Electrical Technology Lecturer: Suroor Moaid 2015

Chapter Three
A.C. Circuits
Introduction
In previous chapter we have considered circuits and networks in which the
current has remained constant, i.e. direct current systems. However, there remains
another type of system – the alternating system – in which the magnitudes of the
voltage and of the current vary in a repetitive manner. Examples of such repetitive
currents are shown in Fig. 3.1.
An alternating quantity is one that regularly acts first in one direction and
then in the opposite direction and do not have constant magnitude with time. Its
magnitude continuously vary with time.

Alternating current can be abbreviated to a.c., hence a system with such an

alternating current is known as an a.c. system. The above curves relating current to
time are known as waveforms.

Generation of an alternating e.m.f.

Fig.3.2 shows a loop AB carried by a spindle DD rotated at a constant speed
in an anticlockwise direction in a uniform magnetic field due to poles NS. The
ends of the loop are brought out to two slip-rings C1 and C2, attached to DD.
Bearing on these rings are carbon brushes E1 and E2, which are connected to an
external resistor R. When the plane of the loop is horizontal, as shown in Fig.
3.3(a), the two sides A and B are moving parallel to the direction of the magnetic
flux; it follows that no flux is being cut and no e.m.f. is being generated in the
loop. Subsequent diagrams in Fig.3.3 show the effects which occur as the coil is
Electrical Technology Lecturer: Suroor Moaid 2015

rotated. In Fig. 3.3(b), the coil sides are cutting the flux and therefore an e.m.f. is
induced in the coil sides. Since the
coil sides are moving in opposite
directions, the e.m.fs act in opposite
directions, as shown by the dot and
cross notation. However, in this case
the e.m.f. which appears at the
brushes is twice that which is induced
in a coil side. Once the coil reaches
the position shown in Fig. 3.3(c), the
rate of cutting reaches a maximum.
Thereafter the e.m.f. falls to zero by
the time the coil has rotated to the
position shown in Fig. 3.3(d).

The induced e.m.f. in the position shown in Fig. 3.3(e) is appear that the diagram is
the same as that of Fig. 3.3(b), but in fact it is side A which bears the cross while
Electrical Technology Lecturer: Suroor Moaid 2015

side B has the dot. This means that the e.m.f. is of the same magnitude but of the
opposite polarity. This observation also applies to Fig. 3.3(f). It follows that the
variation of induced e.m.f. during the second half of the cycle of rotation is the
same in magnitude as during the first half but the polarity of the e.m.f. has
reversed.
It is seen that the induced e.m.f. varies as sine function of the time angle ωt
and when e.m.f. is plotted against time, a curve similar to the one shown in Fig. 3.4
is obtained. This curve is known as sine curve and the e.m.f. which varies in this
manner is known as sinusoidal e.m.f.
The e.m.f. generated in one side of the coil which contains N conductors, is
given by, e = N Bl v sin θ (volt).
Where:
N=Number of coil turns. B=Flux density
(Wb./m2). l=length of coil sides (meters).
v=velocity (metre/second), θ= ωt.
ω=2πf.
f=frequency of rotation of the coil in Hz.
The total e.m.f. generated in loop is
e = 2N Bl v sin θ (volt)……(i)
Electrical Technology Lecturer: Suroor Moaid 2015

Waveform terms and definitions

Waveform. The variation of a quantity such as voltage or current shown on a graph
to a base of time.
Cycle. One complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quantity is
known as cycle.
Period. The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called its
time period T. Fig.3.6. Illustrates a variety of situations in which the cycle and
period have identical values.
Instantaneous value. The magnitude of a waveform at any instant in time.
Instantaneous values are denoted by lower-case symbols such as e, v and i.
Peak value. The maximum instantaneous value measured from its zero value is
known as its peak value.
Peak-to-peak value. The maximum variation between the maximum positive
instantaneous value and the maximum negative instantaneous value is the peak-to-
peak value. For a sinusoidal waveform, this is twice the peak value. The peak-to-
peak value is Epp or Vpp or Ipp.
The relationships between peak value and peak-to-peak value are illustrated in Fig.
3.7.
Electrical Technology Lecturer: Suroor Moaid 2015

