W1: Sets

 Sets
o A set is a well defined collection of distinct objects - Georg Cantor [German
Mathematician]
 ex. a set of all positive number
o italic uppercase letters to denote sets
o values are enclosed with curly braces (roster method)
 Let A be a set vowels in the Alphabet A = {a,e,i,o,u}
o Set-builder method
 Notation:

A = {x|x ϵ S, P(x)} or A =={x ϵ S, P(x)} A is a set of all elements x of

S such that x satisfies the property P

|=such that

∈ = element
 Real Numbers
o numbers we normally use, such as positive or negative, large or small, whole
numbers or decimal numbers
 Rational Number
 finite and/or recurring numbers
 Irrational
 non-terminating and non recurring numbers.
 ex. value of pi
 Imaginary Numbers
o when squared, gives a negative result
 Algebraic Number
o a real number for which there exists a polynomial equation with integer
coefficients such that the given real number is a solution
 Complex Number
o a combination of a Real Number and an Imaginary Number
 Subset/Superset
o X is said to be a subset of Y if every element of X is an element of Y
 Let X and Y be sets X = {1, 3, 5} Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} X ⊆ Y

“X is a subset of Y” Y ⊇ X “Y is the superset of X”

 Proper subset/superset
o X is a proper subset of Y if X is a subset of Y and there exists at least one
element in Y that is not in X.
 Let X and Y be sets X = {1, 3, 5} Y = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} X ⊂ Y “X is a
proper subset of Y” Y ⊃ X “Y is the proper superset of X”
 Equal sets
o Two sets X and Y are said to be equal if every element of X is an element of Y
 Let X and Y be sets X = {1 2 3 4 5} Y = {1 2 3 4 5} X = Y “X is equal
to Y”
 Empty/Null set
o a set with no element
o a subset of every set
o Ø
 Singleton Set
o a set with only one element
 Finite set
o exists a nonnegative integer n such that X has n elements
 Positive numbers less than 10; a set of 10 numbers.
 Infinite set
o X is not a finite set
 Positive numbers
 Cardinality
o Let S be a set with n distinct elements, where n>= 0. Then we write |S| = n and
say that the cardinality (or the number of elements) of S is n
 B = {x|x is a positive even prime number}

the only positive even prime number is 2

therfore, B = {2} or |B| = 1.

  Power Set
o For any set X the power set of X written P(X), is the set of all subsets of X
o P(X) = {A|A ⊆ X}
 Let X = {a,b,c} P(X) {Ø}, { a},{ b}, {a,b}, {a,c}, {b,c}, X |X| = 3
“Cardinality of set X is 3” |P(X)| = 2^|X| = 2^3 = 8 “Cardinality of the
power set X is 8”

W2: Operation on Sets

 Universal Set
o collection/group of the given sets.

Types of Operation:

 Union
o all the elements of both set.
o denoted by X ∪ Y, is defined to be the set:

X ∪ Y = {x|x ∈ X or x ∈ Y}

o THEOREM: X ⊆ X ∪ Y and Y ⊆ X ∪ Y
o Example:

X = {1,2,3}

Y = {3,4,5}
 X ∪ Y = {1,2,3,4,5}

 Intersection
o the same value from both set
o denoted by X ∩ Y, is defined to be the set:

X ∩ Y = {x|x ∈ X and x ∈ Y}

o THEOREM: X ∩ Y ⊆ X and X ∩ Y ⊆ Y
o Example:

X = {1,2,3}

Y = {3,4,5}

X ∩ Y = {3}

 Disjoint
o no same value from both set.
o Two sets X and Y are said to be disjoint sets if their intersection is an empty
set, i.e. X ∩ Y = ∅.
o THEOREM: ∅ ⊆ X ∩ Y
 o Example:

X = {1,2,3}

Y = {4,5,6}

X and Y are disjoint sets.

 Complement
o value is part of the universal set or not part of set X.
o the complement of a set X, denoted by X**'**, is the set of all elements in the
universal set that are not in X.
o X**' = {x ∈ U | x ∉ X} or** X’ = U-X
o THEOREM:
 X ∪ X’ = U and X ∩ X’ = ∅
 (X’)’ = X
o Example:

U = {1,2,3,4,5}

X = {1,3,5}

X' = {2,4}
 Symmetric Difference
o elements that are in either of the sets but not in their intersection.
o denoted by X △ Y, is defined to be the set:

X △ Y = (X-Y) ∪ (Y-X)

o THEOREM: X △ Y != X ∩ Y
o Example:

X = {1,2,3}

Y = {3,4,5}

X △ Y = {1,2,4,5}
W3.1: Sequences & Mathematical
Notations
 Sequences
o an ordered list of numbers
o a function from a subset of the set of integers
o Indices - numbers in the subscripts (plural of index)
o Image - set of all output values of a function
o Term - each number in the sequence

Example:

aₙ = n2, where n = 1,2,3…

Elements of the sequence: 1,4,9,16,25…

aₙ = (-1)ⁿ, where n = 0,1,2,3…

Elements of the sequence 1,-1,1,-1,1…

 Arithmetic Progression

a sequence of the form a, a+d, a+2d,….,a+nd where a is the initial term and d is
common difference.

Ex.

aₙ = -1+4n for n=0,1,2,3,….

members: -1,3,7,11,…

 Geometric Progression

a sequence of the form a, ar, ar², ..., arⁿ where is a is the initial term, and r is the
common ration.

