Materials & Processing
Introduction
Design Framework
Level C
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Summary of what you need to learn from this lecture
• A knowledge of the range of materials for products
• An appreciation of the historic perspective of
materials
• A knowledge of the range of physical and mechanical
properties of to be considered in materials
• An appreciation of the role and importance of
materials internal structure in relation to their
properties and uses
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Syllabus
Types of materials
(metals, ceramics, polymers, semiconductors)
Properties of materials
(mechanical, thermal, electrical, optical)
Different levels of structure in materials
(atomic, microscopic, macroscopic)
Relation among material processing, structure, properties,
and performance
The main objective is to understand the basic concepts
and language of Materials Science
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Chapter Outline
Historical Perspective
Stone → Bronze → Iron → Advanced materials
What is Materials Science and Engineering ?
Processing → Structure → Properties → Performance
Classification of Materials
Metals, Ceramics, Polymers, Semiconductors
Advanced Materials
Electronic materials, superconductors, etc.
Modern Material's Needs, Material of Future
Biodegradable materials, Nanomaterials, “Smart” materials
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Historical Perspective
• Beginning of the Material Science - People
began to make tools from stone – Start of the
Stone Age about two million years ago.
Natural materials:
stone, wood, clay, skins, etc.
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Historical Perspective
• The Stone Age ended about 5000 years ago with
introduction of Bronze in the Far East.
• Bronze is an alloy (a metal made up of more than
one element), copper + < 25% of tin + other
elements.
• Bronze: can be hammered or cast into a variety of
shapes, can be made harder by alloying, corrode only
slowly after a surface oxide film forms.
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Historical Perspective
• The Iron Age began about 3000 years ago and
continues today. Use of iron and steel, a
stronger and cheaper material changed
drastically daily life of a common person.
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Historical Perspective
• Age of Advanced materials: throughout the Iron Age
many new types of materials have been introduced
(ceramic, semiconductors, polymers, composites…).
• Understanding of the relationship among structure,
properties, processing, and performance of materials.
• Intelligent design of new materials.
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Structure-Composition
• A better understanding of structure – composition -
properties relations has lead to a remarkable progress
in properties of materials. Example below is the
dramatic progress in the strength to density ratio of
materials, that resulted in a wide variety of new
products, from dental materials to tennis racquets.
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Structure-Composition
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What is Materials Science?
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Materials Science & Engineering in a
Nutshell
Performance
Materials Engineering
Designing the structure to achieve
specific properties of materials.
Structure Processing
• Processing
• Structure
Properties
• Properties
Materials Science
• Performance
Investigating the relationship between structure and
properties of materials.
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Multiple Length Scales Critical in
Engineering
In Askeland and Phule’s book, from J. Allison and W. Donlon (Ford Motor Company)
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What is Materials Science?
• Material science is the investigation of the
relationship among processing, structure,
properties, and performance of materials.
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What is Materials Science?
• Casting • Extrusion
Processing
• Forging • Calcinating
• Stamping Texturing, Temperature, • Sintering
• Layer-by-layer Time, Transformations
growth
(nanotechnology)
Properties
characterization MatSE Physical behavior
Crystal structure Response to environment
Defects
Microstructure
• Mechanical (e.g., stress-
strain)
• Microscopy: Optical, transmission • Thermal
electron, scanning tunneling • Electrical
• X-ray, neutron, e- diffraction • Magnetic
• Spectroscopy • Optical
• Corrosive
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• Deteriorative characteristics 15
Six Major Classes of Materials
• Some of these have descriptive subclasses.
• Classes have overlap, so some materials fit into more than one class.
• Metals
• Iron and Steel
• Alloys and Superalloys (e.g. aerospace applications)
• Intermetallic Compounds (high-T structural materials)
• Ceramics
• Structural Ceramics (high-temperature load bearing)
• Refractories (corrosion-resistant, insulating)
• Whitewares (e.g. porcelains)
• Glass
• Electrical Ceramics (capacitors, insulators, transducers, etc.)
