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Module 2 IEE

Introduction to Electrical Engineering (Visvesvaraya Technological University)

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MODULE-2
A.C. Fundamentals: Equation of AC Voltage and current, waveform, time period, frequency,
amplitude, phase, phase difference, average value, RMS value, form factor, peak factor. (only
definitions) Voltage and current relationship with phasor diagrams in R, L, and C circuits.
Concept of Impedance. Analysis of R-L, R-C, R-L-C Series circuits. Active power, reactive
power and apparent power. Concept of power factor. (Simple Numerical). Three Phase
Circuits: Generation of Three phase AC quantity, advantages and limitations; star and delta
connection, relationship between line and phase quantities (excluding proof).

A.C FUNDAMENTALS
Important definitions:
Important terms/definitions, which are frequently used while dealing with ac circuits, are
as given below:

1. Alternating quantity: An alternating quantity is one which acts in alternate positive and
negative directions, whose magnitude undergoes a definite series of changes in definite
intervals of time and in which the sequence of changes while negative is identical with
the sequence of changes while positive.

e = Em sin ωt….1
We know that θ = ωt

e = Em sin θ…..…2
It is clear from this expression of alternating e.m.f. induced in the coil that instantaneous
e.m.f. varies as the sin of the time angle (θ or ωt).
ω = 2πf, where f is the frequency of rotation of the coil. Hence eqn.(2) can be written as
e = Em sin 2πft…4
If T = time of the alternating voltage = 1/f , then eqn.(4) may be re-written as
2π
e = Em sin 𝑇
t

so, the e.m.f. induced varies as the sine function of the time angle, ωt, and if e.m.f. induced is
plotted against time, a curve of sine wave shape is obtained as shown in Fig below. Such an
e.m.f. is called sinusoidal when the coil moves through an angle of 2π radians.

Equation of Alternating Current:

When an alternating voltage e = Em sin ωt is applied across a load, alternating current

flows through the circuit which will also have a sinusoidal variation. The expression for the
alternating current is given by:

i= Im sin ωt……………………………………………………………………………..(6)

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Different Forms of E.M.F. Equation

The standard form of an alternating voltage,

2π
e = Em sin θ = Em sin ωt = Em sin 2πf t = Em sin 𝑇
t

from the above equation we find that,

a) The amplitude or peak value or maximum value of an alternating voltage is given by

the coefficient of the sine of the time angle.
b) The frequency f is given by the coefficient of time divided by 2π.

2. Waveform: The graph between an alternating quantity (voltage or current) and time is
called waveform. Generally, alternating quantity is depicted along the X-axis and time
along the -Y-axis. Figure below show the waveform of a sinusoidal voltage.
e
+Em

0
π/2 π 3π/2 2π ω

-Em

Figure : A sinusoidal waveform

3. Instantaneous value: The value of an alternating quantity at any instant is called

instantaneous value.The instantaneous values of alternating voltage and current are
represented by 'e' and ‘i’ respectively.

4. Alternation and Cycle: When an alternating quantity goes through one half cycle
(complete set of +ve or –ve values) it completes an alternation, and when it goes through
a complete set of + ve and –ve values, it is said to have completed one cycle.

5. Amplitude: It is the maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during one

completed cycle. It is also called as maximum or peak value. The amplitude of
alternating current and voltage is represented by Em and Im respectively.

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6. Periodic Time and Frequency: The time taken in seconds by an alternating quantity to
complete one cycle is known as periodic time and is denoted by T.

The number of cycles completed per second by an alternating quantity is known as frequency
and is denoted by ‘f’ In the SI system, the frequency is expressed in hertz.

The number of cycles completed per second =f.

The periodic time T= time taken in completing one cycle=1/f
Or f=1/T.
7. Average Value:
The arithmetic average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one cycle is called its
average value

8. RMS or Effective Value

The effective or RMS value of an alternating quantity is that steady current (dc) which when
flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the same amount of heat
produced by the alternating current flowing through the same resistance for the same time.
Irms = Im / √2

Form Factor and crest or peak or Amplitude Factor (Kf)

A definite relationship exists between crest value (or peak value), average value and
r.m.s.value of an alternating quantity.

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1. Form Factor: The ratio of effective value (or r.m.s. value) to average value of an
alternating quantity (voltage or current) is called form factor, i.e.

𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Form Factor, Kf = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

For sinusoidal alternating current,

Hence, the R.M.S. value (of current or voltage) is 1.11 times its average value.

2. Crest or Peak or Amplitude Factor (Ka): It is defined as the ratio of maximum value
to the effective value (r.m.s. value) of an alternating quantity. i.e.,
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Ka = 𝑟.𝑚.𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝐼𝑚
For sinusoidal alternating current, Ka = 𝐼𝑚 = 2 = 1.414
2

For sinusoidal alternating voltage,

𝐸𝑚
Ka = 𝐸𝑚 = 1.414
2

Phasor Representation

An alternating quantity can be represented using

(i) Waveform
(ii) Equations
(iii) Phasor

A sinusoidal alternating quantity can be represented by a rotating line called a Phasor.

A phasor is a line of definite length rotating in anticlockwise direction at a constant angular

velocity.

Phase

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Phase is defined as the fractional part of time period or cycle through which the quantity has
advanced from the selected zero position of reference.

Phase Difference

When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero points, they are
said to have a phase difference. The angle between the zero points is the angle of phase
difference. In Phase

Two waveforms are said to be in phase, when the phase difference between them is zero.
That is the zero points of both the waveforms are same.

Equation of alternating E.M.F.

Consider a rectangular coil of N turns rotating in the anticlockwise direction, with an
angular velocity of ω radians per second in a uniform magnetic field as shown in Figure
below. Let the time be measured from the instant of coincidence of the plane of the coil with
theX-axis. At this instant maximum flux Φmax links with the coil. As the coil rotates, the flux
linking with it changes and hence e.m.f. is induced in it. Let the coil turn through an angle θ
in time tseconds, and let it assume the position as shown in Fig andθ = ωt.

When the coil is in this position, the maximum flux acting vertically downwards can
be resolved into two components, each perpendicular to the other, namely;
a) Component Φmaxsin ωt, parallel to the plane of the coil. This component does not
induce e.m.f as it is parallel to the plane of the coil.

b) Component Φmaxcosωt, perpendicular to the plane of coil. This component induced

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e.m.f in the coil.

Flux linkages of coil at that instant (at θ̊) is

= No. of turns in coil x flux linking in each turn of coil

= N Φmaxcosωt
As per faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic induction, the e.m.f. induced in a coil is equal to
the rate of change of flux linkages of the coil. So, instantaneous e.m.f, e induced in the coil at
this instant is:

It is apparent from eqn.(1) that the value of e will be maximum (Em), when the coil has
0 0
rotated through 90 (as sin 90 = 1)

Thus Em = N ω Φmax volts…………………………………………………………..…(2)

Substituting the value of N ω Φmax from eqn.(2) in eqn.(1), we obtain:

e = Em sin ωt
We know that θ = ωt

e = Em sin θ……………………………………………………………………..…(3)
It is clear from this expression of alternating e.m.f. induced in the coil that
instantaneous e.m.f. varies as the sin of the time angle (θ or ωt).
ω = 2πf, where f is the frequency of rotation of the coil. Hence eqn.(3) can be written
as

e = Em sin 2πft………………………...…………………………………………(4)

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RMS or Effective Value

The effective or RMS value of an alternating quantity is that steady current (dc) which when
flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the same amount of heat
produced by the alternating current flowing through the same resistance for the same time

Average Value

The arithmetic average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one cycle is
called its average value

Voltage and Current relationships with phasor diagrams in R, L and C

Circuits
The path for the flow of alternating current is called an a.c. circuit. In a d.c. circuit, the
current/flowing through the circuit is given by the simple relation I = V/R . However, in an
a.c. circuit, voltage and current change from instant to instant and so give rise to magnetic
(inductive) and electrostatic (capacitive) effects. So, in an a.c. circuit, inductance and
capacitance must be considered in addition to resistance.

We shall now deal with the following a.c. circuits:

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i) AC circuit containing pure ohmic resistance only.

ii) AC circuit containing pure inductance only.
iii) AC circuit containing pure capacitance only.

i)AC circuit containing pure ohmic Resistance

When an alternating voltage is applied across a pure ohmic resistance, electrons (current)
flow in one direction during the first half-cycle and in the opposite direction during the next
half-cycle, thus constituting alternating current in the circuit.
Consider an a.c. circuit with just a pure resistance R only, as shown in Figure 1.11

Let the applied voltage be given by the equation

V = Vm sin θ= Vmsinωt…………………………………………………………… (i)

As a result of this alternating voltage, alternating current i will flow through the

circuit. The applied voltage has to supply the drop in the resistance, i.e.

