jrect current. Me fing current (the ony San aera oe gn rama nan ges ernating Current Fundam be Pre gnorator apps direct : * a 0,0 2a : rato anater This chapter discusses the following topics : 1. Basic differences bety current iterna\ o ing cu 2 Generate, nat an alternating rect current and alee, an be Ectangular coll abot 2 Mechenism of generation of aitemating emf fo Cherscteristics of ac qusntitios 4. Concepis of average valu of an ac o effective for RMS)vete S Concepts of absolute phase, and phase difference. Phasor representation of aerating quantities 2 Methemeticel representation of phasors. » Adtitionely, mathematical operations ite addltin subtraction, mutiplicstion and oi iision of phasors are expleined with sutable examples an i ilustravions180 Electncal Sciences Consider a rectangular coil ABCD. sca ous ia techie ay pieces N and S, =o. Th Bae ae ‘and CD are joined to copper slip rings s, ands, Nat 8 sic at. wen he co is rate wi esto ang min so that the ord Bis avays im oc Sto! imu neous Vale Oe ing BL V= Ey we Got ! Sand te end Dis always in contact with S,. There fi a arian sin @ OF tes 8, ad BB, vay oresingagug mi | ly aaaene)T spabet, 4 avon for an aerating 4 | escon er Leta resistor Abe be comectes between brushes 8 ng | 8 nia a ie. Ey is alternating emf. 18. Ey termed as peak value or amplitude. é; The graph obtained by plotting the instantaneous values of the e.m.f. against angle @, is as shown. It is Let col ABCD be rotated at constant angua vty Some istart ltit be assumed that col side AB is unger ak ‘ole, and col side CD is under the S pole. Since the two-seat ove under te poles, they cut ares nes of magnetic net hance emis develop in them. The direcions of ese nt Sf as shown in fig. 4.(a) is seen that, n te ental | rei, resstor A, a current flows trom B, fo B, hie an fvident that troughout te hal evolution when AB i underte "Wave form. 'N pole, CD would be under the S pole, and hence the directions termed ofthe ems induced in AB and CD, and the direction of ees 12 since e = sin, the wave flow through R would remain unchanged, aan is tormed as a sine wave. Afier hall-revolution of the coil is over, coil side AB would v0 ‘g ome under S pole, and col side CO would come under N pola nding ‘The directions of the induced em4's in AB and CD are now corer ox radians). ‘one {ull revolution of the coil, @ varies from Imad shown Aso, Seen ta, the cure | 909010 MSere 6 «0 and O= 3 wate rough 8 now flows trom B, and 8, is positive i aN g = mand @ = 2m, Tres, cn fot ation tte calm the magnate fo, | wah ase of 9 DOIN The rang. ems and curents are induced inthe two coll sides, | e's negative oe nando =2n for @ = 0, fr Gol BBCD thus acts as an AC. generator, in conjunction wih | Mune re Boles, the sip rings and the brushes, and it cay diciver an iterating current to the external load ehcan Cycle = positive and negative, (ne complete set of values of @, both mL. is given by E = tamically Indu ‘one complete rotation of i, "8.1 and V are constant, then we have, E = sin ¢ {wo half cycles, one positive and the other negative. — pat ia s182 Electncel Sciences Frequency : ‘The number of cycles per second is termed ag tts unit is “Hert, Frequency is usualy denote Wt the recangular col makes N revolitensg” bald ‘frequency of the