Frequency. The number of cycles that occur in 1 second is termed the frequency of
that quantity. Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz). It follows that frequency f is
related to the period T by the relation:

Example1: A coil of 100 turns is rotated at 1500 r/min in a magnetic field having a
uniform density of 0.05 T, the axis of rotation being at right angles to the direction
of the flux. The area per turn is 40 cm2. Calculate
(a) the frequency;
(b) the period;
(c) the maximum value of the generated e.m.f.;
(d) the value of the generated e.m.f. when the coil has rotated through 30° from the
position of zero e.m.f.
Sol:
Electrical Technology Lecturer: Suroor Moaid 2015

Average and r.m.s. values of sinusoidal currents and voltages

If Im is the maximum value of a current which varies sinusoidally as shown in Fig.
3.9(a), the instantaneous value i is represented by: i = Im sinθ. where θ is the angle
in radians from instant of zero current.

The total area enclosed by the current wave over half-cycle is:

Average value=Area under the curve/Base

From expression below, the average value of current over a half-cycle is:

The average heating effect is:[H.W]

Electrical Technology Lecturer: Suroor Moaid 2015

r.m.s. value of a sinusoidal current or voltage is:

Form factor of a sine wave is:

Example2: An alternating voltage has the equation v = 141.4 sin 377t; what are the
values of:
(a) r.m.s. voltage;
(b) frequency;
(c) the instantaneous voltage when t = 3 ms?
Sol:
Electrical Technology Lecturer: Suroor Moaid 2015

Average and r.m.s. values of non-sinusoidal currents and voltages

This can easily be done by considering this example.
Example3: A current has the following steady values in amperes for equal intervals
of time changing instantaneously from one value to the next (Fig. 3.10):
0, 10, 20, 30, 20, 10, 0, −10, −20, −30, −20, −10, 0, etc.
Calculate the r.m.s. value of the current and its form factor.
Sol:
Because of the symmetry
of the waveform, it is only
necessary to calculate the
values over the first half-
cycle.
Electrical Technology Lecturer: Suroor Moaid 2015

A.C. Through Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance

We will now consider the phase angle introduced between an alternating voltage
and current when the circuit contains resistance only, inductance only and
capacitance only. In each case, we will assume that we are given the alternating
voltage of equation e = Em sin ωt and will proceed to find the equation and the
phase of the alternating current produced in each case.
A.C. Through Pure Ohmic Resistance Alone
The circuit is shown in Fig. 3.11. Let the applied voltage be given by the equation.
Circuits and Electronics Lecturer: Suroor Moaid 2015

A.C. Through Pure Inductance Alone

Whenever an alternating voltage is applied to a purely inductive coil, a back e.m.f.
is produced due to the self-inductance of the coil. The back e.m.f., at every step,
opposes the rise or fall of current through the coil. As there is no ohmic voltage
drop, the applied voltage has to overcome this self-induced e.m.f. only. So at every
step

_
Electrical Technology Lecturer: Suroor Moaid 2015

Clearly, the current lags behind the applied voltage by the phase difference
between the two is π/2 with voltage leading. Vectors are shown in Fig. 3.14 where
voltage has been taken along the reference axis. We have seen that Im = Vm/ω L =
Vm/XL. Here ‘ωL’ plays the part of ‘resistance’. It is called the (inductive)
reactance XL of the coil and is given in ohms if L is in henry and ω is in
radian/second.
Now, XL = ω L = 2π f L ohm. It is seen that XL depends directly on frequency of the
voltage. Higher the value of f, greater the reactance offered and vice-versa.
Instantaneous power = vi = VmIm sin ωt.cos ω t= 0.5VmIm sin(2ωt).

A.C. Through Pure Capacitance Alone

Fig.3.16 Fig.3.17
. .

π
= =   =   +
 
Electrical Technology Lecturer: Suroor Moaid 2015

= = =  +π