Ex.

aₙ = ( ½ )ⁿ for n = 0,1,2,3, …

members: 1,½, ¼, 1/8, …..

Given a sequence finding a rule for generating the sequence is not always straightforward.

 Example 1
o Sequence: 1,3,5,7,9
o What is the formula?
o Each term is obtained by adding 2 to the previous term.
 o 1, 1+2=3, 3+2=5, 5+2=7
o It suggests an arithmetic progression: a+nd with a=1 and d=2.
o aₙ = 1+2n
 Example 2
o Sequence: 1, 1/3, 1/9, 1/27, …
o What is the sequence?
o The denominators are powers of 3. 1, 1/3= 1/3, (1/3)/3=1/(3*3)=1/9,
(1/9)/3=1/27
o This suggests a geometric progression: arⁿ with a=1 and r=1/3
o aₙ = (1/3 )ⁿ
 Recursively Defined Sequences
o a sequence of numbers indexed by an integer and generated by solving a
recurrence equation.
o The n-th element of the sequence {aₙ } is defined recursively in terms of the
previous elements of the sequence and the initial elements of the sequence.

Example : • aₙ = aₙ₋₁ + 2 assuming a₀ = 1; • a₀ = 1; • a₁ = 3; • a₂ = 5; • a₃ = 7; • Can

you write aₙ non-recursively using n? • aₙ = 1 + 2n

 Fibonacci Sequence

Recursively defined sequence, where f₀ = 0; f₁ = 1; • f ₙ = f ₙ₋₁ + f ₙ₋₂ for n = 2,3, …

• f₂ = 1 • f ₃ = 2 • f ₄ = 3 • f ₅ = 5

 Summation Notation

o j = index of summation
o m = lower limit of summation
o n = upper limit of summation
 Factorial Notation
o Factorial
 product of all integers equal to or less in value to the original number
 number of combinations possible with numbers less than or equal to
that number
o let n = non-negative number; n! = n factorial
 Formula:
 n(n-1)(n-2)(n-3).....(3)(2)(1)
 n*(n-1)!
 Example 1

n=5

 5(4)(3)(2)(1) = 120
 5*4!

543! 5432! 54321! 5432*1 = 120

  Example 2

n=1

 1! = 1
 1*0!

1*1 = 1

 0! = 1
 Binomial Coefficient

the number of ways to choose a subset of k elements from a set of n elements n -

number of values in a set k - number of values in a subset

o Example

 n=4
 k=2

{1,2,3,4}

3. 1,2
4. 1,3
5. 1,4
6. 2,3
7. 2,4
 8. 3,4

W3.2 Properties of Integers

Properties of these integers will help to simplify and answer a series of operations on integers
quickly.

5 Main Properties of Operation

 Closure Property
o Addition/Subtraction/Multiplication answers will always be an integer.
 Associative Property
o Addition/Multiplication groupings of numbers doesn’t matter, result will be
the same.
 Commutative Property
o Addition/Multiplication order of terms doesn’t matter, result will be the same.
 Distributive Property
 o Distributing ability of operation over another mathematical operation within a
bracket.
 distributive property of multiplication over addition
 distributive property of multiplication over subtraction
 Identity Property
o Additive Identity Property
 when any integer is added to zero it will give the same number Zero is
called additive identity For
o Multiplicative identity

W4.1 Matrices
Matrix is an array of number

 Adding Matrices
o add the numbers in the matching positions
o The two matrices must be the same size,

 Negative of a Matrix
 Subtracting Matrices
o subtract the numbers in the matching positions
o the addition of a negative matrix: A + (−B)

 Multiplying a Matrix by a Constant

o We call the constant a scalar so officially this is called scalar multiplication

 Multiplying a Matrix by another Matrix

o do the "dot product" of rows and columns, where we multiply matching
members then sum up.
o the 1st row and 1st column:
 When we do multiplication:
o number of columns of the 1st matrix must equal the number of rows of the 2nd
matrix
o result: same number of rows as the 1st matrix and same number of columns as
the 2nd matrix

In the example we multiplied a 1 × 3 matrix by a 3 × 4 and the result was a 1 × 4

matrix.

 Dividing Matrices
o A * B^-1 = C; where B^-1 means inverse of B.
o Solution for Inverse of B

o 1st: Get determinant (EH) - (GF)

 o 2nd: E & H change position; G & F change signs

 Transposing a Matrix
o swap the rows and columns
o we put a T in the top right hand corner to

 Rows and Columns

o To show how many rows and columns a matrix has we often write rows ×
columns
 Ex: This matrix is 2 × 3 (2 rows by 3 columns)

 Notation of Matrix
o matrix = capital letter
o entry/element = lower case letter w/ a subscript
W5: Statements
Statement/Proposition

 declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both.

 use italic lowercase letters with or without subscripts, to denote statements
 Truth value - one of the values truth or falsity that is assigned to a statement
 Negation
o ~p = not p

 Conjunction
o p^q = p and q
o p^q is true if both p and q are true

 Disjunction
o pVq = p or q
o pVq is true if at least one of the statements p or q is true
 o Exclusive sense ––“either p or q but not both”
o Inclusive sense ––“either p or q or both p and q.”
 Implication
o if p, then q
o p→q
o p→q is considered false when p is true and q is false
o p = hypothesis; q = conclusion

o Other forms:
 Converse - q→p
 Inverse - ~p → ~q
 Contrapositive - ~q → ~p
 Bi-Implication
o p if and only if q
o p↔q
o p ↔ q is considered to be true when both p and q have the same truth values