induced em. f= N Hz. Period ‘one full cycle. itis denoted as T. Evidenty, T=} Other forms of the emf. equation : We have, e = E_ sine ———— (1) Ui the rectangular coil is rotted with an angular ve radians’ {adanatec, andes be ange moved tough ime t,wetag t e=Esnet Let f= frequency of the induced emt. in He We have, frequency = numberof cies see of revclasons ofthe eo Each revolution = 2x meee seme peace Angular vec. c= Ze asare'see ‘Substituting this value. we have i — 2 e=E_sn ant & Putting = 1/7. we have, o£, sin i ame Hence the basic emt. equation may be writen as Ris the te required ty the aerating ’ quantity ty, ey uation is e = 200 sin S14t oe ‘emi. &% ees yas equation @ =, sn 2 We Peresing is wih ,, = 200 Volts. 3 300 sec. we get. ee a x 120) ne ange no ste Seproceed in OgFEES He ees Fogo x 50» 1200), pati = = A Topo sn 80 L200 Volts .as a peak value of 1414. Az Anatternating current h Write down the its frequency is 100 Hz. txpression for the current. Solution : Gren /, = 161.4 A and f = 100 HZ. ‘Te basic equation is = /= J, sin 2xft 141.4 sin(2x x 100 xt) ot [= tata on O2E184 Electrical Coences 4-3 Average and effective v: ing current : Since the instantaneous value of an aon changes every instant, methods ara devised 1 Quantity. Thus an alternating current or vol characterised by ts average and ellectva valwos Peak value aluen of a, Altern tng ay UY dey age fas "in (A) Average Value : Tore alternating cx OF ay, by that value of 4 te which tansters gent givon sooty Mn onductortn ur tt ‘same amount of charyn would bo ranatt erect a “i Pigas passed through the samy ‘conductor, Consider the a.c. J = Jy sin. Its wave torn is a8 chown, Since it is @ symmetrical Wave, wo need consider only a haf 29Cle, while determining the average value, Let the time-base be divided into a large number of equal intervals, say, n. The mid-ordinates at these small intorvala ve rawn, These represent the instantaneous currents, Let i. by ay oy b6 the instantaneous currents, We have, average value of the a.c. = mean of th currents. OF yp litle tattle From the form of the expression for |, wo have AO Vondarnariae 18S Mig sin ye !n{-con oy in pom xe 0} ‘ate tho avrnge vale lo 63.7% of tho peak value cs ve Value (or IMLS, Value) + 7 ect i olan aerating ens ion By Bat re ttn cas sare ag al ea unfair coe eae that value of a steady ‘current to paced through a reslator fora definite Intoral one of time produces the same amount of heat, a8 the , given a.c, would produce, then passed through the same resistor, for the same pertod of time > It is also called RMS. value Consider the alternating current =i shown a gueintervals: ‘in one cycle Freel Ue 10 yy fy @8Ch Hlowing through the regi sec. We have Heat developed due to current i, = 1,” A7/nJ calories, ATIndJ caloties, Heat developed due to current i, Heat developed due fe to current /, Total heat developed in time T. or Hal Poite Consider a steady, ditect current / which produces the same ‘amount of heat H. in the same interval T, when passed through the resistor A. By detiniion, / should denote the effective value a 7] igat 2 ps 7 AT. J the current /= J, sin ¢, We have ‘Heat developed by current = ? ATIJ calories - From (1) and (2), we get J BAT _AT(,2 ad 2 2 +i. “) nd +2) tin) Let pipe Be Be