Chopter 2 AC Circuits Syllabus: Generation oF alternakng volkage and currents, RMS and Average Value, form Fachor, crest factor, AC through resistance, inductance. and Capacilance , R-L R-C and R-L-c series and Parallel circuits , phasor diagrams , power and power factor 5 Series and Parallel vesonance , Q-Fachor and bandusidth. Synopsis: 22” Inboduction 25 Genevotion of alternating Voltage and current ZB Terms eloted with alterneting quontity 2-4 Values of alternating Voltage YS Form Fachor and peak Factor. \xe Mathemahica] vepresentation. “7 Phasors and current 29 Behaviour of pure induchr in Ac drauk 2:40 Behaviour of pure capacitor in AC Circuit 211 Sevies R-L cirait 2:49 Series R-c cirenit X | P13 Series R-L-c circuit AC parole) circuit 28 Behaviour of Pure resistor in AC circuit. k AC Sevies ¥esonance. “16S AC parole vesonance.27 Review Questions. oe Previous University Questons.24 INTRODUCTION: The dong form of ac is allernaling currenk- What is alternaking in the ac? The answer is both dhe magnitude and dixection of the altemaling current changes: No such changes take place * for Ahe direct current Cdc)- if it i i Direck Current (64) a) Altexoting Current (ac) An, altemetin (aq) quantity (Voltage, current OT power) is defined as the one Which Changes iks value magnitude) as wel] as polanity (Direction) with respect to time- Advantages of ac 4d) The vol Ane help of & Hronsformer- 2. High voltage ac tronsmission is possible ond ecanamical through the use of transformers. - 3. Ac_motors ore simple, cheop ond require less oltention fro maintenance point of View. 4 An ac supply on be easily converted into a de supply. ony touch CEA for the This is Tequired as de is V applicetions such as botteny charging, panting process, Crones ond telephone Systems. \ ‘Due to these advantages , ac is used extensively inthis system can be Taised_or lowered with ‘in practice.t pes of AC Way 1 * A wovefoom is a greph of Hhagnitede, of a quantity With vespecl do dimes The quantity plotted baile X-axis ‘Hime and dhe quantity plotted ‘on the Yraxis is vollage Vani current, power eke The. shape of an ac quanlity such as Current’, vollaqe oF power Need nol: always be o@ sinewave: They can have other Shapes also Such as a “riangular Wave, Square W thapezoidal Waveform. F(t) FW) A ho Fo Sine waveform Triangular waveform. Fe 4 F(t) Square waveform Trapezoidal waveform. Out of all these types of alternatin waveforms , Sinusoidal _wavefrm is considered as basic. “A.C: S Signol-. There are acl es OF Sdleckng Sinusoidal Signo] as shandard A-c signe), Which are. J) Sinusoidal waveforms can be. easily generated. i Any other A-c: signa) Con be expressed as sum of Sevies of sine components. iti) Sum and difference of two si ovefrm is asine Woe . ©) Analysis of Linear electsi ircuits With _ sinusoid a) excifohon is easy, heton tssye When ANE G0il vig? ivi Methi¢o)." posi Kon} ey Fi the wil is cero because the plane of the coil is parallel Fo the direction of the magnehic field: Hence at this position, the * emé induced in He coil is zero. When the coil moves by some angle in the anhclockwise direchon, Hure is arabe OF change of Flux linking the wil and hence an emf is induced in He cil. When the wil Teadhes Ht horizontal position, Hu flux linkl hs coil is maximum, and hence. the emf induced is also maximum When He coil further moves in the onticlockwise direction, ‘the emf induced in Hat wil reduces. Next when the wil comes to the vertical position, tae emf induced beLomes zen. After thak the some. cycle vepeols and +e emf is induced in He oppasite divection. white wil completes one complete revolution, one cycle of AC voltage is generated. The generation of sinusoidal Ac Voltage con olsobe explained} using Mmathemotical equotions. Consider a rectangular wil of N tums placed in a uniform mag nehic field in Hu position Show in the followi fiqure. The maximum Flux linking -Hat ccil isin the downward