Single Phase

AC Circuits
D R . N A G E S W A R A R A O. AT YA M
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

The voltages in a.c. system can be raised or lowered with the help of
a device called transformer. In d.c. system, raising and lowering of
voltages is not so easy.
Advantages of
Ac over DC
As the voltages can be raised, electrical transmission at high voltages
is possible. Now, higher the voltage, lesser is the current flowing
through transmission line. Less the current, lesser are the copper
losses and lesser is the conducting material required. This makes a.c.
transmission always economical and efficient.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

It is possible to build up high a.c. voltage with the help of high speed a.c.
generators whose cost is very low.

A.C. electrical motors are simple in construction, are cheaper and require
less attention from maintenance point of view.

Con… Whenever it is necessary, a.c. supply can be easily converted to obtain d.c.
supply.

Due to these advantages, a.c. is used extensively in practice and hence, it

is necessary to study a.c. fundamentals.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Advantages of Purely Sinusoidal Waveform

Mathematically, it is very easy to write the equations for purely sinusoidal waveform.

Any other type of complex waveform can be resolved into a series of sine or cosine waves of fundamental
and higher frequencies. Sum of all these waves gives the original waveform.

The sine and cosine waves are the only waves which can pass through linear circuits containing resistance,
inductance and capacitance without distortion. In case of other waveforms, there is a possibility of
distortion.

The integration and derivative of a sinusoidal function is again a sinusoidal function. This makes the analysis
of linear electrical networks with sinusoidal inputs, very easy.

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 Generation of A.C. Voltage
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• The basic principle of an a.c. generation is the principle of electromagnetic induction. The sine
wave is generated according to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.

• An alternator produces a sine wave, called single turn or single loop alternator.

• It consists of a permanent magnet having two poles. A single turn rectangular coil is kept in the
vicinity of the permanent magnet.

• The coil is made up of two conductors namely a-b and c-d. Such two conductors are connected at
one end to form a coil. The coil is so placed that it can be rotated about its own axis.

• The remaining two ends C1 and C2 of the coil are connected to the rings mounted on the shaft
called slip rings. Slip rings are also rotating members of the alternator.

• The two brushes P and Q are resting on the slip rings. The brushes are stationary and just making
contact with the slip rings.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Working
• The coil is rotated in anticlockwise direction. While rotating, the conductors ”ab”
and “cd” cut the lines of flux of the permanent magnet.

• Due to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, an e.m.f. gets induced in the

conductors.

• This e.m.f. drives a current through resistance R connected across the brushes P
and Q.

• The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. depends on the position of the coil in the
magnetic field.

• Consider different instants and the different positions of the coil.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Instant 1
Let the initial position of the coil be as shown in the Fig.. The
plane of the coil is perpendicular to the direction of the
magnetic field. The instantaneous component of velocity of
conductors ab and cd, is parallel to the magnetic field as
shown and there cannot be the cutting of the flux lines by the
conductors. Hence, no e.m.f. will be generated in the
conductors ab and cd.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Instant 2
When the coil is rotated in anticlockwise direction

through some angle then the velocity will have two

components v sin 𝜃 perpendicular to flux lines and v cos

𝜃 parallel to the flux lines. Due to v sin 𝜃 component,

there will be cutting of the flux and proportionally, there

will be induced e.m.f. in the conductors ab and cd.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Instant 3
As angle ‘𝜃’ increases, the component of velocity acting

perpendicular to flux lines increases, hence induced e.m.f.

also increases. At 𝜃 = 90º, the plane of the coil is parallel to

the plane of the magnetic field while the component of

velocity cutting the lines of flux is at its maximum. So,

induced e.m.f. in this position, is at its maximum value.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Instant 4 and 5

• As the coil continues to rotate further from 𝜃 = 90º to 180º, the

component of velocity, perpendicular to magnetic field starts

decreasing, hence, gradually decreasing the magnitude of the

induced e.m.f.

• In this position, the velocity component is fully parallel to the lines

of flux similar to the instant 1. Hence, there is no cutting of flux and

hence, no induced e.m.f. in both the conductors.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Instant 6
As the coil rotates beyond 𝜃 = 180º, the conductor ab uptil
now cutting flux lines in one particular direction reverses the
direction of cutting the flux lines. Similar is the behaviour of
conductor cd. This change in direction of induced e.m.f.
occurs because the direction of rotation of conductors ab and
cd reverses with respect to the field as varies from 180º to
360º. This process continues as coil rotates further.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

So, as 𝜃 varies from 0º to 360º, the e.m.f. in a conductor ab or cd varies in an

alternating manner i.e. zero, increasing to achieve maximum in one direction,
decreasing to zero, increasing to achieve maximum in other direction and again
decreasing to zero.

This set of variation repeats for every revolution as the conductors rotate in a
circular motion with a certain speed.

This variation of e.m.f. in a conductor can be graphically represented as shown in

the Fig. From the waveform, it is clear that the waveform generated by the
instantaneous values of the induced e.m.f. in any conductor (ab or cd) is purely
sinusoidal in nature.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Standard Definitions of AC Quantity

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Definitions
• Instantaneous Value: The value of an alternating quantity at a particular instant
is known as its instantaneous value e.g. e1 and – e2 are the instantaneous
values of an alternating e.m.f. at the instants t1 and t2 respectively

• Waveform: The graph of instantaneous values of an alternating quantity

plotted against time is called its waveform.

• Cycle: Each repetition of a set of positive and negative instantaneous values of

the alternating quantity is called a cycle. Such repetition occurs at regular
interval of time. Such a waveform which exhibits variations that reoccur after a
regular time interval is called periodic waveform.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Con…
• Time Period (T): The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete its one cycle
is known as its time period denoted by T seconds. After every T seconds, the cycle of
an alternating quantity repeats.

• Frequency (f): The number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity per

second is known as its frequency. It is denoted by f and it is measured in cycles/
second which is known as Hertz, denoted as Hz.

• As time period T is time for one cycle i.e. seconds/cycle and frequency is
cycles/second, we can say that frequency is reciprocal of the time period. f = 1/T Hz
As time period increases, frequency decreases while as time period decreases,
frequency increases.

• In our nation, standard frequency of alternating voltages and currents is 50 Hz.

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 Con…
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• Amplitude: The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during positive

or negative half cycle is called its amplitude. It is denoted as Em or Im. Thus Em is
called peak value of the voltage while Im is called peak value of the current.

• Angular Frequency (𝝎) : It is the frequency expressed in electrical radians per

second. As one cycle of an alternating quantity corresponds to 2 𝜋 radians, the
angular frequency can be expressed as (2 𝜋 × cycles/sec). It is denoted by ' 𝜔 ' and
its unit is radians/second. The relation between frequency ' f ' and angular
frequency ' 𝜔 ' is, 𝜔 = 2 𝜋 f radians/sec or 𝜔 = 2 𝜋 / T radians/sec

• Peak to Peak Value: The value of an alternating quantity from its positive peak
to negative peak is called its peak to peak value. It is denoted as I p-p or Vp-p.

• Amplitude = Peak to Peak Value /2

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Effective or RMS Value

• The word RMS stands for Root Mean Square.

• An RMS voltage is defined as the square root of the mean square of

instantaneous values of the voltage signal. The RMS is also known as the
quadratic mean.

• The effective or r.m.s. value of an alternating current is given by that steady

current (D.C.) which, when flowing through a given circuit for a given time,
produces the same amount of heat as produced by the alternating current,
which when flowing through the same circuit for the same time.

• There are two method to calculate RMS value; Graphical and Analytical Method.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Graphical Method

• In this method, we use a waveform to find the RMS value. The graphical method

is more useful when the signal is not symmetrical or sinusoidal.

• The accuracy of this method depends on the number of points taken from the

waveform. Few points result in low accuracy, and a more significant number of

points result in high accuracy.

• The RMS value is a square root of the average value of the squared function. For

example, let’s take a sinusoidal waveform of voltage as shown below figure.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Follow these steps to calculate the RMS voltage by graphical

method.

• Step-1: Divide waveform into equal parts. Here, we consider

the half cycle of the waveform. You can consider full-cycle also.
The first half cycle divides into ten equal parts; I1, I2, …, In.