instantaneous currents steered bye midernates et ne gr fasced trough aressor Its lar that he oa Tree, i given as the um of he cei ATinJ calories, ing AT we amount ito er, (i) In 0.707 Im. on simplification. le value, (= 22 20.707 Im RMS. vale, = ‘ that's he AMS. value 1s 70.7% of the peak value 44.1 Form Factor : ‘attemating quantity. For a pure sine wave, we have =188 Bectrce! Sciences tm V2 ereter ai? Tov Im! (812) Hence he RMS. valve le 1.17 times the averagy 44.2 Peak factor : = tis also termed as ‘Crest factor. Peak factor is defined as the ratio of the peas. RMS. value of an alternating quantity. vale toy, laxmum or Peak valve (or RMS vee For a pure sine wave YAMS. value RMS. value 22 or 1414 ut Peak tactor Peak factor Examples : 4.3 An alternating voltage has an amplitude of 100v. @) RILS. value (ii) Average value. oo Solution : ie fy sin 2aft 2 Boos sinlax x 25% 9 oy [ep eeaee sin ISTE 3 We have hase difference = © RMS. value £ -En eos 2 i =0.707 Ep | Given E,, = 106v. ene ,anet £=0.707 » 100 = 707 Vote a ©) Average valve Ey 0.657 Ey, 0.657100 Rigen =637 Volts By the absolute phase of an alternating Instant is meant the time that has already quantity last passed through zero in the positivecoment ) Gispositions of the coils. Thus. # there, he rete Geos Gal moe ch ts nae aa is induced © them woud aban Mer poste EEE valves at fe same fs:ert The emtis are genet ‘in phase. ie Thus in the figure, emt's ©, £73 6, are i ohase Consiger wo cots P ans O sus mat coi O's ws oll P by angie ‘a I te tes cous we contac wan gee ay ne sore Seocton ns uncom mage gat a Eaieee tet fe om! rr col Q wand onan oe Fete rates cree carbene es | pean a8 = 0 Sly Stared ts posthe macvur ieve Tmt ee va rr Ya! between the two instars. Ths s ev~e7 2s phase ditengg ‘and the emi. ‘e," in coil C is szid to lag behind emt, woe erg | F Pye pores 25 S70 Mathematically the e.m.t's are ex fp= Epa 80 205 4 = Egy S10 - ©) neem Ee tt e.=,. 88 (6-2)‘same time a3 required by the complete one cycle, and (ix) The phasor must lie horizontal, along the when the alternating quantity represents le pasairenes te s, sin 6. bby 2 rolating phasor ike OP. sen, and a length OP = Eis a ‘axis, and Is rotated ne plates one full revluten ‘emt. By projecting the 1g the projection, the instant Le. for any desied A suitable voltage scale is cho Off. OP is laid along OX. the anticlockwise direction, such ‘rat in time equal to the perc) For example, when o OP, is the position of the pha Let OM = projection of OP, on the Y-axis complete erating pea ants ne om otner insta e ‘efoP onthe Y-axis, at the '0°, the projection on the Y- Jelinstantaneous value is Zero, in the expression © = E,, drawing phasor ea ipered that if phasors are d tonic ee cake a 5 veous values: ae im of the five emnt’s | Ban lps sum of Tint | gx 10 sin(at + 30) 15 c08 at 1 sinfot - 60) and gz 25 cosfot + 1207. | apis ine resultant in the form @ = sin (at + y) ‘euen Fit method : tetae, esulant 0.4. 