direction as shown ian Ha figure. This Flux Can be divided inty two component . acting allong the plane of the wil Finay i” wt and another component aching perpendiatar Ap tha plone of the cil dma cos WE:The componen| of Flux acting along the plane of the coil does not induce any Flux in te call. Only Hae component aching Perpendicedar -ho Hae plane of -Hhe coil is enor cos wk induces an emf in the coil: = moe OS wt 2=-N db (Faraday te tans) dt e=-N a ( rma C08 434) @ = -N bina - (cos wk) e- = = N bmaybsin we) © FN Pinay W Sin we @ = Em sinwk Where Em = N bingy 0 Hence an emf induced in the coil is a sinusoidal emf, This will induce a sinusoidal current th Hag cditcuik is sjren by 4= Insin © = Im sin wt = Ty Sin 2mft (w= 2nf) = Ty sin au (Fe)A sinusoidal volte Vv =U sin® = Vm t 2 Vm sin QUpe can be vemesented as aVm sin 2M ib = [23 TERMS RELATED WITH ALTERNATING QUANTITY®| 4. Waveform 2 A waveform is a graph in which the inshantaneous Value of any quantity is plotted against +Hime- 2 Thshantancous Value 2 The value of Ht alternating quantity ata poaticalar instant of Hme is Known as its instontaneous Value, 4. Vj; and Va ave the instantaneous values of olbernalive voltages ak the instants t) and by vespectively Shown in the Following Fig. vt] Vax ta @ (wt) 3: Cycle? A cyde can be defined as each epetition of an alternating quantity. onl ot ade * cyde* ode! Tota) No: cle = Telal No: of cycle = 2 otal Nor of cycle = 34: Time Period (1): The Hme taken by an alternating Quantity to complete it's one cycle is Known as it's tme peated. Tt is denoted by T. Time. Period (1) = Seconds cyde. 5: Frequency (F) (F) 2 The number of cycles completed by on , alternating quantity per second is kaon as it's * Frequehey. If is denoted boy F cycles Second Frequency Ce) = It is measured in cycles/ second or, hertz (Hz). We con say 4+hat the Frequency is reciproca] of the time period. - 1 (ne Fe (Hs) 6- Amplitude or Peak Value: The Moximum value attained by an oltemaking quantity during positive or negotive half cyde is called it amplitude or peak value. vt Amplitide Um = Maximum Value. ° Ce 7. Phase Difference: Tt is defined as the difference behween startin point of wo olternaking quantity of Wo Waveforms.:pVeltages Nw and :.Vg* do. nok shove “the same! shart point so we soy thot there is phase difference behween Them: eis denoted oy 9. Wy Vasin (046) Vo= Yasin v @(ws) ke Phase difference > Both Va and Vg have the same Frequency and same peak Value (Vm): Leading phase difference Vv ° Starting point of this waveform is before Origin, so it is said to ‘ be leading phase difference. bb? OF positive sign of d indicales a teading phase difference. v= Vm Sin ( wk + >) Mar: Value t t Phase difference: Positive indicales Jeading phase. diff. Lagging phase difference, “sf y * Starting point: of this Waveform is after ongin, so it we is said to be lagging phase o - difference. e negative sign of indicates a hogging phase. difference. V = Vm Sin (we - >) Max: value —t [ bP Phase ditFerence.24 VALUES OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT: An allernating volhage or current Varies From instant ‘fo inskank, So the magnitude of an altemoting volkage or Current is expressed by three Ways y namely 4: Peak value: 2. Average value 3. RMS value or Effective Value 4: Peak Value Tt is the maximum value attained by an oltemating quantity. The peak or maximum value of alternating Volbage, Or current is represented by Vin or Tm, 2- Average value. The arithmetical average of all the values of on attemaling quantity over one cycle is called its average, Volue- Average Value = Area _under the curve. Base. dength The Wavefinms can be classified into too types ¢ symmebrica) and unsymmehical waveform. A symmebyica) Waveform has Positive half cyde exactly equa) to the _negokive half ude. TF positive half cycle is nok equal +o the nenative haf aude, then the waveform is Said to be vnsyenmebical. Th case of