• Step-2: Find square of each value.

• Step-3: Take the average of these squared values. Find the total
of these values and divide by the total number of points.

• Step-4 Now, take square root of this value.

• These steps are same for all type of continuous waveforms. For
different types of time-varying signals like triangular, square;
these steps follow to find the RMS voltage.

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Analytical Method

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Importance of RMS Value

• In case of alternating quantities, the r.m.s. values are used for specifying
magnitudes of alternating quantities.

• The given values such as 230 V, 110 V are r.m.s. values of alternating quantities
unless and otherwise specified to be other than r.m.s.

• In practice, everywhere, r.m.s. values are used to analyze alternating quantities.

• The ammeters and voltmeters record the r.m.s. values of current and voltage
respectively.

• The heat produced due to a.c. is proportional to square of the r.m.s. value of the
current.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Average Value
• The average value of an alternating quantity is defined as that value which is

obtained by averaging all the instantaneous values over a period of half cycle.

• For a symmetrical a.c., the average value over a complete cycle is zero as both

positive and negative half cycles are exactly identical.

• Hence, the average value is defined for half cycle only.

• Average value can also be expressed by that steady current which transfers across

any circuit, the same amount of charge as is transferred by that alternating current

during the same time.

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Expression for
Average Value

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Importance of Average Value

• The average value is used for applications like battery charging.

• The charge transferred in capacitor circuits is measured using average values.

• The average values of voltages and currents play an important role in analysis

of the rectifier circuits.

• The average value is indicated by d.c. ammeters and voltmeters.

• The average value of purely sinusoidal waveform is always zero.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Form Factor (Kf) and Crest / Peak Factor (Kp)

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Numerical : 1
• An alternating voltage is v = 100 sin 100 t; find i) Amplitude ii) Time period and
frequency iii) Angular velocity iv) Form factor v) Crest factor.

Ans :

i) Amplitude : 100V

ii) Time period and frequency : 0.0628Sec and 15.915Hz.

iii) Angular velocity : 100 rad/sec

iv) Form factor : 1.11

v) Crest factor : 1.414

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Numerical : 2

• A non sinusoidal voltage has a form factor of 1.25 and crest factor of 1.63. If its

average value is 50 V, calculate its i) r.m.s. value and ii) Maximum value.

Answer :

i) r.m.s. value : 62.5V

ii) Maximum value : 101.875V

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Numerical : 3
• The equation of an alternating current is i = 62.35 sin(323t) A. Determine, i)
maximum value ii) frequency iii) r.m.s. value iv) form factor.

Answer :

i) maximum value : 62.35 A

ii) frequency : 51.4 Hz

iii) r.m.s. value : 44.09 A

iv) form factor : 1.11

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 Practice Numerical
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• For the current wave i=140sin314t.Find (i) Peak current (ii) Average value (iii)Frequency (iv)Time
period (v) RMS value (vi) instantaneous value at 3s (vii)Form factor (viii)Peak factor.

• An alternating current i is given by ; i = 141·4 sin 314 t Find (i) the maximum value (ii) frequency (iii)
time period and (iv) the instantaneous value when t is 3 ms.

• An alternating current of frequency 60 Hz has a maximum value of 120 A. (i) Write down the
equation for the instantaneous value. (ii) Reckoning time from the instant the current is zero and
becoming positive, find the instantaneous value after 1/360 second. (iii) Time taken to reach 96 A
for the first time.

• An alternating voltage is represented by v = 141·4 sin 377 t Find (i) the maximum value (ii)
frequency (iii) time period and (iv) the instantaneous value of voltage when t is 3 ms.

• An alternating voltage v = 200 sin 314t is applied to a device which offers an ohmic resistance of 20
Ω to the flow of current in one direction while entirely preventing the flow of current in the opposite
direction. Calculate the r.m.s. value, average value and form factor.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Phasor Representation of an Alternating Quantity

• The sinusoidally varying alternating quantity can be represented graphically by a straight line
with an arrow in the phasor representation method.

• The length of the line represents the magnitude of the quantity and arrow indicates its
direction. This is similar to a vector representation. Such a line is called a phasor.

• The phasors are assumed to be rotated in anticlockwise direction with a constant speed 𝜔
rad/sec. One complete cycle of a sine wave is represented by one complete rotation of a
phasor.

• The anticlockwise direction of rotation is purely a conventional direction which has been
universally adopted. Consider a phasor, rotating in anticlockwise direction, with uniform
angular velocity, with its starting position ‘a’ as shown in the Fig.

• If the projections of this phasor on Y-axis are plotted against the angle turned through ‘𝜃’, (or
time as 𝜃 = 𝜔 t), we get a sine waveform.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Concept of Phase

• The phase of an alternating quantity at any instant is the angle

∅ (in radians or degrees) traveled by the phasor representing
that alternating quantity upto the instant of consideration,
measured from the reference.

• Let X-axis be the reference axis. So, phase of the alternating

current shown in the Fig. at the instant A is ∅ = 0º. While the
phase of the current at the instant B is the angle ∅ through
which the phasor has traveled, measured from the reference
axis i.e. X-axis.In general, the phase ∅ of an alternating
quantity varies from ∅ = 0 to 2 𝜋 radians or ∅ = 0º to 360º.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• Case 1: ∅ = 0º: When phase of an alternating

quantity is zero, it is standard pure sinusoidal
quantity having instantaneous value zero at t = 0.

• Case 2: Positive phase ∅ : When phase of an

alternating quantity is positive it means that
quantity has some positive instantaneous value at t
= 0.

• Case 3: Negative phase ∅ : When phase of an

alternating quantity is negative it means that
quantity has some negative instantaneous value at
t=0.

• The phase is measured with respect to reference

direction i.e. positive X-axis direction.

• The phase measured in anticlockwise direction is

positive while the phase measured in clockwise
direction is negative.
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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• The difference between the phases of the two alternating

quantities is called the phase difference which is nothing
but the angle difference between the two phasors
representing the two alternating quantities.

• Zero Phase Difference: Consider the two alternating

quantities having same frequency f Hz having different
maximum values. e=Em sin (𝝎 t) and i = Im sin (𝝎 t)
where Em > Im .

• When such phase difference between the two alternating

quantities is zero, the two quantities are said to be in
phase.

• In the a.c. analysis, it is not necessary that all the

alternating quantities must be always in phase. It is
possible that if one is achieving its zero value and at the
same instant the other is having some negative value or
positive value then such two quantities are said to have
phase difference between them.
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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Lagging Phase Difference :

• Consider an e.m.f. having maximum value Em and

current having maximum value Im. Now, when e.m.f. ‘e’
is at its zero value, the current ‘i’ has some negative value
. Thus, there exists a phase difference ∅ between the two
phasors.

• Now, as the two are rotating in anticlockwise direction,

we can say that current is falling back with respect to
voltage, at all the instants by angle ∅. This is called
lagging phase difference. The current i is said to lag
the voltage e by angle ∅. The current i achieves its
maximum and zero values, ∅ angle later than the
corresponding maximum and zero values of voltage.

• The equations of the two quantities are written as, e=Em

sin 𝝎 t and i = Im sin (𝝎 t – ∅) and ‘i’ is said to lag ‘e’ by
angle ∅.

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Leading Phase Difference :

• It is possible in practice that the current ‘i’ may have

some positive value when voltage ‘e’ is zero. It can
be seen that there exists a phase difference of
∅ angle between the two.

• But in this case, current ‘i’ is ahead of voltage ‘e’, as

both are rotating in anticlockwise direction with
same speed. Thus, current is said to be leading
with respect to voltage and the phase difference is
called leading phase difference.

• At all instants, current i is going to remain ahead of

voltage ‘e’ by angle ‘∅’. The equations of such two
quantities are written as e=Em sin 𝝎 t and i = Im
sin (𝝎 t + ∅) and ‘i’ is said to lead ‘e’ by angle ∅.

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 A.C Through Pure Resistance
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• Consider a simple circuit consisting of a pure resistance

‘R’ ohms connected across a voltage v = Vm sin 𝜔 t.