V= iR
Substituting the value of v from eqn. (i), we get

Vmsinωt = iR or i= sin ωt ……....(ii)

The value of the alternating current i is maximum when sinωt = 1,

i.e., Im=Vm/ R
Eqn.(ii) becomes,
i =Im sin ωt…………………... (iii)
From eqns.(i) and (ii), it is apparent that voltage and current are in phase with each other.
This is also indicated by the wave and vector diagram shown in Figure 1.122.

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Power: The voltage and current are changing at every instant.

Therefore, instantaneous Power p = Vmsinωt . Imsinωt
= VmIm sin2ωt
= VmIm(1- cos 2ωt)/2
= VmIm/2 – (VmIm/2)(cos 2ωt)
The average value of (VmIm/2)(cos 2ωt) over a complete cycle is zero.
So, power for the complete cycle is,

P= VmIm/2= (Vm/ 2 )(Im/ 2)= VI watts.

Power curve
The power curve for a purely resistive circuit is shown in Fig. 1.13. It is apparent that
power in such a circuit is zero only at the instants a,b and c, when both voltage and current
are zero, but is positive at all other instants. In other words, power is never negative, so that
power is always lost in a resistive a.c. circuit. This power is dissipated as heat.

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ii) A.C. circuit containing pure Inductance

An inductive coil is a coil with or without an iron core and has negligible resistance. In
practice, pure inductance can never be had as the inductive coil has always a small
resistance. However, a coil of thick copper wire wound on a laminated iron core has
negligible resistance, so, for the purpose of our study, we will consider a purely inductive
coil.

On the application of an alternating voltage (Figure 1.14) to a circuit containing a pure

inductance, a back e.m.f. is produced due to the self-inductance of the coil. This back e.m.f.
opposes the rise or fall of current, at every stage. Because of the absence of voltage drop, the
applied voltage has to overcome this self-induced e.m.f. only.

Let an applied voltage be v= Vm sin ωt and self-inductance of the coil = L Henry

𝑑𝑖
Self induced emf , e = - L 𝑑𝑡

Since the applied voltage at every instant is equal and opposite to the self induced e.m.f.
i.e v= -e

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𝑑𝑖
Vm sin ωt = - L 𝑑𝑡

Or di= (-Vm/L) sinωt

Integrating both sides,

i= (Vm/L)∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡

i= (Vm/ωL)(-cosωt)+ A
where A is a constant of integration and A=0
π π π
so, i= (Vm/ωL)[- {sin ( 2
− ω𝑡)}] Since,{- (sin ( 2
− ω𝑡))} = sin (ωt - 2
)

π
ori= (Vm/ωL)[{sin (ωt - 2
)}]

π
therefore, i =Im sin(ωt - 2
)

π
current will be maximum when sin (ωt - 2
)=1 and maximum value Im=Vm/ωL

π
we have, i= Imsin( ωt - 2
) and v = Vm sinωt

from the above expressions of instantaneous applied voltage and the instantaneous current
flowing through a purely inductive coil, it is clear that the current lags behind the voltage by
π
2
or 90° as shown in figure 1.15

Inductive Reactance:

ωL in the expression Im = is known as inductive reactance and is denoted by ,

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i.e., =ωL.

If L is in henry and ω is in radians per second, then will be in ohms. So, inductive
reactance plays the part of resistance.
Power: Instantaneous Power,
π
p= v x i = Vm sin ωt x Imsin (ωt- 2
)

= - VmImsin ωtcosωt
= - (VmImsin 2ωt)/2
The power measured by a wattmeter is the average value of p, which is zero since
average of a sinusoidal quantity of double frequency over a complete cycle is zero. Put in
mathematical terms,

Power consumed by the inductor for the whole cycle of input, P = - dt =

0
Hence, power absorbed in a pure inductive circuit is zero.
Power curve
The power curve for a pure inductive circuit is shown in Fig. 1.16 This indicates that
power absorbed in the circuit is zero. At the instants a,c and e, voltage is zero, so that power
is zero: it is also zero at points b and d when the current is zero. Between a and b voltage and
current are in opposite directions, so that power is negative and energy is taken from the
circuit. Between b and c voltage and current are in the same direction, so that power is
positive and is put back into the circuit. Similarly, between c and d, power is taken from the
circuit and between d and e it is put into the circuit. Hence, net power is zero.