symmetrical waveform * the ove value rage Over one cycle is zen. Th is becouse, the positive half is exactly equal fo tne nThus, for Symmehical waveforms (-+Ve half = —Ve half) Area oF half cycle Average value = “oa mmereee Base length of haf ace for unsymmetricol wavefowns (+Ve half # -Ve half) Area of full acle Base length of full ayde Average value of sinusoidal waveform Averag e value = The equation of alternating Voltage is given by V=Vmsin for oc ocat The waveRym is symmetrical an Average Value = _ Area of holf cycle Base lengtn of half ade a Vavg = J Vda T T -& J Vm Sing da = TT = Vm J sino da Te =m [- cose)” T ° & ‘ost =-4 = Vm [- cs T+ cs 0] : coso =4 Tr= 7 [-(-) +4] Tv Pray = 0-637 Vm Similarly it con be Proved that for sinusoida) alternaking Current Vowg = 2Vm Fog = 0637 Im S:_RMS Value (Effective Value) The yms value of an alternating current is that value oF current which when Passed Hough oO resistance for ao definite amount oF time produces the same heating effeck as that of D-C- current whieh is possed Hrrough -+Hhe same resistance for the same Period of time. The following simple experiment gives the cleor understanding OF thems value of an alternating current. The experiment arrangement is shown in Following Figure. A damp is provided with double position switch ‘3’ On position @, lamp gets connected to on ac supply. The brightness of Filament is observed. The switch is moved +o position @ and by adjusting cheostale, the de curent adjusted so as dp achieve thesame brightness of the Filement. The ‘veading of the ammeter on de side gives the value of direck current thal produces same healing effeck as thol produced by the alternating urrrent. This ammeter reading is nothing bub vms- value of alternating aurrent. Definition: The ems: value of an Ac current is equal to De current thak is vequired to produce the same amount of heek os produced by Hhe AC current provided thot Hae resishance and +ime for which these currents Flow are identicol: For symmehvical wavefoom, the vms or effectve value Con be Found by considering hal ucle oF full cycle. However, For unsymmedvical waveform, full cytle should be Considered. For symmebyica] Waveform (+Ve half = -Ve half) RMs Volue = | Area of holf/Full cycle oF squared Wave OE es eee Base length of half/ Full cycle. for unsymmetrical Waveform (+Ve holf # -Ve half) RMs Value = Area of full cycle of Squared Wave. oo ed Wave Bose length of ful cycle. RMS velue of Sinusoida} waveform SE Sintsolca} Waveform v Vak-> ar Qn ° Q The equation of altemating equation is given by V= Vmsing Pr 0€0daqThe woveform is symmehvica} v. RMS Volue = | Area oF halP cycle of Squared wove Area of half ajcle of Squared wave Base length of half cycle. 7 Vems = o vido T Squaring on both side- 2 Vers 2. Vems = T i Vn Sin26 do oO =\- 7 : J sina do oO [ (=e } q " " < By Sx yl 8|S> |e a| T T ! do -| css20 do] 3P bls pl< §|% 8| 5 Els — a ° 2 2 - )- ( Saat - se@)) b 2 t 2 Sin27 | sino To | Ww rc a, jeSimilarly , i+ can be proved hak for sinusoidal alternating Current ==, Toms = 0°70] Im | e volue of an Form Fachor [Kp]? The ‘ratio of RMS Value to the Ave altemating quantity is Known as form factor. Tk is denoted by Kp form factor = Res Value _ Average value. Form faclor for an alternating voltage or auvrent, . 0707 Im = tdi Form factor = OTST Vm _ 0°637 Vm 0687 Im Peak Factor [Kp]: The volo of Maximum value to the RMS Value of an adtemaking quantity is known os Peak fachr. It is denoted by Kp: Peak Fachr = Maximum Value RMS Value Peak Factor for an altemating Voltage, Or current, Peak Fackor =_Vm | Im OFT Vm — O07 Im ~ Lay Tt ts also called as Crest factor.26 MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION : Following chart shows the conversion oF one form “fo another for. fai Rectane ngislocr Foam, This conversion is not possible Sinusoidal form ‘ x =Tcos@ a=AmSin (wt +o) Y|) Y =¥sing 2) E staxtmum value Phase difference. Arm = T%]2: a= Phase