed by the type of responses

expected.
❑ The type of response is in turn shaped by the type of behavior expressed.

❑ The behavior of the item is expressed as follows:

✓ Remembering: Does the item demand the learner to recall or remember
the information?

✓ Understanding: Does the item require the learner to explain ideas or

concepts?

✓ Applying: Does the item demand the leaner to use the information in a new
situation?
✓ Analyzing: Does the item demand the leaner to differentiate the various
parts or components or the whole?
✓ Evaluating: Does the item demand the leaner to justify a position or
decision?

✓ Creating: Does the item demand the leaner to create a new product,
generate a new idea or create a different thought or process?

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 A Summary of Cognitive Dimensions Assessed in the Necta Final Examinations

Cognitive How to Measure

Levels Sample of Action VerbsUsed
Assessed

Students’ ability to Define Identify Duplicate Who

recall, retrieve or
Remember Recognise Label Underline
recognise
ing
Recall List State
information, ideas,
facts and principles in Select Memorise Spell
the approximate form
Find Name Repeat
in which they earned
them Show Outline Record
Reproduce Tell What
Give Point Out Where
Mention Locate When
Indicate Which

Students’ ability to Explain Convert Extend How

translate, comprehend
Understan Summarise Exemplify Rephrase
or
ding
Paraphrase Restate Translate
interpret
Describe Estimate Indicate
information, facts or
ideas based on prior Illustrate Add Show
learning
Approximate Rewrite Specify
Clarify Insert Retell

Complete Intrapolate To What

Convert Interpolate Extent
Extrapolate Why

Fill Blanks in the

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 Students’ ability to Use Apply Imitate Utilize
select, transfer, use
Applying Compute Change Articulate
data, ideas, facts and
principles to complete Solve Calculate Practice
a problem or task in a
Apply Illustrate Instruct
new
Employ Simulate
situation
Manipulate Assign Make Use Of
with minimum
Demonstrate Express
direction
Derive Illustrate
Dramatise

Students’ ability to Analyse Discriminate Differentiate

distinguish, classify, Associate
Analysing Categorise Operate
and relate the classify
Compare Divide Relate
assumptions,
Contrast Factorise Organise
hypotheses, evidence,
or structure of a Separate Sequence Arrange
statement or question Tabulate
Break Down Inspect
Prioritize
Select Correlate
Group

Order
Distinguish
Characterize

Relate

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 Students’ ability to Judge Assess Reframe
appraise, assess, or
Evaluating Account For Conclude Predict Rate
critique an idea or fact
Infer Argue
on a basis of specific Verify
standards Dispute Evaluate
Prioritise
Recommend Defend
and criteria
Critique Support

Justify Appraise
Agree/Disagree Disprove
Comment On Grade

Criticize Inspect
Decide Rule On
Deduce Suggest
Diagnose

Create Collect
Creating Students’ ability to Plan Rearrange
compose, design, Design Combine
Rewrite Reconstruct
assemble, and
Hypothesise Compose
combine ideas into a Set Up Relate
whole product, plan or Invent Construct
Synthesise Propose
idea that is new to him
Develop Arrange
or her Change Integrate
Revise Assemble
Generate Express
Prepare Devise
Redesign Compile
Discover Formulate
Sketch Reorganise
Animate Join

Enhance Modify
Improvise Plot
Improve Draw

Invent

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 Extremely Vague Action Verbs or Phrases that Should be Avoided

Words to Avoid where Necessary Phrases to Avoid where Necessary

Believe Show your appreciation for

Hear How acquainted are you with

Realise How are you adjusted to

Capacity Show your awareness of
Intelligence Comprehension of

Recognise Cognisant of
Comprehend Enjoyment of
Know How conscious are you of

See How familiar are you with

Feel Indicate your interest in
Conceptualise Show your knowledge of

Listen How knowledgeable are you about

Memorise Indicate your understanding of
Self-Actualise Write short notes on

Think
Experience
Perceive
Understand

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 ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY 1.

1. (a) Explain how the following Learning skills can be applied in your teaching and
learning process. (Propose five activities for each skills to learners).
i) Critical thinking.

ii) Creativity.
iii) Communication.
iv) Collaboration.

(b) From the above learning skills, show how they can develope life skills
experiences to the learners.

ACTIVITY 2:
2. Show five differences between the Old and Revised Taxonomy of cognitive domain.

ACTIVITY 3:
3. Explain five diffences between competence based and content based questions.
4. In each level of cognitive domain, set 3 questions of competence based and content

based.

ACTIVITY 4:
Show five criteria used to set scenarios when setting competence based questions.

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 REFERENCES
1. The National Examinations of Tanzania (2021), Guidelines on assessment
procedures for secondary schools and professional levels.

2. Baraza la Mitihani la Tanzania (2022), Mwongozo wa upimaji katika shule za

Msingi.

3. Central Board of Secondary Education, Delhi (2020), 21st Century Skills, A

handbook.

4. The National Examinations Council of Tanzania, (2019), certificate of secondary

education examination formats.

5. The National Examinations Council of Tanzania, (2021), form two national

assessment (FTNa) formats.

6. The National Examinations Council of Tanzania, (2021), advanced certificate of

secondary education examination formats.

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