• In the phasor diagram, the phasors are drawn in phase

and there is no phase difference in between them.
Phasors represent the r.m.s. values of alternating
quantities.

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Power

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT
 A.C Through Pure inductance
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• Consider a simple circuit consisting of a pure inductance of L henries,

connected across a voltage given by the equation, v = Vm sin 𝜔 t.

• Pure inductance has zero ohmic resistance. Its internal resistance is zero. The
coil has pure inductance of L henries (H). When alternating current ‘i’ flows
through inductance ‘L’, it sets up an alternating magnetic field around the
inductance. In purely inductive circuit, current lags voltage by 90°.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Concept of Inductive Reactance

• It is shown that, XL = 𝜔L=2 𝜋 f L The term, XL, is called Inductive
Reactance and is measured in ohms.

• The inductive reactance is defined as the opposition offered by the

inductance of a circuit to the flow of an alternating sinusoidal current.
It depends on the frequency of the applied voltage.

• The inductive reactance is directly proportional to the frequency for

constant L.

• XL ∝ f, for constant L So, graph of XL Vs f is a straight line passing

through the origin

• If frequency is zero, which is so for d.c. voltage, the inductive

reactance is zero. Therefore, it is said that the inductance offers zero
reactance for the d.c. or steady current.

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POWER
• It can be observed from it that when
power curve is positive, energy gets
stored in the magnetic field
established due to the increasing
current while during negative power
curve, this power is returned back to
the supply. The areas of positive loop
and negative loop are exactly same
and hence, average power
consumption is zero. Pure inductance
never consumes power.
• The average energy stored in an
inductor is given by E = 1/2 L I 2 joules.
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 A.C. through Pure Capacitance
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• Consider a simple circuit consisting of a pure capacitor of C– farads, connected across a

voltage given by the equation, v =Vm sin 𝜔 t. The current i charges the capacitor C. The
instantaneous charge ‘q’ on the plates of the capacitor is given by, q=Cv=CVm sin𝜔t

• The current waveform starts earlier by 90º in comparison with voltage waveform. When
voltage is zero, the current has positive maximum value. In purely capacitive circuit, current
leads voltage by 90º.

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Con…

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Concept of Capacitive Reactance

• It is shown that, XC = 1/𝜔C = 1/2𝜋f C The term XC is called capacitive
reactance and is measured in ohms.

• The capacitive reactance is defined as the opposition offered by the

capacitance of a circuit to the flow of an alternating sinusoidal current. It
depends on the frequency of the applied voltage.

• The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency for

constant capacitor C.

• XC ∝1/f for constant C The graph of XC Vs f is a rectangular hyperbola.

• If the frequency is zero, which is so for d.c. voltage, the capacitive

reactance is infinite. Therefore, it is said that the capacitance offers open
circuit to the d.c. or it blocks d.c.

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 POWER
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• It can be observed from the figure that

when power curve is positive, in practice,
an electrostatic energy gets stored in the
capacitor during its charging while the
negative power curve represents that
the energy stored is returned back to the
supply during its discharging. The areas
of positive and negative loops are
exactly the same and hence, average
power consumption is zero. Pure
capacitance never consumes power.
• The average energy stored in a capacitor
is given by, E = 1/2 CV2 joules.

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• The opposition offered by an electric circuit to the flow of an alternating

current is called an impedance. It is denoted by Z.

• It is the ratio of an alternating voltage to an alternating current through the

circuit.

• Impedance is complex and is expressed in polar or rectangular form.

• For pure resistance voltage and current are in phase hence impedance does
not introduce any phase angle. So impedance of a pure resistance can be
expressed in polar and rectangular form as, Z = R + j0 = R ∠0º ohms

Impedance • For a pure inductance, the current lags voltage by 90º hence the inductive
reactance XL produces a phase lag of 90º. For a pure inductance, if voltage is
V ∠0º then current is I ∠–90º hence its impedance in polar and reactangular
form is given by, Z = V ∠ 0º / I ∠ −90 º = V/I ∠ 90º = XL ∠ 90º = 0+j XL
ohms.

• For a pure capacitance, the current leads voltage by 90º hence the capacitive
reactance XC produces a phase lead of 90º. For a pure capacitance, if
voltage is V ∠0º then current is I ∠90º hence its impedance is given by, Z = V
∠ 0º / I ∠ 90 º = V/I ∠ −90º = XC ∠ −90º = 0 - j XC ohms ohms.

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AC through Series
R-L Circuit.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Phasor Diagram and Voltage Triangle

• Take current as a reference phasor.

• In case of resistance, voltage and current are in phase,

so VR will be along current phasor.

• In case of inductance, current lags voltage by 90º. But,

as current is reference, VL must be shown leading with
respect to current by 90º.

• The supply voltage being vector sum of these two

vectors VL and VR obtained by law of parallelogram.
The phasor diagram and the voltage triangle is shown
in the Fig.

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Impedance

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Power and power Triangle

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT
 Power Factor
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• It is defined as factor by which the apparent power must be multiplied in order to obtain the true power (or)
It is the ratio of true power to apparent power ( or)The numerical value of cosine of the phase angle
between the applied voltage and the current drawn from the supply voltage gives the power factor. It
cannot be greater than 1.

• Power factor = True Power /Apparent Power = V I cos ∅ / V I = cos ∅

• It is the factor which decides the true power consumption in the circuit.

• It is also defined as the ratio of resistance to the impedance. cos = R / Z

• The nature of power factor is always determined by position of current with respect to the voltage. If
current lags voltage power factor is said to be lagging. If current leads voltage power factor is said to be
leading. So, for pure inductance, the power factor is cos (90º) i.e. zero lagging while for pure capacitance,
the power factor is cos (90º) i.e. zero but leading. For purely resistive circuit voltage and current are in phase
i.e. = 0. Therefore, power factor is cos (0º) = 1. Such circuit is called unity power factor circuit.

• Power factor = cos ∅ where is the angle between supply voltage and current.

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A.C. through Series R-C Circuit

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Con…

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Impedance

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Con…

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Power,
Power Triangle &
Power Factor

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A.C. through Series R-L-C Circuit

• Consider a circuit consisting of resistance R ohms pure inductance L
henries and capacitance C farads connected in series with each other
across a.c. supply.

• The a.c. supply is given by, v=Vm sin𝜔t The circuit draws a current I. Due
to current I, there are different voltage drops across R, L and C which are
given by, a) Drop across resistance R is VR =IR b) Drop across inductance
L is VL =IXL c) Drop across capacitance C is VC =IXC

• The values of I, VR, VL and VC are r.m.s. values The characteristics of three
drops are, a) VR in phase with I b) VL leads I by 90º c) VC lags I by 90º
According to Kirchhoff’s laws, we can write, V = VR + VL + VC

• Current I is taken as reference as it is common to all the elements.

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Steps for Phasor Diagram

• Take current as reference.

• VR is in phase with I.

• VL leads current I by 90º.

• VC lags current I by 90º.

• Obtain the resultant of VL and VC. Both VL and VC are in phase opposition.

• Add that with VR by law of parallelogram to get the supply voltage.

• The phasor diagram depends on the conditions of the magnitudes of VL and VC

which ultimately depends on the values of XL and XC.

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Case 1 : XL > XC

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Case 2 : XL < XC

• When XL < XC, obviously, I XL i.e., VL is less than I XC i.e., VC. So, the resultant of VL and VC will be directed
towards VC. Current I will lead (VC – VL). The circuit is said to be capacitive in nature. The phasor sum of VR and
(VC – VL) gives the resultant supply voltage V. This is shown in the Fig.

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Case 3 : XL = XC

• When XL = XC, obviously, VL = VC. So, VL and VC will

cancel each other and their resultant is zero.

• So, VR = V in such case and overall circuit is purely

resistive in nature. The phasor diagram is shown in the
Fig.

• From phasor diagram, V=VR =IR=IZ Where Z = R The

circuit is purely resistive with unity power factor.

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Impedance and Impedance Triangle
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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Power
• The average power consumed by the circuit is,

• Pav = Average power consumed by R + Average power consumed by L +

Average power consumed by C. But, pure L and C never consume any power.