angle RMs Value Magnitude.Problem An alternating current J is given by is 14t-y sin S3I4k. Find i) The peak value ii) Frequency iii) The -Hme Period iv) The instantaneous value when time is 3 msec. Solution: Comparing the given equation with Standard sinusoidal d= (alg sin 3146 = —+ (Given equahion) iz Imsin (wt+$) + (standord Sinusaidel form) 4] Peak Value = Im= l4l4 A by Frequency =F W = 314 tad/sec w= anf. amf= 314 Fe 314 21 vs F =50Hz. ¢] Time Period = T =! T= -t T= & T=0:02 sec 4] The instantaneous value when time t= 3msec. 4= 141-4 sin (314x3x15 3x 120") T eo To convert radian +o ceqree, multiplying it by 180° plying it by = Ls l4seyProblem 2 An alternating voltage is given by V=I4hq sin 314k, find i) Frequency ii) RMS Value iil) Average value iv) Instantoneous value of voltage when & is 3msec- Solution: Comparing the given equokion with Standard sinusoidal form Vel4rq sin 3I4E = —> (Given equation) V= Vm sin@e+$) > (Standord Sinusoidal form) Moximum value/Peok value = Vm = 1414V al Frequency =f We B14 rad/sec. We amp. 2TF = Sl4 f= oh aT “. Fs 5OHz 5] ams velue: RMS Value = Vems = 0°7°7 Vm =O-707 K lag Vams = 99-98 V gj Average value Average volue = Vavq = 0°637%m = 0637x1414 Vaug = 0-018 y d] Instontaneous Volue OF voltage when L = 3msec. V= 141-4 sin (214 x3x1cx 122) To convert radian to deqree, multiplying it by 180° T V= 14.45VAn allemoting current of Frequency 6oHz has 0. morlmnuen value. of 2A: i) Waite, down the. uation Of the instantaneous value i) Find dhe value of arcrent offer seem ond itl) Find the time slaken lo reach IGA for the Firsh me. Frequency a cunvenk = Tm = 124A sume, x alent point of current waveform ak origin. Tn? bh 7 aN tot: a| “The instantaneous value 1 = Im sin (ut +) =0" (starting point is ak ovigin) f=l2sin wl W=2m1F =97 x60 Wo =120T d= 12sin Goont) b 1 i when b= .od = >) when Bee 8° then 1 = 9 J= 12 sin (t20mx hx '80') 7 te wnvert. radion to degree, multiplying it by 180° = 4210-394 <] when i= 966A, then b=9 3-6 =12-sin (1207) 36 Sz sin (j207t < (120m¢)Sin (2am) OS = Te convert radian to deqree, multiplying ik by 180° ~ J yee OS = Sin (i207 x 180) T 1 3 a =Vm[,//3, 2 % 7 [&C de -J cos e0de) + 0-866" to] y 3 Als v +4 ( [ae- easel a OT, “4 [oly (S24)" JVans = a [ slers-9)- (2 Gs) (2x%6) - sin (249) +oac"[%| + L[ (1-%%) - (eee _ sin to) 2 ’ Ya. [zl %, - sin (2%) ] + 0-266" [ 7] +4[ %-@-0]| -Ve 7 [ 4 (%- 86s ) $ 08662 x 0-523 + £(%)] [ (roar 0433) + 0:8667X 0-523 po78] = ve [ 0-307 + 0-392 + 0-785] = Wn P1yaq Ye [ae] Vans = Vm X 0-472 Vets = 0°68] Vm = Ailis vole _ Yams _ 9-687 Vin Form Factor (Kp) = Avg Volue ~~ Vavg 0-621 Vim form factor (Ke) = 1-106 Peak factor (Kp) = Maximum Value _ VmPayblem & Find The ams valte of the waveform Aven below. 1 ¥ Va OSVay] ~ Solution? The angle ‘a’ al which the inskantaneous value of fhe vollage becomes equal 10 O-SVy is vequived: The angle '@! can be cal culabed QS given below: The skandard sinusoidal firm of the waveform is ‘wen by Pe ye mm sing When YzoO5Vm , then O=9 So, 0-5Vm =Vm sin® oO =sing @= sin! (0-5) Q= M% vad ie. 30° Now, the Voltage waveform is Given as follows. V=0 for ocac ly V=aVmsino for M%; “SM | 2-617 +0°433 se L 26i7 ro-43s] 2 2 Vams = Vii fa, sE [ses] Vams = Vig X 0° 485 Vams = 0° 696 VmProblem 3. find form faclor and crest factor of te following waveform. v Solution? The angle ‘0! at which the inskantaneous volue of Hv. voltage becomes equal to 0°707¥m Is required. The angle ‘@' can be Colculaled as given below: The standard sinuscidal foxm of the waveform is Niven b 3 3 V=Vm Sino When Y=o-T07 Vm » then O=? y So, O'707 Vm = Vm Sind Vmb-—-. 0-107 = sino O= sin! (0-707) © = 45° ie Tt: Now, Hie Voltage waveform is given as follows, V= Vm sing fer o My sy 2 MM amy = Vm (3 do - J wseede) + 0-107? [ 6] + on | 2 ° My L( fac} do-} ws20do ali ae-} } 2,68 Scoops ° -a rn TP sin2e]™ +(e (S].)| All ay = day,“EL (yg [ED e9)) , ore? 27] + 4 ( [7-22] - [== - sin crt) 2 2 =Vm [4 1! 