• Chemically Bonded Ceramics (e.g. cement and concrete)
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Six Major Classes of Materials
• Polymers
• Plastics
• Liquid crystals
• Adhesives
• Electronic Materials
• Silicon and Germanium
• III-V Compounds (e.g. GaAs)
• Photonic materials (solid-state lasers, LEDs)
• Composites
• Particulate composites (small particles embedded in a different material)
• Laminate composites (golf club shafts, tennis rackets, Damaskus swords)
• Fiber reinforced composites (e.g. fiberglass)
• Biomaterials (really using previous 5, but bio-mimetic)
• Man-made proteins (cytoskeletal protein rods or “artificial bacterium”)
• Biosensors (Au-nanoparticles stabilized by encoded DNA for anthrax
detection)
• Drug-delivery colloids (polymer based)
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Classes and Properties: Metals
Distinguishing features
• Atoms arranged in a regular repeating structure (crystalline )
• Relatively good strength
• Dense
• Malleable or ductile: high plasticity
• Resistant to fracture: tough
• Excellent conductors of electricity and heat
• Opaque to visible light
• Shiny appearance
• Thus, metals can be formed and machined easily, and are usually long-lasting materials.
• They do not react easily with other elements, however, metals such as Fe and Al do form
compounds readily (such as ores) so they must be processed to extract base metals.
• One of the main drawbacks is that metals do react with chemicals in the environment,
such as iron-oxide (rust).
• Many metals do not have high melting points, making them useless for many applications.
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Periodic Table of Elements
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Structure
• Subatomic level
Electronic structure of individual atoms that
defines interaction among atoms (interatomic
bonding).
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Structure
• Atomic level
Arrangement of atoms in materials (for the
same atoms can have different properties, e.g.
two forms of carbon: graphite and diamond)
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Structure
• Microscopic structure
Arrangement of small grains of material that
can be identified by microscopy.
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Structure
• Macroscopic structure
Structural elements that may be viewed with
the naked eye.
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Length-scales
Angstrom = 1Å = 1/10,000,000,000 meter = 10-10 m
Nanometer = 10 nm = 1/1,000,000,000 meter = 10-9 m
Micrometer = 1μm = 1/1,000,000 meter = 10-6 m
Millimeter = 1mm = 1/1,000 meter = 10-3 m
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Length-scales
• Interatomic distance ~ a few Å
• A human hair is ~ 50 μm
• Elongated bumps that make up the data track
on CD are ~ 0.5 μm wide, minimum 0.83 μm
long, and 125 nm high
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Properties
Properties are the way the material responds to the
environment and external forces.
• Mechanical properties – response to mechanical forces,
strength, etc.
• Electrical and magnetic properties - response electrical
and magnetic fields, conductivity, etc.
• Thermal properties are related to transmission of heat and
heat capacity.
• Optical properties include to absorption, transmission and
scattering of light.
• Chemical stability in contact with the environment -
corrosion resistance.
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Mechanical Properties
Property What it is Measured by Standard
Unit(s)
Strength How much stress a material can take before it breaks Ultimate Tensile MN/m2
Strength or just
Tensile Strength (N/mm2)
Stiffness or Rigidity How difficult it is to deform (stretch, bend or twist) a material Modulus of GN/m2
Elasticity or
Young’s Modulus
Elastic Limit How much stress a material can take before it )deforms Elastic Limit or MN/m2
permanently Yield Strength
(N/mm2)
Ductility How much a material can be deformed before it breaks Amount of %
deformation
Hardness Resistance to scratching Force needed to VHN, BHN,
indent a material Mohs, Shore
Toughness Resistance to impact loads (being hit or dropped). The amount Amount of energy Joules/m2
of energy the material absorbs before fracturing. absorbed in
fracturing a
material.