• Pav = Power taken by R = I2 R = I (IR) = I VR But, VR = V cos ∅ in both the cases

P = V I cos ∅ W

• Thus, for any condition, XL > XC or XL < XC, in general power is same. where
magnitude of current is given by,

While ∅ is decided by the total impedance of the circuit.

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Summary of R, L, C Circuits

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Polar to Rectangular Conversion

• Let a phasor is represented in polar form as shown in

the Fig.

• It is necessary to find X and Y components in terms of r

and ∅.

• X component = r cos ∅ and Y component = r sin ∅

Rectangular representation = r cos ∅ + j r sin ∅

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Rectangular to Polar Conversion

• Let a phasor is represented in rectangular form X + j Y,

as shown in the Fig. It is necessary to find r and in
terms of X and Y

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Mathematical Operations of Complex

Numbers
• Addition and Subtraction: Rectangular Form
To add two or more complex numbers, simply add the real and imaginary parts separately.
Similarly, for subtraction simply subtract the real and imaginary parts separately.

If A = 10+j20 and B = 5-j15 then, A+B = 15+j5 and A-B=5+j35.

• Multiplication and Division: Polar Form

• To multiply to complex numbers, simply multiply the magnitudes and add the phase
angles. Similarly, for division simply divide the magnitudes and subtract the angles.

A∠𝜽 * B∠∅ = AB ∠𝜽 + ∅ and A∠𝜽 / B∠∅ = AB ∠𝜽 − ∅

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Sample Numerical on
Mathematical Operations

• If A = 4 + j 7; B = 8 + j 9 and C = 5 – j 6 then
calculate
• A+B/C

• A*B/C

• A+B/B+C

• B-C/A

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 Numerical R-L Series Circuit
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

A coil having a resistance of 7 ohms and an inductance of 31·8 mH is connected to 230 V, 50 Hz supply.
Calculate

(i) the circuit current

(ii) phase angle

(iii) power factor

(iv) power consumed and

(v) voltage drop across resistor and inductor.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Numerical 2

An inductor coil is connected to a supply of 250 V at 50 Hz and

takes a current of 5 A. The coil dissipates 750 W. Calculate

(i) power factor

(ii) resistance of coil and

(iii) inductance of coil.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Numerical 3
• A pure inductance of 318 mH is

connected in series with a pure

resistance of 75 ohms. The circuit is

supplied from 50 Hz source and the

voltage across 75 W resistor is found to

be 150 V. Calculate the supply voltage

and the phase angle.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Practice Numerical – RL Series Circuit

A coil when connected across a 100 V d.c. supply dissipates 500 W of power. When connected across a
100 V a.c. supply of frequency 50 Hz, it dissipates 200 W. Calculate the values of resistance and
inductance of the coil.

Two coils A and B are connected in series across a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. The resistance of A is 5 ohms and
the inductance of B is 0.015H. If the input from the supply is 3 kW and 2 kVAR, find the inductance of A
and the resistance of B. Calculate the voltage across each coil.

A 100 volt, 60 W lamp is to be operated on 220 V, 50 Hz mains. Find what value of (i) non-inductive
resistance (ii) pure inductance would be required in order that the lamp is run on the correct voltage.
Which method is preferable and why ?

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• A coil is connected in series with a non-inductive resistance of 30 ohms across 240 V, 50

Hz supply. The reading of a voltmeter across the coil is 180 V, and across the resistance
is 130 V. Calculate (i) power absorbed by the coil (ii) inductance of the coil (iii) resistance
of the coil and (iv) power factor of the whole circuit.

• When 1A flows through three air-cored coils A, B and C in series, the voltage drops are
6V, 3V and 8V on d.c. and 7V, 5V and 10V on a.c. Find (i) power factor and power
dissipated in each coil (ii) power factor of entire circuit.

• In a series circuit containing pure resistance and a pure inductance, the current and the
voltage are expressed as : i(t) = 5 sin (314 t + 2𝜋/3) and v (t) = 15 sin (314 t + 5 𝜋 /6)
Find (i) impedance of the circuit (ii) resistance value (iii) inductance value (iv) average
power drawn by the circuit (v) circuit power factor.

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• A circuit operating at a p.f. 0·8 lagging takes a current of 10 A from 230 V, 50 Hz supply.
(i) Find the expression for the instantaneous values for voltage and current. (ii) Calculate
the value of current 5 ms after the voltage has reached its positive maximum value.

• A coil, having both resistance and inductance, has a total effective impedance of 50
ohms and the phase angle of the current through it with respect to the voltage across it
is 45° lag. The coil is connected in series with a 40 ohms resistor across a sinusoidal
supply. The circuit current is 3A. Find (i) supply voltage and (ii) circuit phase angle.

• A choke coil takes a current of 2A lagging 60° behind the applied voltage of 200 V at
50Hz. (i) Calculate impedance, resistance and inductance of the coil. (ii) Also find the
power consumed when the coil is connected across 100 V, 25 Hz supply.

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• In an inductive series circuit, a voltage of 10V at 25 Hz produces 100 mA while the

same voltage at 75 Hz produces 60 mA. Find the values of circuit constants. At what
frequency will the value of the impedance be twice that at 25Hz?

• A circuit has a fixed resistance of 2 ohms and a reactance of 10 ohms in series with a
resistor R across 100V constant frequency mains. For what value of R is the power
consumed in the circuit a maximum ?

• When a resistor and inductor in series are connected to a 240 V supply, a current of
3A flows, lagging 37° behind the supply voltage while the voltage across the inductor
is 171 V. Find the resistance of the resistor and the resistance and reactance of
inductor.

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• When a voltage of 100 V at 50 Hz is applied to coil A, the current and power taken
are 8 A and 120 W respectively. When applied to coil B, the current and power taken
are 10 A and 500 W respectively. What current and power will be taken when 100 V is
applied to the two coils connected in series ?

• A bulb is rated at 100W and 110V. Calculate the impedance of a choke which should
be connected in series with the bulb so that it may be used on 230V a.c. supply. Find
total active power and over all power factor. The reactance to resistance ratio of the
choke is 10. Draw the impedance triangle.

• A single phase motor operating from 400 V, 50 Hz supply is developing 7·46 kW

output with an efficiency of 84% and p.f. of 0·7 lagging. Calculate (i) input kVA (ii)
active and reactive components of current and (iii) reactive kVAR.

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Con…
• A series circuit consists of a resistance of 6 ohms and an inductive reactance of
8 ohms. A potential difference of 141.4V (r.m.s.) is applied to it. At a certain
instant, the applied voltage is +100 V and is increasing. Calculate at this instant
(i) the current (ii) the voltage drop across resistance and (iii) voltage drop across
the inductive reactance.

• It is desired to operate a 100 W, 120 V lamp at its current rating from a 240 V, 50
Hz supply by using an inductor having resistance of 10 W. Find (i) the value of
inductance (ii) circuit power factor and (iii) power consumed.

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 A resistance of 5 ohms is connected in series with a pure inductance of 0.01 H to a 100 V, 50 Hz supply.
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Calculate (i) impedance (ii) current and (iii) power absorbed. [(i) 5.9 W (ii) 16.94 A (iii)
1435 W]

A 200-V, 50 Hz inductive circuit takes a current of 10 A lagging the voltage by 30°. Calculate (i) resistance (ii)
reactance and (iii) inductance of the circuit. [(i) 10 W (ii) 17.3 W (iii) 31.8 mH]

An inductive coil connected to a 200-V, 50 Hz supply takes a current of 10 A. If the power dissipated in the
coil is 1000 W, calculate (i) inductance of the coil (ii) power factor and (iii) angle of lag. [(i) 0.0552 H (ii) 0.5
(iii) f = 60°]

The p.d. measured across a coil is 20 V when a direct current of 2 A is passed through it. With an alternating
current of 2 A at 40 Hz, the p.d. across the coil is 140 V. If the coil is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply,
calculate (i) current (ii) power and (iii) the power factor. [(i) 2·64 A (ii) 69.7 W (iii) 0.1147 lag]

A coil is joined in series with a pure resistor of resistance 800 ohms across a 100 V, 50 Hz supply. The reading
of a voltmeter across the coil is 45 V and across the pure resistor is 80 V. Find (i) inductance and (ii) resistance
of the coil. [(i) L = 1.4 H (ii) R = 98.5 W]