Figure 1.16

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AC circuit containing pure capacitance

When an alternating voltage is applied across the plates of a capacitor, the capacitor is
charged in one direction and then in the opposite direction as the voltage reverses. With
reference to Figure 1.17

Let alternating voltage represented by, v= Vm sin ωt isapplied across a capacitor of

capacitance C Farads.
Instantaneous Charge, q= Cv = C Vm sin ωt
Capacitor current is equal to the rate of change of charge or
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
i= 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡
(C Vm sin ωt)

= ωCVmcosωt
𝑉𝑚
= 1/ω𝐶
cosωt

𝑉𝑚 π
Or i= 1/ω𝐶
sin (ωt + 2
)

Hence, current is maximum at t=0,

𝑉𝑚
And Im= 1/ω𝐶

π
i= Im sin (ωt+ 2
)

𝑉𝑚
Capacitive Reactance: 1/ω𝐶 in the expression Im= 1/ω𝐶 is known as capacitive reactance
and is denoted by Xc.

i.e., Xc =1/ω𝐶

If C is farads and ω is in radians, then Xc will be in ohms.

It is seen that if the applied voltage is given by,v= Vm sin ωt then the current is given by
π
i =Im sin (ωt+ 2
)

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this shows that the current in a pure capacitor leads its voltage by a quarter cycle as shown in
Figure 1.18, or phase difference between its voltage and current is with the current leading.

Power: Instantaneous Power,

P = vi
π
= Vm sin ωt. Im sin (ωt+ 2
)

= VmIm sin ωtcosωt

= Imsin 2ωt
Power for the complete cycle

= Im dt = 0

Hence power absorbed in a capacitive circuit is zero.

Hence power absorbed in a capacitive circuit is zero.

Power curves:
At the instants b,d, the current is zero, so that power is zero(Figure 1.19); it is also zero
at the instants a,c and e, when the voltage is zero. Between a and b, voltage and current are in
the same direction, so that power is positive and is being put back in the circuit. Between b
and c, voltage and current are in the opposite directions, so that power is negative and energy
is taken from the circuit. Similarly, between c and d, power is put back into the circuit, and
between d and e it is taken from the circuit.

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Figure 1.19

Therefore, power absorbed in a pure capacitive circuit is zero.

1. The equation for an AC voltage is given byV = 0.04Sin (2000t +60)̊.

Determine the frequency, angular frequency, instantaneous voltage when t
=160μs.

V = 0.04Sin (2000t +60°) Comparing with general equation

V = Vm Sin (wt +ø)

w = 2∏f ;

f = 2000/2∏ = 318.30Hz.

T = 1/f = 3.14ms

For V = 0.04Sin (2000t +60°)

put t = 160μs

V = 0.04Sin (2000(160*10-6) +60°)

=0.034V

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Series R-L circuit

Let us consider an a.c. circuit containing a pure resistance R ohms and a pure inductance of L
henrys, as shown in Figure 1.20

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Figure 1.20
Let V = r.m.s. value of the applied voltage
I = r.m.s. value of the current

Voltage drop across R, VR = IR (in phase with I)

0
Voltage drop across L, VL = IXL (leading I by 90 )

The voltage drops across these two circuit components are shown in Figure 1.21, where
vector OA indicates VR and AB indicates VL. The applied voltage V is the vector sum of
the two, i.e., OB.

2 2
V= = =I 𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿

𝑉
Therefore, I=
2 2
𝑅 +𝑋𝐿

2 2
The term 𝑅 + 𝑋𝐿 indicates opposition to current flow and is called the impedance
(Z) of the circuit. It is measured in ohms.
Referring to the impedance triangle ABC (figure 3.22),
2
Z2= R2+𝑋𝐿

Figure 1.21:Voltage triangle Figure 1.22:Impedance triangle

Referring back to Figure 1.21, we observe that the applied voltage V leads the current I by an
angle Φ .

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𝑉𝐿 𝐼 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐿 ω𝐿 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡
tanΦ= 𝑉𝑅
= 𝐼𝑅
= 𝑅
= 𝑅
= 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡

𝑋𝐿
∴ Φ= 𝑅

The same feature is shown by means of waveform in figure 1.23. The current lags behind the
applied voltage by an angle Φ.