197 2x1, ,(% sinZ ait 5(% 4 + O-To7 Ate 4t i) $ 0°1072X 1-59] 4 1, (0785+ oy u <= 8 [5° -—— p\- Yo 5, (0-285) + 0-493 x1-5] +k (0-78-08 = Vm [ 01425 + 0-783 +0145] am Vims = ki = [1 063] Vos = a x 01699 Voms = O'412 Vm v . RMS Value _ Moms _o-4I2Vm _ Fodor =Kp = “ag Value Vavg 7 0-263Vm, O29) = Max.Voluz _ 0°707Vm Crest factor dor = kp= Max. Value _ = west Factor] Peok fa AMIS Velua > Gryjauge = 78 Mox. Value of wWavefam k 7e7 VV.Problem 10 Find the average value oF given waveform. v Vn |-> 0-S366Vm, Solution: The given waveform is unsymmetrical waveform. The given Waveform is Varying sinusoidally , but if does not Starbak @=0 (ie: Origin) . If we shift the woveform towards ‘the vighl side of the origin and extend 4ill the origin, ib would have been started ab origin: v 3 Time period of half cycle = 0 te T The. angle @ at Which the instantaneous volue of the Voltage becomes equal to O-866Vm is required The angle ‘0! can be Calculated as given below. The stondard sinusolde] fxm of the waveform is given by V=Vm Sing When V= 066m , then O29 0-866 Im = Vmsing 0-866 = sino O= sin! (0-866) “. @=60" je. & red.full = 17-% Base length of cycle % = 27 3 Now, the voltage, waveform is given as follows. V=0 for 0406, V=Vmsing for soot The given Woveforn is unsymmetrical waveform. Averoge valu = Vavg = Area of full cucle Base length of full cycle. f ong = vdo ° T-% 34 Base length = 1-1, = 21 (because, 0 bo % is nob 1% rT Port oF the woveForm) Vawg = 7 j Vdo +h vda 3 4 = ™% T . a3 [odot J Ymsina de] am | o Ts wT = 3m { sino do aT TW, = 3Ym [-cast - (cos %)] . on [-(-) -Cos)] = 3Vm fp. ar US)Problem 11 Find the yms, value of given usaveform ‘4 Imb- 0-866 Im| Solution: The given waveform is symmetrical waveform The given waveform is Varying Sinuseidalty, but if doesnot Storbak @=zo (ive. ovigin) TF we shift +ne waveform towards the aight: side Of the origin. and extend it HIl the origin, it Would have been stored ab origin. a Time period of complete cycle = 0 fo 27 The standard sinusoidal form of the waveform J= Im sino When {= 0-B66Im , then O=9 0-866Im = Imsing is given by 0-866 = Sing @ = sin'( 0-866) ©= 60° ive vod. 3* ata [-¥) -( ea. sin ox") ») = (2) -(0- oet)] oma [ 2094 ~ (-o-4as)] —™ [2.094 40-433] <= 2527] Iams = 0:603 X Im “| Tams = 0'776 Im Problem 42 Delermine the Ts value of Volkage waveform shown below: : : Solution! The given waveform is unsymmebrico waveform By using equohon of tine. YemxtcY-axis > Voltage (V) x-axis -» Hme (t) The dine is passing trough te origin. C =0 Vemt Where m =slope = 4 = Y = 12: J0000 P ea t oo V=loooot for oft J Vide 9° 4 ol 2 * Sor J Coeoct) dt ° ‘Of Ede el = (10000)” (0-01) Oo 6B 2 Vang = 3333-33 Vams = 57-73 V = (loooe)* f “oo ol ° = (Jo000)* 0-0;Problem 13 A Volkoge wave has the varickon shown in the Fallowing figure ) Find the average. ond effective value of the Voltage. ii) TF this voltage is applied to a don vesistance, find the dissipated Power. ’ Solution The given waveform is unsymmebricol waveform. The time period of the wavefrm = 0 to 12 for interval 0-3 By using straight line equation. Y=mxte. Janis —> Voltage (v) x-oxis ~» time (t) Veme (where C=O, because line is passing Slope =m= 2 Fmough the origin ) Voltage. eguolion y= 20 =e for o Voltage (vy) x-axis > time. (t) Veme (where C=0, because Jine is passing Hrough se orain\ | “4Slope =m = Vm % m= 4m a Voltage equation ve Wm, for OCECY, T For intervol %-% We can use same equation, which is used for internal 0-7 % There is no need to calculate another equotion, So multiply by 2 for 43h volkage equation then we will ge tote! area. Average value= Vave = fren oP half cycle . Bose length of half cyte Z \ 2 og = d vde Ya. Ty, Te = 4 2\ J vat + { vate] Ty Te + we Hint JT vdt and § vdt , these two areas are Same. o Ty vy, then calculate. only | oO ‘vat area & mulkply it by 2 3 [adVoug = (> [S- 4]| RMS Value = Vems = ea of half cycle of Squared wave Base length oF half cycle. Vims= Snap © Th 2 Squaring