Con…
When a certain inductive coil is supplied at 240 V, 50 Hz, the current is 6.45 A. When the frequency is changed
to 40 Hz at 240 V, the current taken is 7.48 A. Calculate the inductance and resistance of the coil. [L = 0.1 H ;
R = 20 W]

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A coil has a resistance of 75 ohms and an inductance of 1.4 H. When the applied voltage is 240 V
a.c., at what frequency is the current 0.3 A ? What is the power factor at this frequency ? [90.55 Hz ;
0.0938 lag]
A two-element series circuit is connected across an a.c. source e = 200 2 sin(wt + 20°)V. The current
in the circuit then is found to be i = 10 2 cos(314t – 25°) A. Determine the parameters of the circuit.
[R = 14.1 W; C = 226 μF]
A resistance and an inductance are connected in series across a voltage v = 283 sin 314t. The
current expression is found to be i = 4sin(314t – 𝜋/4). Find the values of inductance, resistance and
p.f. [L = 0.1592 H; R = 50 W ; 0.707 (lag)]
A coil has resistance of 10 W and draws a current of 5A when connected across 100V, 50 Hz source.
Determine the reactive power of the circuit. [433 VAR]

An e.m.f. eo = 141.4 sin(377t + 30°) is impressed on the impedance coil having a resistance of 4 W
and an inductive reactance of 1.25 W, measured at 25 Hz. What is the equation of the current? [i =
28.28 sin (377t – 6.87°)]
In a particular R-L series circuit a voltage of 10V at 50 Hz produces a current of 700mA while the
same voltage at 75 Hz produces 500 mA. What are the values of circuit constants? [R = 6.9 W; L =
40 mH]

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Numerical R-C Series Circuit

• A capacitor of capacitance 79·5 μ F is

connected in series with a non-

inductive resistance of 30 ohms across

100 V, 50 Hz supply. Find (i) impedance

(ii) current (iii) phase angle and (iv)

equation for the instantaneous value of

current.

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Numerical : 2

• A 10 ohm resistor and 400 μF

capacitor are connected in series
to a 60-V sinusoidal supply. The
circuit current is 5 A. Calculate the
supply frequency and phase angle
between the current and voltage.

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Practice Numerical – R-C Series Circuit

A two-element series circuit consumes 700 W and has a p.f. of 0·707 leading. If the applied voltage is v =
141.1 sin (314 t + 30°), find the circuit constants.

A circuit when connected to 200 V, 50 Hz mains takes a current of 10 A, leading the voltage by one-twelfth
of time period. Calculate (i) resistance (ii) capacitive reactance and (iii) capacitance of the circuit.

A resistor R in series with a capacitor C is connected to 50 Hz, 240V source. Find the value of C so that R
absorbs 300W and voltage across R is 100V. Also find the maximum charge and the maximum stored
energy in C.

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Con…

A capacitor of 8 μF takes a current of 1A when alternating voltage applied across it is 250 V. Calculate (i)
frequency of the applied voltage (ii) the resistance to be connected in series with the capacitor to reduce
the current in the circuit to 0.5 A at the same frequency (iii) phase angle of the resulting circuit.

A 240 V, 50 Hz, RC series circuit takes an r.m.s. current of 20A. The maximum value of current occurs 1/900
second before the maximum value of the voltage. Calculate (i) the power factor (ii) average power (iii)
parameters of the circuit.

A coil of power factor 0·6 is in series with a 100 μF capacitor. When connected to a 50Hz supply, the P.D.
across the coil is equal to the P.D. across the capacitor. Find the resistance and inductance of the coil.

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• It is desired to operate a 100W, 120V electric lamp at its current rating from a 240V, 50 Hz
supply. Give details of the simplest manner in which this could be done using (i) a
resistor (ii) a capacitor and (iii) an inductor having resistance of 10 ohms. What power
factor would be presented to the supply in each case and which method is the most
economical of power?

• A capacitor and a non-inductive resistance are connected in series to a 200V, single-

phase supply. When a voltmeter having a non-inductive resistance of 13,500 ohms is
connected across the resistor, it reads 132V and the current taken from the supply is
22.35 mA. Indicate on a vector diagram, the voltages across the two components and
also the supply current (i) when the voltmeter is connected and (ii) when it is
disconnected.

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• A capacitor when in series with a 145 ohm resistor has a circuit impedance of 208 W.

Determine (i) the size of capacitor (ii) the power and the (iii) power factor when the

circuit is connected to a 130 V, 60 Hz source. [(i) 17.8 μF (ii) 56.64 W (iii) 69.7%]

• A 120 W resistor is placed in series with a capacitor and the circuit is connected to a

120 V, 60 Hz source. If the power factor is 91%, determine the power, the current and

the value of C. [99.37 W ; 0.91 A ; 48.52 μF]

• A resistor is placed in series with a 12 μF capacitor. The supply is 120 V at 60 Hz.

What two values of R yield a circuit power of 10 watts ? [1405.23 W ; 34.78 W]

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 Numerical R-L-C Series Circuit
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• A 230 V, 50 Hz a.c. supply is applied to

a coil of 0.06 H inductance and 2.5

ohms resistance connected in series

with a 6·8 μF capacitor. Calculate (i)

impedance (ii) current (iii) phase angle

between current and voltage (iv)

power factor and (v) power consumed.

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 Numerical : 2
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• A coil of p.f. 0.8 is connected in

series with a 110 μF capacitor. The

supply frequency is 50 Hz. The p.d.

across the coil is found to be equal

to the p.d. across the capacitor.

Calculate the resistance and

inductance of the coil.

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• A resistance R, an inductance L = 0.01 H and a

capacitance C are connected in series. When an
alternating voltage v = 400 sin (3000 t – 20°) is applied
to the series combination, the current flowing is √2 sin

Practice
(3000t – 65°). Find the values of R and C.

• A voltage of 200 V is applied to a series circuit consisting

Numerical – of a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor. The respective

RLC Series voltages across these components are 170 V, 150 V and

Circuit
100 V and the circuit current is 4A. Find the power factor
of the inductor and of the circuit.

• A 230 V, 50 Hz voltage is applied to a coil having L = 5H

and R = 2ohms This coil is connected in series with a
capacitance C. What value C must have in order that
voltage across the coil shall be 250 V ?
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A voltage v(t) = 100 sin 314 t is applied to a series circuit consisting of 10 ohms resistance, 0·0318 H
inductance and a capacitor of 63.6 μF. Find (i) expression for i(t) (ii) phase angle between voltage and
current (iii) power factor (iv) active power consumed (v) peak value of pulsating power.

Two impedances Z1 and Z2 when connected separately across a 230 V, 50 Hz supply consumed 100 W
and 60 W at power factors of 0.5 lagging and 0.6 leading respectively. If these impedances are now
connected in series across the same supply, find (i) total power absorbed and overall p.f. (ii) the value
of the impedance to be added in series so as to raise the overall p.f. to unity.