0= 8, + 6+ 6+ 6,405 20 sin wf = 10)sin wf cos 30° + cos we sin Si +15 c08 wt + 10[sin a cos 60° ~ cos wf | 4 2528 ot os 120° = sn ot sin $205] = 1201 sin wt ~ 1.16 08 at on simpliicalion, = 1207(12.01/12.07) sin wt ~ 12.07(1.16/12.07) €the emis are represented by phasor is obtained, either graphically or = 10 sin(wt + 90°) a ious ard cumbersome =15c08ot eco tee mi a Veh = 15 sin(ot + 90") id eer, we usual practicg is to - ¥ i tng alternating quantities ella on fet Ses using rues rte, @5 = 25 cos(at + 120° Fig. 4.1 “an ve expressed mathematically in tie 225 sin(ot + 210) es far form (or complex of | notatlon) “The exis are represented by phasors OA, OB, OC OD arg | [OE as shown, taking OA = E, (max. value ) a5 the releren, ‘x component of the resultant phasor = 20 + 10 cos 20° + 0 + 10 cos 60° ~ 25 cos 20" = 1201. 'y- component of the resultant phasor 10+ 10 sin G0 + 15 ~ 10 sin 60° ~ 25 sin 30° rie Rectangular form oF 'f notatlon = In this notation, escrbed in tums A ‘and vertical ‘Magnitude of the resultant phasor Consider the in the fi . Rane in te Soe =1207 phasor, and let @ be the ‘Angle made by the resultant phasor with OX Fig 42 by the phasor with fe axis OK = (ze +8) fasoling OP into its components, we have : i 4,= A 008 @, the x component, and a, = A mos ‘omponent ”that Je rz 7 i The Trigerometric form : lierae prasor OP = 2, + ja, in the comple fo ta, =A cos 0, and &=Asing. trom fig. 4.12 Presor OP = A ccs @ #/ sino or [OF = A(cos 0+ jsing)] x ‘Tis scaled trigonometric form.‘ealed exponential form ican be shown that e” = cos 0 - jsing A the ph OP. Its ee oe as[OP =A 20 8 calles polar form TE yc ayricictomampall ee ores ee See =A Exponential form "Express the phasor 10 + /15 in all other forms. = 10+ 15 ..... Complex form = Vt0? +15? =18.02. | | tion and Subtraction : 48 Aditi form of representing phasors i con Brians subtraction operations. To add the phasors, the real parts are added and | te maginary parts are added. Thus KsB= (ay + bs) + Hao + Be) C, another phasor. Examples : 49 Add the phasors 3 + /4 and 8 - j10, and fn the polar form. Solation : WR «34M and 5 = 8-10the phasors 10 + /15 and 25 260° ang, ithe compies 107m. ore Fa 10+ 15 and 6 = 25.260" B inthe complex form, B = 25(C08 60° + sin gpy 125 + 21.65. AeB = (10 + /15) + (12.5 + 21.65) = 225 + P65. (i) Subtraction : ‘Subtraction is similar to addition, in that the real pars ‘imaginary paris are considered separately. < Examples : 411 Let it be required to subtract A= 25-30 tom B= 204/25. Solution We have B-A-= (20+ 25) (25 -j20) =(20-25)+ j(25 +30) 5 +55. 4.12 Subtract 15 45° from 20 230° Solution : The phasors are fst expressed in the complex form. We have : , 15 245° = 106 + /106, and = A.2® in the exponential form. ppd 58402 =a.e® in the exponential fem. soba. BX (ae™) (ae*) pelle) op [RXB=ABZlo; +00) in the polar form. tre magnitudes are mulplies and the angles a Example : 413 Multiply 5 + j8 and 6 - j10. Solution : 9.439 258°, and Weave, 5+ A 6 — /0 = 11.662 2-59" 5 (9.439 258°) x (11.662 2-59") = (9.499 11.662), 110.08. 21%, xe (i) Division oe Let K=Az9, andExample 414 Divide 20 + /10 by 15.