Figure 1.23

Average power consumed by the circuit is, P = VRI+ VLI

= VRI +0 {since, power consumed by pure inductor is zero}
P = I(V cosɸ) = VI cosɸ
The power consumed can be represented by means of waveform in Fig. 1.25

The power curve for R-L series circuit is shown in Figure 1.25. The curve indicates that the
greater part is positive and the smaller part is negative, so that the net power over the cycle is
positive. During the time interval a to b, applied voltage and current are in opposite
directions, so that power is negative. Under such conditions, the inductance L returns power
to the circuit. During the period b to c, the applied voltage and current are in the same

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direction so that power is positive , and therefore, power is put into the circuit. In a similar
way, during the period c to d, inductance L returns power to the circuit while between d and
e, power is put into the circuit. The power absorbed by resistance R is converted into heat
and not returned.

Series R-C circuit

Consider an a.c. circuit containing resistance R ohms and capacitance C farads as shown in
figure 1.26(a)

Figure 1.26

Let V = r.m.s. value of the applied voltage

I = r.m.s. value of the current

Voltage drop across R, VR = IR (in phase with I)

0
Voltage drop across C, VC = IXC (lagging I by 90 )

We have,

2 2 2 2
V= 𝑉𝑅 + (− 𝑉𝐶) = (𝐼𝑅) + (− 𝐼𝑋𝐶)

2 2
=I 𝑅 + 𝑋𝐶

2 2
Therefore, I= V/ 𝑅 + 𝑋𝐶 = V/Z

Where, Z = impedance of the circuit.

Power factor, cosΦ= R/Z { from figure 1.26 c)}
𝑋𝐶
Fig. 3.26(b) shows that I leads V by an angle Φ, so that tan Φ = - 𝑅

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This implies that if the alternating voltage is v = Vm sin ωt, the resultant current in the R
– C circuit is given by, i= Imsin(ωt+Φ) such that the current leads the applied voltage by an
angle Φ as shown in the figure 1.27.

Average power consumed by the circuit is, P = VRI+ VCI

= VRI +0 {since, power consumed by pure inductor is zero}
P = I(V cosɸ) = VI cosɸ

Figure 1.27

Power curves: The power curve for R–C series circuit is shown in figure 1.28. The curve
indicates that the greater part is positive and the smaller part is negative, so that the net
power is positive.

Figure 1.28

vi) Resistance, Inductance and capacitance in series (RLC – Series Circuit)

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Consider an a.c. series circuit containing resistance R ohms, Inductance L

henry and capacitance C farads, as shown in the figure 1.29.

Figure 1.29

Let V = r.m.s. value of the applied voltage

I = r.m.s. value of the current in the circuit

Voltage drop across R, VR = IR (in phase with I)

0
Voltage drop across L, VL = IXL (leading I by 90 )
0
Voltage drop across C, VC = IXC (lagging I by 90 )

Referring to the voltage triangle of Figure 1.30, OA represents VR, AB and AC represent
0
inductive and capacitive drops respectively. We observe that VL and VC are 180 out of
phase.

Figure 1.30

Thus, the net reactive drop across the combination is

AD = AB – AC
= AB – BD (∵ BD = AC)

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= VL – VC

= I(XL- XC)

OD, which represents the applied voltage V, is the vector sum of OA and AD.

OD=

Ie, V=

2 2
V=I 𝑅 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶)

2 2 2 2
Or I= V / 𝑅 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶) where, the denominator 𝑅 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶) is the impedance

of the circuit.

2 2
Z= 𝑅 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶)

𝑋𝐿−𝑋𝐶
Phase angle is given by, tanΦ = 𝑅

𝑅
Power factor, cosΦ= 𝑍

2 2
cosΦ = R/ 𝑅 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶)

Power P=VI cosΦ

If applied voltage is represented by the equation v = Vm sin ωt, then the resulting current
in an R – L – C circuit is given by the equation

i = Imsin( ωt± Φ )

If XC>XL , then the current leads and the +ve sign is to be used in the above equation.

If XL> XC, then the current lags and the –ve sign is to be used.