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A coil of resistance 20 ohms is in series with an inductance of 0·04 H. A supply of 230 V, 50 Hz is applied to the combination. Determine the capacitance which
when connected in series with the coil causes no change in the magnitude and power taken from the supply. [67.5 μF]

When a certain inductive coil is supplied at 240 V, 50 Hz, the current is 6.45 A. When the frequency is changed to 40 Hz at 240 V, the current taken is 7.48 A.
Calculate the inductance and resistance of the coil. [L = 0.1 H; R = 20 W]

Two impedances Z1 and Z2 when connected separately across a 200 V, 50 Hz supply consume powers of 100 W, 60 W at power factors of 0.5 lagging and 0.6
leading respectively. If the two impedances are now connected together in series across the same supply, calculate (i) circuit current (ii) power absorbed (iii)
circuit power factor. [(i) 0.54 A (ii) 99 W (iii) 0.787 lead]

A circuit consists of a resistance of 12 ohms, capacitance of 320 μF and an inductance of 0.08 H, all in series. A supply of 240 V, 50 Hz is applied to the ends of
the circuit. Cal. the frequency at which the circuit power factor would be unity. [32 Hz]

A high impedance voltmeter is used to measure the voltage drop across each of the ideal circuit elements of a R-L-C series circuit. If the r.m.s. readings are 40
V, 25 V and 60 V for VL, VR and VC respectively, determine the equation for the applied voltage. The frequency of the applied voltage is 50 Hz. [v = 45·28 sin
(314 t – 38.66°)]

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A coil is in series with a 20 μF capacitor across a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. The current taken by the circuit is 8 A and the power consumed is 200 W. Calculate the inductance of
the coil if the p.f. of the circuit is (i) leading (ii) lagging. Sketch a vector diagram for each condition and calculate the coil p.f. in each case. [(i) 0.416H; 0.9997 (ii) 0.597H;
0.9998]

A non-inductive resistor is connected in series with a coil and a capacitor. The circuit is connected to a single phase a.c. supply. If VR = 25 V, VL = 40 V and VC = 55 V when
current flowing through the circuit is 0.345 A, find the applied voltage and the power loss in the coil. [34.2V ; 1.9 W]

A series RLC circuit consists of a 100 W resistor, an inductor of 0.318 H and capacitor of unknown value. When the circuit is energised by 230 2 sin wt volts supply, the
current was found to be i = 2.3 2 sin wt amperes. Find (i) the value of the capacitor (ii) the voltage across the inductor (iii) the total power consumed. Assume w = 314.5
rad/sec. [(i) 31.8 μF (ii) 230 V (iii) 529 W]

A coil of 0.8 p.f. is connected in series with 110 μF capacitor. Supply frequency is 50 Hz. The potential difference across the coil is found to be equal to that across the
capacitor. Calculate the resistance and inductance of the coil. Calculate the net p.f. [23.15 W; 55.3 mH; 0.894 (leading)]

A resistance of 20 W, inductance of 0.2 H and capacitance of 150 μF are connected in series and are fed by a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. Find XL, XC, Z, Y, p.f., active power and
reactive power. [62.8 W; 21.2 W; 46.16 W; 0.0217 S; 0.433 (lag); 497 W; 1030 VAR]

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 Numerical for AC Series Circuits – Phasor Algebra
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

The current in a circuit is given by (4.5 + j12) A when the applied voltage is (100 + j150) V. Determine (i) the
magnitude of impedance and (ii) phase angle.

In an R-L series circuit, R = 10 ohms and XL = 8.66 ohms. If current in the circuit is (5 – j 10)A, find (i) the applied
voltage (ii) power factor and (iii) active power and reactive power.

The complex volt amperes in a series circuit are (4330 – j 2500) and the current is (25 + j 43·3) A. Find the
applied voltage.

A coil of resistance 12 ohms and inductive reactance of 25 ohms is connected in series with a capacitive
reactance of 41 ohms. The combination is connected to a supply of 230 V, 50Hz. Using phasor algebra, find (i)
circuit impedance (ii) current and (iii) power consumed.

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 Con…
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

A high-impedance voltmeter is used to measure voltage drop across each of three series connected ideal
circuit elements. If the r.m.s. readings are 25 V, 40 V and 60 V for VR, VL and VC respectively, determine the
equation for the voltage wave representing the driving voltage whose frequency is 50 Hz.

Calculate the admittance Y, the conductance G and the susceptance B of a circuit consisting of a resistor of
10 W in series with an inductor of 0.1 H when the frequency is 50 Hz.

A 2 ohms resistance, 0.125 F capacitance and 3 H inductance are connected in series across a voltage v =
12 sin (2t + 30°). (i) Find Z, I, VL, VC, power factor and active power.

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 Con…
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

An alternating current of frequency 100 Hz is passed through a non-inductive 10 ohms resistor in

series with a coil of resistance 1.3 ohms and inductance 0.018 H. When the terminal voltage is at its
maximum value of 100 V, what will be the voltage across the resistor ?

A resistor of 5 ohms and an inductive reactance of 10 ohms are connected in series. Find the
current and the power dissipated in the 5 W resistor if an alternating voltage of 200 V is applied
across the circuit.

A coil with L = 2 H and R = 362 ohms is connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate the energy
stored when the instantaneous voltage is (i) zero (ii) a maximum.

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 Con…
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

If the potential drop across a circuit be represented by (40 + j 25) V with reference to the circuit
current and power absorbed by the circuit is 160 W, find the complex expression for the
impedance. Find also (i) the power factor of the circuit and (ii) the magnitude of the impedance.

In a given R–L series circuit, R = 35 ohms and L = 0.1 H. Find (i) current through the circuit (ii) power
factor if a 50 Hz frequency, voltage V = 220 ∠ 30°V is applied across the circuit.

A two-element series circuit consumes 700 W and has a p.f. = 0.707 leading. If applied voltage is v
= 141.1 sin (314t + 30°) V, find the circuit constants.

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 AC Parallel Circuits
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• While analysing a parallel a.c. circuit, two important points must be kept in mind.

• First, a parallel circuit, in fact, consists of two or more series circuits connected in parallel.
Therefore, each branch of the circuit can be analysed separately as a series circuit and then the
effect of the separate branches can be combined.

• Secondly, alternating voltages and currents are phasor quantities. This implies that both
magnitudes and phase angles must be taken into account while carrying out circuit
calculations. There are four principal methods of solving parallel a.c. circuits, namely ;

• (i) By phasor diagram (ii) By phasor algebra (iii) Equivalent impedance method (iv)
Admittance method

• The use of a particular method will depend upon the conditions of the problem. However, in
general, that method should be used which yields quick results.

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 • In this method, we find the magnitude and phase
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

angle of each branch current. We then draw the

phasor diagram taking voltage as the *reference
phasor.

• The circuit or line current is the phasor sum of the

branch currents and can be determined either (i) by

1. Phasor parallelogram method or (ii) by the method of

components. The second method is preferred because
Diagram Method it yields quick results.

• The phasor diagram method is suitable only when the

parallel circuit is simple and contains two branches.
However, if the parallel circuit is complex having
more than two branches, this method becomes very
inconvenient. In such a case, use of phasor algebra is
recommended to solve parallel- circuit problems.
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• Consider a parallel circuit consisting of two branches and connected to an

alternating voltage of V volts (r.m.s.) as shown in Fig.

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• The line current I is the phasor sum of I1 and I2. Suppose its phase angle is ∅0 as
shown in Fig. The values of I and f can be determined by resolving the currents
into rectangular components.

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 2. Phasor Algebra
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• In this method, voltages, currents and

impedances are expressed in the complex form
i.e. either in the rectangular or polar form.

• Since complex form includes both magnitude

and phase angle, the solution of parallel-circuit
problems can be obtained mathematically by
using the rules of phasor algebra.

• This eliminates the need of phasor diagram.

Referring back to the parallel circuit shown in Fig.
we have,

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 110
Con…

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 3. Equivalent Impedance Method
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• In this method, we find the

equivalent or total impedance of
the parallel circuit.

• The line current is equal to the

applied voltage divided by the
equivalent impedance.

• Consider several impedances

connected in parallel as shown in
Fig.

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 Con…
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• Note that relation (i) compares with that for parallel

resistors but with one important difference. Here each
impedance is in complex form and takes care of
magnitude as well as impedance angle. Therefore, all
algebraic operations (e.g. addition, division, subtraction
etc.) must be in complex form. No attempt should be
made to carry out these operations airthmetically.

• The reader may note that finding the equivalent

impedance in complex form involves lengthy
calculations. Such an approach to solve parallel a.c.
circuits is not recommended particularly when there are
more than two branches in the circuit.

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• The admittance of an a.c. circuit is defined as the reciprocal of

its impedance i.e. Admittance, Y = 1 / Z = I / V

• The unit of admittance is siemen (S) Or Mho. Whereas

impedance (Z) is the opposition to alternating current flow,
admittance (Y) is the inducement to alternating current flow.

• Conductance, G = 1/ R ; Inductive susceptance, BL = 1/ X L ;

4. Admittance Capacitive susceptance, BC = 1 / XC

(Y)
• The units of G, BL and BC are siemen (S). The admittance
approach is quite useful in the solution of parallel a.c. circuits.