<45* Lat K=20+/10=22.961 226.57", and Dividing A by B, we get A _ 22.361 226.57" = 22:36! /(26.57°-45") = 1491 2-18.43" (1.415 -]0.471) in the complex form. 0 0!" and 3191 a port 7-727: pata so)* (2071+ S727) 2 ANOT g oT 5-727 F6.524 £72.19". g-100 210 2-60"= p=15-/28 229.155 2- 58°. (15-125) (8.66 +25) 5 /8.68. g-5-6-/0.8) ne-19)/ Sos /16.84 pans? 212047" (i+8)6 _ (16.524 272.19") (10 2-60") eae” 8197 Z12Lar)(6 278 = 1.078 2184.34". Additional Worked Examples 416 An alternating current varying sinuso frequency of 50Hz has R.M.S. value of 208. Write equation for the instantaneous value and find this vi a002ssec. (b) 0.01258ec, after passing through @ ‘maximum value, (c) At what time, measured from a | ‘maximum value, will the instantaneous current be 14nx 50 2314.16 can be expressed mathematically ag : jo 75.2083 sin 314.16! equred forte cont is 2700 stv rela of periodic time = 1/41 ire! a= (025 + 0005) = 00075 sec flr Pag ng Jer, the instantaneous valve is given as : 14 x50) = 0.008 “a positive | = fy Saf) xis SF seie x 180 x ft, it = isin degrees. = 262843 sin(2 x 180 x 50 x 0.0075) ‘= 28.2643 sin 135° ve (Q)A t= 00125 sc. ator passing through « posive maxing fe when t, = 00125 + 0.005 17S sec, 5.2848 si(2 x 180 x £0 x 0.0175) 28.2643 sin 315" -20A. (9 Gwen j= 14.16 A: to find *t We have 14.14 = 28.2649 sin2 x 180 x 50 x 1) Of 14:14 = 28.203 sin 160001 or sin 18000f = 14.14/26.2843 = 0.5 2 180001 = sin" 05 = 30 or 150. in radians, and Pon = 75V in magnitude. Letit be assumed that Vac rading voltage 28 Shown. isthe le Vgg and resultant of yz Ve itis seen that it makes an angle a with Vac we rave X component of Vac = Vag + Vac 605 60® = 50 + 75 cos 60° 50 + 37.5 = 87.5 Volts. 0 + Vgg sin 60° = 75 x 0,866 = 64.95 Volts. Magnitude of Vac = V87.5* +64.95* = 108.97 Volts. Angle made by Va, wih the reference axis AX =r (23). a5) lags behind Vag by angle a = 60° ~ 96 = 23.418 Yeomponent of Vac 6.586".88 j,i, and Gand let denote the ‘otal current. We have i= i, +i, + i. the algebraic ‘sum. Given : /= 25 sin 6, i, = 10(8in 8 + 30°) and = 5 sing h=i-,-h =) = 25 sin @ ~ 10(sin © + 30") ~ 5 sin(® 25 sin © — 10{sin ® cos 30° + cos 8 singo" = Sfsin 8 cos 60° — cos @ sin 60°] = 1884 sin @ ~ 0.87 cos 6, on simplification A Pi 416% 13.84 ) (_o.e7 FT 13.8562 sin 6-| (ress) . (roses = 19.8562[sin 8 cos a - cos @ sin a) fori, = 13,8562 sin(@ — a), where a = tan (0.67/19.64) = 27m «The other branch current is 13.8652 sin(® ~ 2.773) 4.19 Two electric devices A and 8 are connected in pera, The RMS. current in A is 154. f the current in B lags behing the current in A by 60° and the total current is 23.448, find te (Bangalore, Feb, 1988) ‘current in B. Solution : Given current in A, 1, = 154, (Current in B, J, lags behind J, by 60°. Also, total current |= J, + I 23.48 The phasor diagram is as shown Since J, is not known in magnitude land 1'is not known in phase (a) two simultaneous equations ‘connecting them are needed. * - this quacral sl gat vate, we we: te 1.963 A in magnitude. eect ' ee this value of fy in (2) we get na a= 262788" fine etal current lags behind /, by 26.2784". check 1,2 15A and Jp = 11.963 2-60 4 520° + 11.963 £-60° 2 (15 +P) + (6.9815 - /10.96) 20.9815 - /10.98, 3.4 2-26.276" in polar form. tly 4/2, B=10-/20 and C=15-j15, 4000 A {nd (i) AvB (11) AB a 53.5 v) A+ = (ORG ‘equation are 11.963 and -26.96. 825205 £218 [20% 22 261 2-63.43" arg 15-15 = 21213 2-45" (5+ /2) + (10 ~ (20) “n15- /18= 23.431 2-50.19" potar tag, (5.985 2218") (22.961 2-63 43 120.416 24163" += 90-80 in complex form B 120.414 2-163 Bes Bas =5:1991 28.56" 082 + 0.765 in corpiex notation eae 01s a.50 = 0.1926 ~ 0.029, B Sms ae BHI =0.1057 2-218 +0447 20 = (0.1726 0.069) + (0 =0.1924~0.029 (22.9612 ~ 63.43") (21212 - 45°) 474.3442 ~108.43° ~