on both Side. “+ | vdeu a|~P g 4 = Pls cc > FG o|2 3 I w]o Pa om Vams = Va Q Vams = 0-333 Vp Vins = 0-577 Vm Problem 15 Find wms and average. value of the Pellousing waveform. y Vn ° TH T =e Soluhon: The given waveform is unsymmebiical . waveform l. Je colalake wms and awerage value, We hae to consider La eurde.Voltawe equahion V Von jor ote My, yoo for Vychar Avy valte = Vayg > Area of full cele ( Base length « r Vavy 2 Vall: “4 { M9. T ” vat + f vat ‘ Ys, | %. T oh [Um dt + joat| | L oO Vy. Ta, Vom fae oO [C59] % (era) Vag = J Veg =0-5Vm RMS Value = Vamg = /Area OF Fall cycle oF Squared wave A Sicte OF Suered Wave: Base length oF ul cycle. Vans = [fee -_‘Squaring on bot side- . T Yams = Lf vtat oO TH: T [! “vat + vat] ° va oat] 2. a|- My =4[ | “um dt + T 6 Th =1 2 + % J at = Vee] St A = Vm To 7 Le * Ma [2] 2 Vis = Vin 2 4 4 pla Vins = 0-SVm Froblem 16 Find the effective volue of the vesullont current ina wire Which carries simultaneously a diveck current of [oh and sinuseldal altemating axrrenk with a peak value of IBA. Solution: Divect Current = lof Altemating Current = IBA. The standard sinusoidal Form of AC = IS sing.The wite carries both current strmultonzatily ~The equahon of the reswlhank current is gin ey h=DctAc 1 =(10+15 sing) This current has unsymmebico) waveform because, it consis} de as well as ac component. _° + So +0 Caluulate = o[-1 i] +aas (on-0) ( a “1 [2° + 300[0] + 228 (an) 2] = [ 2007 + 225 (2)| atm a2 el 2007 + 2251 oT L " 2 = 4257 2m fe = 2125 Problem !7 / Determine the RMS Volue oF Semi-ciruar wave which has Q@ maximum value of ba! Solution: By using equation of cirde. aty> = a> (a= radius)But centre of this semi-cirde is nok of origin. . We have fo shift if towords Wight -. for shifted cirde. (x-a) Hy =a yrs a® (x-a)™ n at [x 20x +a = ob 2% nano [y-axis +Gmott i] [ x-axis > Hime €] ye = 2ax-x> re (2 = gat—t2 The given waveform is unsymmetical waveform, Tyms = Area of Full ade of squard wave. Base Length of Full cycle. Toms = | J7*i2 de oS Qa Squaring on both side 2a Ha ey J Gabel 20 20 [ J seb dt - f eat] oO oO 2a 3720 as e7 -[& 20 [»=[ I, La]. | * al(¥-4)-(F-3]] [Iyms = 08160 Amp 2:7 PHASORS: An alternating quantity can be Tepresented using 1) Waveform ii) Equations. iii) Phasor A sinusoide) olternohing quoatity Can be represented by a rohoking Nine called a phasor. A phasor is a Une of definite len rokating iW anticlockwise divecton ak © constant angular Woocity The sinusoidal quantity as. shown in following Figure cen also be ‘represented using phasors. a 1 =Imsinwk. Draw a line oP oF engin equal to Tim: This Line op rotates in tre anticlockwise direction with o. uniform angular Velocity W vad|sec. and follows the Civalor Trajectory as shown in the figure.At any inshant, ne projection of op on the Yoaxis is geen by OM =OPsin® = Imsinwk- Hence He Line op is the phasor ‘vepresentalion of Hw sinusocida! current. Phase difference. wt a When two alternating quantities of the same Frequoncy have different zen points, Heyy dre said to have a phase difference: Te angle behween the zero potas is the angle of phase difference. In Phase Two Waveforms are said te be in Phase, when Hr phase difference behween then is ero. That ts dhe zen points oF oth. 4s waveforms are some: Vn pI V = Vinsin wk Im f : . o d= In sinwt oO we Im Venbagging. Tn dhe following figure shown, the ze point of dhe cunent waveform is after lhe zerw point of the Volbage Wavefoom. Hence the current is lagqing behind fhe vol kage The wavefom, phasor and equation ‘representation is as shown. Waveform Phasoy V = Vm Sin wt n 12 Im sin (wt -$) equahions Leading In +he fellousing Figure sShousn, the zero point of the current wavefirm is before the zero point oF the volkage Waveform. Hence the current is leading He volhage. The waveform Phosor and equation representation is as shown. Waveform Phasor Y=Vmsin wk 42Im sin (wk +) \ equationsPavblem 18 Find the vesultant of the following & = 25 sin wk e, = 10 sin (wt + T%) u 2. = 30 cos wh €s, = Gy = 20 sin (wk-T%,) Drw all Prasors Solution: aie the chandard sinusoidal forms of the given quantities, = 25 sinwt = 25 sin wb a to sin (wt tT) = lo sin (wt +30) €3= Bo sin (WE+T,)=a0sin (wtt30): [es 0 = sin (ox) &y = 20 sin( we-Mh,) = 20 sin (wt-45") Converting the standard sinusoidal forms into polar forms, Lek the vesullant is €g eRe B+ et et e e=(Bco)+ (Reo) +(22 so!) +(22 c-45) eR = 33-80| pleas Ep = 36-878¢ 2357°Converting polar fom of Resulhant into standard Sinusoidal firm, eg = 36-873x/B sin (wt+ 23.57') eg = 5215 sin (wt +2357") Phasor diagrom e232 3 we _ 10 aac n= 36-878 = S215 7 WE e228 2 €,= 20 ‘ Problem 19 Th a circuit four cuvrests ave meeting at a point, find +he resultant current. ie 5 sinwt iy = to sin (wt -30°) i, = -5 ws (wt-30') dy = -10 sin (wk +459) Sablon? ssining the standard sinussidel foom of He given quantities, L, = 5 sinwt i, = 10 sin(wt -30°) 4 = 5 sin (ust-30~ 30°) [x cee ly= lo sin (we +45°+1280°) ~sin@ = sin(o+T)Converting standard sinusoidal form into polar form. y= ESO i = 10 ¢-30° E ig = & &-120° or y= 1 cons Ez Let the resullant current is Ig ig . i * it igt y Ta= (2 co) + 2 (-s0/)+ 3 ca) +(B cass] (Ee) +(E a Ta ig = 2-83) = 11-597 ik = 1h9522-76° Converting polar form of resulkant into shandard sinusoidal fom, dg = -952%42 sin (wt-76°) ig = 16-3 sin (wt-76*) Phaser diagram * Positive angle count in anticlockwise direction. *Negalive ongleProblem 20 The vol tag} t y yy = 60 sin (we + %) je drops across four Sevies connected impedances are Y= 75 sin (we - 37) Va, = 100 cos (we +7%,) Vy = Varsin (WE + by) Caluote the value oF Vym and by if the voltage applied across the Series circuit is 140 sin (wk + =). Solution? Let the four series conneched impedances are % , z,,%, and % The applied voltage is Vr = Wo sin (wt+ 3m). Ss The Voltage drops acmss the impedances ave Vj,V2,Vg and Wy x4 2 2 2 Vk, AH, ke Vy Vr Waiting Shondard sinusoidal form of given quantities. Vy, = 6osin (we+™],) = 60 Sin (wt +30") Y2= 75 sin (wk - 51) = 15 sin (wt - 150") 6 Va = loo sin (wt + +7) = t00 sin (wb +135") Vy = Vym sin (we + $4) VT = 140 sin (wk 4 at) = 140 sin (wt +108") Converting Standard sinusoidal form into polar form, We BS 20° Y= Co Ya S18 C150" _ : 2 Vp = 140 Grog _ T= He gy qe Vgm = 80-785 by = 53-96" Uaiting into standard sinusoidal form. Vq = 80-785 sin (wt +59-36°) Problem 21 four wires P,q.T,S are connected +o a common point. The currents in tines p,q and ¥ are 6 sin(we+ Z), Seas (e+ F) and 3 cos (wt +) vespechvely. Find the current in wire s. Solukon: Acconding to Ket Sum of incoming Current = Sum of 0 ouqeng Current int dat dy = dg .Waiting sstandant sinusoidal form of given quantities. ip = 6sin (vot + 12) = 6 sin (wk +60) 2 =3 Sin (E+E + 1) : iy 25 sin(wlt It %) = 5sin (wt +150) 3 sin (wt +150") Converting ‘the standard sinusoidal form into polar form. ~~ ¢ . “ = C6 {2 ‘ Ete, = 425 — | (3) Adding equakions (1) and (2) EP+ E+ 26,6, cosa +e; + ED - 2E,E, cos = 1689.21 + 306-95 2ep+oe? = 1996-16 2 (eres) = 1396-16 E2+E5 = 998-08 From equation (3) E, = 42-5-E 1806-25- 856, +e, +E = 998-08 2E)'- 856, +1806-25 = gag-og 26 85,4 808-17 = 5: Solving equokion (4) E,= 2814 V) Or E,=1436 put it in equation (3) B= 1436 V or -B, = 2814) Subbracting equation (2) From equolion (4) (Ef+ ek+ 2e¢, cose’) ~ (EP + ER 26,6, cas) = 1689-21 - 306-95 EP Ep + 266, cos - ERES+ DEE, cosK = 1382-26 SEE, SK = 1382.26 4X14-36X 23:14 wsK = 1382-26 Cos K = 1382-26 1616-3616 WSK = 0-855 % = 31-24° Problem 23 Two Voltage Sources have equal emfs and a phase difference %- When they are connected in series, the volta. e@ is 2oov. When one source is reversed, the Voltage is IS5v. Find their emfs and phase angle ol Solution: E, = & = |0056-25 E = [00-28 ) put iF in equation (4) 26% +2E7wsK = 4oooo 2 x(loo-28)* + 2x (100-28)* cos = 40000 Dollewst 2oli2-5 cosX = 4oooo Cos X = 0-988 Ki B58" >2B BEHAVIOUR OF PURE RESISTOR IN