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Selected mechanical properties for a number of
materials
Material Tensile Tensile Strength Density
Module, MN/m2 kg/m3
GN/ m2
Polyethylene (LD) 0.15-.24 7-17 910-940
Polyethylene (HD) 0.55-1 20-37 950-980
PVC 2.4-3 40-60 1400
Oak 1 - 16.6 97 690
Mild Steel 210 400-500 7800
Brass 105 200-350 8400
Ti alloy(6Al,4V) 120 900-1000 4400
Aluminium alloys 70 200-800 2700
Epoxy resin 21.1-5.5 (3)* 40-85 1200-1400
Polyester 1.3-4.5 (3)* 45-85 1100-1400
Nylon 2-3.5 60-110 1150
E Glass fibre 70 3500 2540
S Glass fibre 85.5 4600 2480
Carbon fibre (HM) 550 1800 1500
Carbon fibre (HS) 300 2800 1500
Boron fibre 380 3450 2360
Kevlar 130 3600 1440
SiC fibre 480 2070 4090
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Types of Materials
• Let us classify materials according to the way
the atoms are bound together
• Metals: valence electrons are detached from
atoms, and spread in an 'electron sea' that
"glues" the ions together.
Strong, ductile, conduct electricity and heat
well, are shiny if polished.
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Types of Materials
• Semiconductors: the bonding is covalent
(electrons are shared between atoms). Their
electrical properties depend strongly on minute
proportions of contaminants. Examples:
Si, Ge, GaAs.
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Types of Materials
• Ceramics: atoms behave like either positive or
negative ions, and are bound by Coulomb
forces. They are usually combinations of
metals or semiconductors with oxygen,
nitrogen or carbon (oxides, nitrides, and
carbides). Hard, brittle, insulators.
Examples: glass, porcelain.
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Types of Materials
• Polymers: are bound by covalent forces and
also by weak van der Waals forces, and usually
based on C and H. They decompose at
moderate temperatures (100 – 400 °C), and
are lightweight.
Examples: plastics, rubber.
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Metals
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Metals
• Several uses of steel and pressed aluminium.
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Ceramics
• Examples of ceramic materials ranging from
household to high performance combustion
engines which utilize both metals and
ceramics.
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Polymers
• Polymers include “Plastics” and rubber
materials
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Composites
• Polymer composite materials: reinforcing glass
fibers in a polymer matrix.
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Composites
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Semiconductors
• Micro-Electrical- Mechanical Systems
(MEMS)
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Semiconductors
• Si wafer for computer chip devices.
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Material Selection
• Different materials exhibit different crystal
structures and resultant Properties
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Material Selection
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Material Selection
• Different materials exhibit different
microstructures and resultant Properties
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Material Selection
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Material Selection
• Superplastic deformation involves low-stress
sliding along grain boundaries, a complex
process of which material scientists have
limited knowledge and that is a subject of
current investigations.
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Material Selection
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Material Selection
• How do you decide on a specific material for
your application ?
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Material Selection
• Composition, Bonding, Crystal Structure
and Microstructure DEFINE Materials
Properties
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Material Selection
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Future of materials science
• Design of materials having specific desired
characteristicsdirectly from our knowledge of
atomic structure.
• Miniaturization: “Nanostructured" materials,
with microstructure that has length scales
between 1 and 100 nanometers with unusual
properties. Electronic components, materials
for quantum computing.
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Future of materials science
• Smart materials: airplane wings that de-ice
themselves, buildings that stabilize themselves
in earthquakes…
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Future of materials science
• Environment-friendly materials:
biodegradable or photodegradable plastics,
advances in nuclear waste processing, etc.
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Future of materials science
• Learning from Nature: shells and biological
hard tissue can be as strong as the most
advanced laboratory-produced ceramics,
mollusces produce biocompatible adhesives
that we do not know how to reproduce…
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Future of materials science
• Materials for lightweight batteries with high
storage capacities, for turbine blades that can
operate at 2500°C, room-temperature
superconductors? chemical sensors (artificial
nose) of extremely high sensitivity, cotton
shirts that never require ironing…
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Lecture 1
Thank you…
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