If any case, the current leads or lags the supply voltage by an angle Φ, so that

𝑋
tanΦ= 𝑅
. If we employ the j operator, then we have

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Z = R + j (XL -

XC) The value of the

impedance is Z =
2 2
𝑅 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶)

Figure 1.31

-1
The phase angle Φ = tan (
𝑋𝐿−𝑋𝐶
𝑅
)

Definition of Real power, Reactive Power, Apparent power and power Factor

Let a series R-L circuit draw a current I (r.m.s. value) when an alternating voltage of r.m.s.
value V is applied to it. Suppose the current lags behind the applied voltage by an angle as
shown in Fig. 1.32.

Figure 1.32
i) Power Factor

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Power factor may be defined as the cosine of the angle of lead or lag. In Fig. 1.32, the
angle of lag is shown

𝑃
Or power factor, cosɸ is the ratio of active power to apparent power ie, cosɸ = 𝑉𝐼 .

In addition to having a numerical value, the power factor of a circuit carries a notation that
signifies the nature of the circuit, i.e., whether the equivalent circuit is resistive, inductive or
capacitive. Thus, the p.f. might be expressed as 0.8 lagging. The lagging and leading refers
to the phase of the current vector with respect to the voltage vector. Thus, a lagging power
factor means that the current lags the voltage and the circuit is inductive in nature. However,
in the case of leading power factor, the current leads the voltage and the circuit is capacitive.

ii) Apparent Power: The product of r.m.s. values of current and voltage, VI, is called the
apparent power and is measured in volt-amperes (VA) or in kilo-volt amperes (KVA).

S=VI (VA)

iii) Active power(P) or Real Power: The real power in an a.c. circuit is obtained by
multiplying the apparent power by the power factor and is expressed in watts or kilo-watts
(kW).

Real power (W) = volt-amperes × power factor cosΦ

or Watts = VA cos Φ

Thus, P= VI cosΦ

iv) Reactive Power: It is the power developed in the reactive components (L and C) of the
circuit. The quantity VI sinΦ is called the reactive power; it is measured in reactive
volt-amperes (VAR).

Q= VI sinΦ (VAR)

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THREE PHASE AC CIRCUITS

Advantages of three phase system:
In the three phase system, the alternator armature has three windings and it produces three
independent alternating voltages. The magnitude and frequency of all of them is equal but
they have a phase difference of 120° between each other.
Such a three phase system has following advantages over single phase system
1. The output of three phase machine is always greater than single phase machine of
same size, approximately 1.5 times. So for a given size and voltage a three phase
alternator occupies less space and has less cost too than single phase having same
rating.
2. For a transmission and distribution, three phase system needs less copper or less
conducting material than single phase system for same power and under same loss. So
transmission becomes very much economical.
3. It is possible to produce rotating magnetic field with stationary coils by using three
phase system. Hence three phase motors are self-starting.
4. In single phase system, the instantaneous power is a function of time and hence
fluctuates w.r.t. time. This fluctuating power causes considerable vibrations in single
phase motors. Hence performance of single phase motors is poor. While instantaneous
power in symmetrical three phase system is constant.
5. Three phase system give steady output even when connected in parallel.
6. Single phase supply can be obtained from three phase, because voltage can be
obtained between line and phase. But three phase cannot be obtained from single
phase.
7. Power factor of single phase motors is poor than three phase motors of same rating.
8. For converting machines like rectifiers, the d.c. output voltage becomes smoother if
number of phases are increased.
9. Three phase systems produce uniform torque. But it is found that optimum number of
phases required to get all above said advantages is three.

Any further increase in number of phases cause a lot of complications. Hence three phase
system is accepted as standard polyphase system throughout the world.

GENERATION OF 3-PHASE VOLTAGES

Three phase power is generated using alternator. Alternator contains stator (stationary

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part) and rotor (rotating part). The stator is cylindrical in shape and has slots in its inner
periphery as shown in the figure below. The conductors are placed in the slots. They are
connected either in star or delta. Rotor is a magnet with two poles ‘N & S’.
In the 3-phase system, there are three equal voltages of the same frequency but displaced
from one another by 120°electrical. These voltages are produced by a three-phase generator
which has three identical windings or phases displaced 120°electrical apart. When these
windings are rotated in a magnetic field, e.m.f. is induced in each winding or phase. These
e.m.f. s are of the same magnitude and frequency but are displaced from one another by
120°electrical.
Consider three electrical coils a a’, b b’, c c’ mounted on the same axis but displaced from
each other by 120°electrical. Let the three coils be rotated in an anticlockwise direction in a
bipolar magnetic field with an angular velocity of ω radians/sec, as shown in figure below.
Here a, b, c are the start terminals and a’, b’, c’ are the end terminals of the coils.
When the coil a a’ is in the position AB as shown, the magnitude and direction of the e.m.f’s
induced in the various coils is as under:

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Figure 3.25
● E.m.f. induced in coil a a’ is zero and is increasing in the positive direction. This is
indicated phase 1 wave in Fig(b).
● The coil b b’ is 120°electrically behind coil a a’. The e.m.f. induced in this coil is
negative and is approaching maximum negative value. This is indicated phase 2 wave
in Fig(b)
● The coil c c’ is 240°electrically behinda1a2 or 120° electrically behind coil b b’. The
e.m.f induced in this coil is positive and is decreasing. This is indicated by wave
ec1c2.

Thus, it is apparent that the e.m.f.’s induced in the three coils are of the same magnitude and
frequency but displaced 120°electrical from each other.
Vector Diagram:
The r.m.s. values of the three phase voltage are shown vectorially in Fig(c).

Definition of phase sequence:

The order in which the voltages in the phases reach their maximum positive values is called
the phase sequence.
It is either 'abc' or 'acb' .

'abc' sequence -- waveform 'a' reaches the peak first , followed by 'b'

and 'c' . 'acb' sequence -- waveform 'a' reaches the peak first ,

followed by 'c' and 'b' .

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In the figure , phase1 reaches the peak first , followed by 'phase 2' and 'phase 3' .
In other words, the order in which the e.m.f’s in the three phases a a’,b b’ and c c’ attain their
maximum positive values is a,b,c. Hence, the phase sequence is a,b,c.

Naming the phases:

The 3 phases may be numbered (1,2,3) or lettered (a,b,c) or specified colours (R Y B). By
normal convention, sequence RYB is considered positive and R B Y negative.
Balanced supply and balanced load :
When the phase voltages generated by each phase of a 3 phase circuit is equal and having a
phase difference is 120° between one another, such a system is called balanced supply.

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Balanced load:
When the impedance of all the three phases are equal, then the current flowing through these
three phases because of the balanced supply, will also be equal in magnitude, and will also
have a phase difference of 120° with one another. Such an arrangement is called a balanced
load.

Relation between line & phase values of balanced star connections:

This system is obtained by joining together similar ends, either the start or the finish; the
other ends are joined to the line wires, as shown in Fig.2 (a). The common point N at which
similar (start or finish) ends are connected is called the neutral or star point. Normally, only
three wires are carried to the external circuit, giving a 3-phase, 3-wire, star-connected system.
However, sometimes a fourth wire known as neutral wire, is carried to the neutral point of the
external load circuit, giving a 3-phase, 4-wire connected system
The voltage between any line and the neutral point, i.e., voltage across the phase winding, is called the
phase voltage; while the voltage between any two lines is called line voltage. Usually, the neutral
point is connected to earth. The arrow heads on e.m.f. and currents indicate the positive direction.
Here, the 3-phases are numbered as usual: R,Y and B indicate the three natural colours red, yellow
and blue respectively. By convention, sequence RYB is taken as positive and RBY as negative. In Fig
2(b), the e.m.f induced in the three phases, are shown vectorially. The potential difference between the
two lines,know as line voltage, is the vector difference of phase e.m.f.s of the two phases concerned.
Let IR, IY, IB → Line Currents

VRY, VYB, VBR → Line Voltages

VR, VY, VB → Phase Voltages

For example, the potential difference between lines R and Y or line voltage ERY, is the vector
difference of phase e.m.f.s ER and EY or vector sum of phase e.m.f.s ER and (-EY)

VL = √𝟑Vp IL = IPH

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a. connection diagram

Relationship between Line & Phase Values of Balanced Delta Connection:

Figure 3

When the starting end of one coil is connection to the finishing end of another coil, as shown
in Fig 3(a), delta or mesh connection is obtained. The direction of the e.m.f’s is as shown in
the diagram. From Fig.3, it is clear that line current is the vector difference of phase currents
of the two phases concerned. For example, the line current in red IR will be equal to the
vector difference of phase currents IYR and IRB.

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Let IR, IY, IB → Line currents

IRY, IYB, IBR → Phase Currents

IL = √𝟑 Iph VL = Vph

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