• Components of admittance. Depending upon the nature of

reactance, the impedance of an a.c. circuit can be expressed in
the complex form as :

Z = R + j XL (or) Z = R – j XC

Here, R is the resistive or in-phase component of Z while XL or XC is

the reactive or quadrature component of Z.
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Components of Y.

Fig. 14.4 (ii) shows the components G and BL of Y. Here, G is the in-phase component of Y while BL is the
quadrature component of Y. Note that G (conductance) is positive and BL (inductive susceptance) is
negative.
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 115
Con…

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Con…
• Fig. shows the components G and BC of Y. Here, G is the in-phase component
of Y while BC is the quadrature component of Y.

• Note that G (conductance) is positive and BC (capacitive susceptance) is also

positive.

• Note. Conductance G is always positive. However, BL (inductive susceptance) is

negative while BC (capacitive susceptance) is positive.

• Moreover, it is a usual practice to omit the suffix L or C with susceptance B. The

positive sign with B indicates capacitive susceptance and the negative sign with
B implies inductive susceptance.

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Importance of Admittance in Parallel A.C. Circuit Analysis

• In the analysis of parallel circuits, it is quite useful to use admittance values instead of impedance values.
Consider several impedances Z1, Z2, Z3… connected in parallel across an a.c. supply of V volts. We convert
these parallel-connected impedances into equivalent parallel-connected admittances Y1, Y2, Y3 ... in
rectangular form. The total impedance ZT of the circuit is given by ;

• The admittances in rectangular form (Y1 = G1 ± jB1, Y2 = G2 ± jB2 ... ) of parallel branches can be added to
give the resultant conductance G and the resultant susceptance B. Note that G is always positive while
inductive susceptance is negative and capacitive susceptance is positive. Thus, admittance method of
parallel circuits makes the approach somewhat similar to a series circuit where impedances (in rectangular
form) are added. For this reason, the admittance approach in the analysis of parallel a.c. circuits is for more
convenient than impedance approach.

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 Impedance Triangle
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• Since admittance has in-phase component

(i.e. G) as well as quadrature component
(i.e. BL or BC), it can be represented by a
right angled triangle, called admittance
triangle.

• For an inductive circuit (i.e. R + jXL), the

impedance and admittance triangles will
be as shown in Fig. Note that admittance
angle is equal to the impedance angle but
is *negative. For this reason, BL will be
along OY ′- axis and hence negative.

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 Con…
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• For a capacitive circuit (i.e. R – jXC), the

impedance and admittance triangles

will be as shown in Fig.

• Note that admittance angle is equal to

the impedance angle but of opposite

sign.

• For this reason, BC will lie along OY-

axis and hence positive.

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Admittance Method for Parallel A.C. Circuit Solution

• Fig. shows two impedances Z1 = R1 – j XC1 and Z2 = R2 + jXL2 in parallel across an

a.c. supply of V volts. We can convert the impedances into equivalent
admittances as under :

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Application of Admittance Method

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 122
parallel Circuits
Cases in

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 Three phase AC Circuits
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• There are certain loads which require polyphase supply.

• Phase means branch, circuit or winding while poly means many. So such applications need a supply having
many a.c. voltages present in it simultaneously. Such a system is called polyphase system.

• To develop polyphase system, the armature winding in a generator is divided into number of phases
required. In each section, a separate a.c. voltage gets induced. So there are many independent a.c. voltages
present equal to number of phases of winding.

• The various phases of winding are arranged in such a manner that the magnitudes and frequencies of all
these voltages is same but they have definite phase difference with respect to each other.

• The phase difference depends on number of phases in which winding is divided.

• For example, if winding is divided into 'n' phases then 'n' separate a.c. voltages will be available having
same magnitude and frequency but they will have a phase difference of (360°/n) with respect to each other.
Thus, in a three phase supply system, there are three voltages with a same magnitude and frequency but
having a phase difference of 360°/3 = 120° between them. Such a supply system is called three phase system
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 Advantages of Three phase System
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• A three phase system has following advantages over single phase system:

• The output of three phase machine is always greater than single phase machine
of same size, approximately 1.5 times. So for a given size and voltage a three
phase alternator occupies less space and has less cost too than single phase
having same rating.

• For a transmission and distribution, three phase system needs less copper or
less conducting material than single phase system for given volt amperes and
voltage rating so transmission becomes very much economical.

• It is possible to produce rotating magnetic field with stationary coils by using

three phase system. Hence three phase motors are self starting.

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• In single phase system, the instantaneous power is a function of time and hence
fluctuates w.r.t. time. This fluctuating power causes considerable vibrations in single
phase motors. Hence performance of single phase motors is poor. While
instantaneous power in symmetrical three phase system is constant.

• Three phase system give steady output.

• Single phase supply can be obtained from three phase but three phase cannot be
obtained from single phase.

• Power factor of single phase motor is poor than three phase motors of same rating.

• For converting machines like rectifiers, the d.c. output voltage becomes smoother if
number of phases are increased. But it is found that optimum number of phases
required to get all above said advantages is three. Hence three phase system is
accepted as standard system throughout the world.

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Generation of Three Phase Voltage System

• It is already discussed that alternator consisting of one group of coils on
armature produces one alternating voltage. But if armature coils are
divided into three groups such that they are displaced by the angle 120°
from each other, three separate alternating voltages get developed.

• Consider armature of alternator divided into three groups as shown in the

Fig. The coils are named as R1 – R2, Y1 – Y2 and B1 – B2 and mounted on
same shaft. The ends of each coil are brought out through the slipring
and brush arrangement to collect the induced e.m.f.

• Let eR, eY and eB be the three independent voltages induced in coils R1 –

R2, Y1 – Y2 and B1 – B2 respectively. All are alternating voltages having same
magnitude and frequency as they are rotated at uniform speed. All of
them will be displaced from one other by 120º.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• Suppose eR is assumed to be the reference and is zero for

the instant shown in the Fig. At the same instant eY will be
displaced by 120º from eR and will follow eR while eB will
be displaced by 120º from eY and will follow eY

• If eR is reference then eY will attain its maximum and

minimum position 120ºlater than eR and eB will attain its
maximum and minimum position 120º later than eY i.e.
120°+120º = 240º later with respect to eR.

• All coils together represent three phase supply system.

The waveforms are shown in the Fig.

• The equations for the induced voltages are: eR = Em sin

(𝜔t); eY = Em sin (𝜔t-120°); eB = Em sin (𝜔t+120°);

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• The phasor diagram of these voltages can

be shown as in the Fig. As phasors rotate in
anticlockwise direction, we can say that e Y

lags e R by 120º and e B lags e Y by 120º. If

we add three voltages vectorially, it can be
observed that the sum of the three voltages
at any instant is zero.

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 Definitions • Symmetrical system: It is possible in polyphase system that magnitudes of
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

different alternating voltages are different. But a three phase system in

which the three voltages are of same magnitude and frequency and
displaced from each other by 120° phase angle is defined as symmetrical
system.

• Phase sequence: The sequence in which the voltages in three phases

reach their maximum positive values is called phase sequence. Generally
the phase sequence is R-Y-B.

• The phase sequence is important in determining direction of rotation of a.c.

motors, parallel operation of alternators etc. There are two possible phase
sequences which are RYB and RBY.

• The phase sequence of a three phase system can be changed by

interchanging any two terminals out of R, Y and B. If three phase supply is
given to a three phase motor with a phase sequence of RYB then by
interchanging any two terminals of RYB the phase sequence can be
reversed. Due to this the direction of motor gets reversed.
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Three Phase Supply Connections

• In single phase system, two wires are sufficient for transmitting voltage
to the load i.e. phase and neutral. But in case of three phase system,
two ends of each phase i.e. R1 – R2, Y1-Y2, and B1-B2 are available to
supply voltage to the load.

• If all the six terminals are used independently to supply voltage to

load as shown in the Fig, then total six wires will be required and it will
be very much costly.

• To reduce the cost by reducing the number of windings, the three

windings are interconnected in a particular fashion. This gives different
three phase connections.

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Start Connection
The star connection is formed by connecting starting or
terminating ends of all the three windings together.