AC CIRCUIT: Circuit diagram : Consider a pure resistor R connected across an alternaling Voltage Source Vas shown in the Fellowing Figure- R v Let the altemating voltage y= Vmsinwk ---~_ 4) Current _equation : The alemating current i is given by, i= . Vm sinwk Comparing equation (2) with sbandard sinusoidal form of the oltenating current i= Im sin(wk+$). -— (standoml Sinusoidal firm) Im = ‘e & peot (Im is maximum value of an alternating current’) Waveform : From waveform it is clear that the starting point oF both waveform Is same ie. the current is in phase “with tie Voltage ina pure. resistive circult-SANT IS AUOIYAMSS 2-8 : HN AgTe Converting Shondord Sinusoidal forms of volkage ond Current into te polor fowms.- from equation (1) and (2) Y= VmSinwt ——+ V2YM cor 2 Vor d= Vm t ——— 2 = . - zee i= Ym got = 1K0" R RE Ms vol = Nm V=Ri tage Vm T= RMS conent = ta: % Az Riz ———_—_>——> y= Vn gp=in. Vi v 2 fe Re Phaser diagram Th is the vesistonce offered to the Flow of current Impedance + in ac circuit: In pure vesisHve circuit. z=. Vela | Nm t Tm (2. Im. Buk I= Ym R : _ Vm , Vm/g Z=aRPhage; difference t4y 46 "From waveform iis clear that voltage and carrrent are in phase with each other, phase difference is zero. p20 Power factor : Th is defined as the cosine of the angle behween volkage. and currant phasor. Power Factor = wos > cos = L (Unity power Factor) n Power * Thstantaneous power pave P= Vmsin wt- Im sinwt = Vm Im sin*wt = Vm Im (ces eet 2 = Vmt P mim _ Yeim coe owe 2 2 The power consist of constant part Yoni ond fluchuating wt Vm Ty Pa a= ws cos awk - The Frequency of Pucotng power is twice the applied voltage Frequency and its average value over one complete oye is zero. Average Power P= Ymim _ Vin Im = Vv. ‘ og IT 2 v2 Jz Thus power ino pure resistive crak is equal to tht product of RMS values of voltage and currenk.[2-9 BEHAVIOUR OF PURE INDUCTOR IN AC CIRCUTT: Cireit diagram : Consider a pure inductor L connected across an alternating volkage. Vv as shown in the following figure. L v Ler the alternating voltage V= Vmsin wk ..--- (4) Current_equation : The Voltage across inductor is giver by vel ab dk Vdt =Ldi Integrating on both side. t=! vdt ft al = k j Vm-sin wt dt is Mm (- ws wt) wl -cos @= Sin o-¥)] A = Vm sin (wt-T) ween Q) [: ( 4) wLe Comporing equotion (2) with the standard sinusoidal form oF He olterneling Gatrenk. ‘d= Imsin(wt+¢) ---- (Standard sinuscidal form) From wovefiam ik is clear that the starting point of current is, ofter Starling point of veg. ise current logs behind volhaqe by go" in @ pure inductive chreuit- Phasor diagram : Converting Stondard sinusoidal forms of velkage and current into Hue polar forms From equeHon (4) and (2) Vv =Vmsin wk ——+ V= ao = vdoe 2 is Ven sim (wt -30") —+ j= Wm gogo" = T<-90° we whe V = RMS Volkage = Vim va T=RMS cent = om - _ YmImpedance. vo. Vai - Nm Zs wh The quantity wl is called induchve reackance and ib is dlenoted by XL and is expressed in ohms. Xs wh (= 27p) for de supply fF 50 ‘ Xp=0 Thus inductor acks as a shork circuit for de Supply. Phase difference: Th is He angle behween volkage and current phasor. > = 30° ower Factor 2 pF = ws > = wos 30° =0 fiwer? Trsbantancow fowor Pevu = Vinsin we» Im sim (wt-") ' = -VmIm sinwt coswk = —VmIm si P - Sin gut The average power for one Complete cycle, P=0 Hence Power consumed by an nuns “mdiehce2:10 BEHAVIOUR OF PURE CAPACITOR IN AC CIRCUT Circuit diagram ; Consider a pure capacitor Cc connected across an oltemaling Voltage Source Vas shown in the Following Figure. : c : if v Let the alternating voltage V=Vmsinwk _____ (4) Current _equetion: The current Hough capacitor is given by > ized de © d_(Vm-sin wt) at CV¥m A (sin wet) de . CVm- Cos wt uw " WCVm cos wt [as ® = sin(o+% %] . Ven «i 7 4 = wevm sin (we+%) ay Comparing equakion (2) with the ston of the alternohing current. de Im sin (wt +>) dard sinusoidal form ---(Standerd sinusoidal form) Im= CVn — and >= he go°