The ends R1 – Y1 – B1 are connected or ends R2 – Y2 – B2 are

connected together.

This common point is called Neutral Point.

The remaining three ends are brought out for connection

purpose.

These ends are generally referred as R-Y-B, to which load

is to be connected.

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 Delta Connection
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• The delta is formed by

connecting one end of
winding to starting end of
other and connections are
continued to form a closed
loop.

• The supply terminals are taken

out from the three junction
points. Delta connection
always forms a closed loop.

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Concept of Line Voltages and Line Currents

• The potential difference between any two lines

of supply is called line voltage and current
passing through any line is called line current.

• Line voltages are denoted by VL. These are VRY,

VYB and VBR.

• Line currents are denoted by IL. These are IR, IY

and IB.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Con…

• Similarly for delta connected system we can

show the line voltages and line currents as in
the Fig.

• Line voltages are denoted by VL. These are

VRY, VYB and VBR.

• Line currents are denoted by IL. These are IR,

IY and IB.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• There are three different impedances and are connected such that
one end of each is connected together and other three are connected Concept of Phase Voltages
to supply terminalis R-Y-B. and Phase Currents
• The voltage across any branch of the three phase load i.e. across Zph1
Zph2 or Zph3 is called phase voltage and current passing through any
branch of the three phase load is called phase current.

• In the diagram shown in the Fig. V RN VYN and VBN are phase voltages
while IR IY and IB as shown in the Fig. are phase currents. The phase
voltages are denoted as Vph while the phase currents are denoted as
Iph.

• Generally suffix N is not indicated for phase voltages in star

connected load. So Vph = VR = VY = VB It can be seen from the Fig.
that, Iph = IR = IY = IB But same are the currents flowing through the
three lines also and hence defined as line currents.

• Thus we can conclude that for star connection IL= Iph. (For star
connection)

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Con… • lf the three impedances Zph1 Zph2 or Zph3 are connected such that starting
end of one is connected to terminating end of other, to form a closed
loop it is called delta connection of load.

• The junction points are connected to supply terminals R-Y-B. This is

shown in the Fig. The current IRY, IYB and IBR flowing through the various
branches of the load are phase currents. The lines currents are IR IY and IB
flowing through supply lines.

• Thus, in delta connection of load, line and phase currents are different.
In the Fig. the voltage across Zph1 is VRY, across Zph2 is VYB and across Zph3
is VBR and all are phase voltages.

Vph = VRY = VYB = VBR

• But as per definition of line voltages, same are the voltages across supply
lines also. Thus it can be concluded that in delta connection VL = Vph.

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 Relations for Star Connected Load
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

To derive relation between VL and Vph, consider line voltage VRY. From the Fig. we can write,

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• The three phase voltage are displaced by 120° from each other. The phasor diagram to get VRY is
shown in the Fig. The VY is reversed to get - VY and then it is added to VR to get VRY. The
perpendicular is drawn from point A on vector OB representing VL. In triangle OAB, the sides OA
and AB are same as phase voltages. Hence OB bisects angle between VR and - VY. ∠BOA = 30°
And perpendicular AC bisects the vector OB. OC = CB = VL /2

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 139
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 140
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 Relations for Delta Connected Load
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• Consider the balanced delta connected load as

shown in the Fig. Line voltages VL = VRY = VYB = VBR
Line currents IL = IR = IY = IB

• Phase voltages Vph = VRY = VYB = VBR Phase currents Iph

= IRY = IYB = IBR As seen earlier, Vph = VL for delta
connected load. To derive the relation between IL and
Iph, apply the KCL at the node R of the load shown in
the Fig.

• Applying KCL at node Y and B, we can write equations

for line currents IY and IB as,

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• The phasor diagram to obtain line current IR by carrying out vector subtraction of
phase currents IRY and IYB is shown in the Fig. The three phase currents are
displaced from each other by 120º. IBR is reversed to get – IBR and then added to
IRY to get IR. The perpendicular AC drawn on vector OB, bisects the vector OB
which represents IL. Similarly, OB bisects angle between - IYB and IRY which is 60º.
B∠OA = 30° and OC = CB = IL/2

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 143
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 144
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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

Power Triangle for Three phase Load

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Three Phase Power Measurement

• In three phase circuits whether load is star connected or delta connected, total three phase power is
given by √3 VL IL cos∅. The ∅ is the angle between Vph and I ph.

• In practice, the problems in measuring three phase power occur as power factor cos for different
types of loads may not be known to us.

• Not only this but power factor of induction motor, synchronous motor may vary depending on
different load conditions.

• It is very difficult to notice such on line changes in the value of power factor and then using it to
calculate the power.

• Hence it is absolute necessity to use some device which will sense the power factor and will give the
wattage reading directly.

• Such a device which senses voltage, current and (power factor) angle between voltage and current to
give power reading in watts directly is called wattmeter.

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 Wattmeter
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• It is a device which gives power reading, when connected in single phase or three phase system, directly in watts. It
consists of two coils.

• i) Current coil: This senses the current and always to be connected in series with the load. Similar to ammeter, the
resistance of this coil is as small as possible and hence its cross-sectional area is large and it has less number of turns.

• ii) Voltage coil: This is also called pressure coil. This senses the voltage and always to be connected across the supply
terminals. Similar to voltmeter, the resistance of this coil is very large and hence its cross-sectional area is small and it
has large number of turns.

• It is important to note that wattmeter senses the angle between current phasor which is sensed by its current coil and
voltage phasor which is sensed by its voltage coil.

• It will not read phase angle ‘∅’ all the time. It depends on how we connect its current and voltage coils in the system.
As ‘∅’ is the angle between Vph and I ph, if wattmeter has to sense this, its current coil must carry phase current I ph and
its voltage coil must sense phase voltage Vph.

• In general if Ic is the current through its current coil (may be phase or line depends on its connection) and Vpc is voltage
across its pressure coil (may be phase or line depends on its connection) then wattmeter reading is, W = Vpc Ipc cos∅
watts
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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• A wattmeter can be represented symbolically as shown in Fig. The

terminologies used to denote current and pressure coil are,

• M = From mains, L = To load = For current coil C = Common, V = Voltage = For

voltage coil The terminals M and C are generally connected together.

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• To sense the phase voltage by pressure coil and

the phase current by the current coil, it must be
connected as shown in the Fig.

• But connecting wattmeter to measure phase

power is not always possible because many times
neutral point of star connected load is not
available.

• Similarly in delta connected load it is necessary to

open delta load to insert current coil of the
wattmeter, which is not practicable.

• Hence the best method of measuring power

whether load is star or delta connected, balanced
or unbalanced, neutral is available or not is, using
only two wattmeters which is called Two
Wattmeter Method.
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 Two Wattmeter Method
Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• The current coils of the two wattmeters are connected in

any two lines while the voltage coil of each wattmeter is
connected between its own current coil terminal and the
line without a current coil. For example, the current coils
are inserted in the lines R and Y then the pressure coils are
connected between R - B for one wattmeter and Y- B for
other wattmeter, as shown in the Fig.

• The connections are same for star or delta connected load.

It can be shown that when two wattmeters are connected in
this way, the algebraic sum of the two wattmeter readings
gives the total power dissipated in the three phase circuit.

• If W1 and W2 are the two wattmeter readings then total

power W= W1 + W2 = Three phase power = 3 VL IL cos∅

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 151
Proof – Start Connected Load

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 152
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 153
Proof – Delta Connected Load

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 154
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 155
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 156
Note
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 157
Power Factor Calculation

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

The method is applicable for balanced as well as unbalanced

loads.

Neutral point for star connected load is not necessary to

connect the wattmeters.

The delta connected load, need not be opened for connecting

the wattmeters.

Advantages Only two wattmeters are sufficient to measure total 3 phase

power.

If the load is balanced not only the power but power factor also
can be determined.

Total reactive volt amperes can be obtained using two

wattmeter readings for balanced loads.

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Dr. Nageswara Rao A, Head I & E, EEE, CMRIT

• Not applicable for three phase, 4 wire system

• The signs of W1 and W2 must be identified and

Disadvantages noted down correctly otherwise it may lead to

the wrong results.

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