Phys 203: Mathematical Physics
Chapter 4
Complex Variables
Professor Dr M Mahbubur Rahman
Department of Physics
Jahangirnagar University, Savar, Dhaka 1342
Email: [email protected] 1
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Reference Book
Complex Variables
Schaum’s Outlines Series
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Cauchy’s Integral Formulas
Let f(z) be analytic inside and on a simple closed curve C
and let a be any point inside C. Then
……………………………………..…. (1)
…………………. (2)
The result in Eq. (1) can be considered a special case of Eq.
(2) with n = 0, if we define, 0! = 1.
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
The results in Eqs. (1) and (2) are called Cauchy’s
integral formula and are quite remarkable because they
show that if a function f(z) is known on the simple
closed curve C, then the values of the function and all its
derivatives can be found at all points inside C.
Thus, if a function of a complex variable has a first
derivative, i.e., is analytic, in a simply-connected region
R, all its higher derivatives exist in R.
This is not necessarily true for functions of real
variables.
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Proof of Cauchy’s Integral Formula
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
where we choose Γ as a circle of radius ϵ with center at a.
Hence,
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Taking the limits on both sides of Eq. (2) and making use
of the continuity of f(z), we have
Thus, we finally have
Proved
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Problem
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Taylor Series/ Taylor Expansion/Taylor Theorem
(1)
(2)
The expressions given in Equations (1)
and/or (2) is called a Taylor series, Taylor
theorem, or Taylor expansion for f(a+ h)
or f(z).
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Laurent’s Theorem
Let C1 and C2 be concentric circles of radii R1 and R2, respectively, and
centre at a as shown in Figure. Suppose that f(z) is single-valued and analytic
on C1 and C2 and, in the ring-shaped region R [also called the annulus or
annular region] between C1 and C2, is shown shaded area in the Figure. Let z
= (a+h) be any point in R, then we have
(1)
(2)
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
In the above integrations, we can replace C1 and C2 by any
concentric circle C between C1 and C2. Then, the
coefficients in Eqs. (2) can be written using a single
formula given in Eq. (3):
(3)
(4)
(5)
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
This is called Laurent’s theorem and Eq. (1) or Eq. (4) with
coefficients given in Eq. (2), Eq. (3), or Eq. (5) is called a
Laurent’s series or Laurent’s expansion.
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Example of Removable Singularity
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Essential Singularity
If f (z) is single-valued, then any singularity that is a
pole and is not removable is called an essential
singularity. If z = a is an essential singularity of f (z),
the principal part of the Laurent expansion has
infinitely many terms. For example,
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Essential Singularity
of the Laurent series, involving negative powers
of (z−a), is called the principal part of f(z) at a.
The coefficient a-n in Eq. (1), plays a very special role
in complex analysis. It is given a special name:
the residue of the function f(z).
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Essential Singularity
If an infinite number of the coefficients a-n in
the principal part Eq. (1) are nonzero, then a is
said to be an essential singular point or
essential singularity of f(z).
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Poles (has many meanings, but singularity of complex function is more
significant) at poles the function is undefined and has singularities.
If f(z) has the form,
and the principal part of f(z) has only a finite number of
terms given by
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Simple Pole
Pole of order 1
Multiple poles
Pole of order 2 or more
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Residues
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
What are Residues?
If a point z = a is a pole of the complex function
f(z) which is otherwise analytic, then the function
may be expanded in terms of Laurent’s series
expansion about z = a. If the point z = a is a pole of
order n, in Laurent series expansion the coefficient
a-1 is called the residue of f(z) at the pole z = a.
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Let f (z) be single-valued and analytic inside and on
a circle C except at the point z = a, which is a pole
of the complex function f(z) and may be expanded
in terms of Laurent series expansion about z = a:
(1)
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Where, (2)
(3)
We call a-1 the residue of f(z) at z = a.
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Cauchy’s Residue Theorem
Let f (z) be single-valued and analytic inside and on a
simple closed curve C except at the singularities a, b, c, . . .
inside C, which have residues given by a-1, b-1, c-1, . . . .
Then, the residue theorem states that
This means that, the integral of f (z) around C is 2π times
the sum of the residues of f (z) at the singularities enclosed
by C.
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Q. State and Prove the Residue Theorem
With centres at a, b, c, . . ., respectively, let us construct
circles C1, C2, C3, . . . that lie entirely inside C as shown in
the following Figure. This can be done since a, b, c, . . . are
interior points.
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Since, f(z) is an analytic function in a region bounded by
four simple closed curves C, C1, C2, and C3 [where C1,
C2, and C3 lie inside C as seen from the figure], and on
these curves, then we have
(1)
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
But we know that
Using these relationships in Equation (1), we get
(3)
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Calculations of Residues
To obtain the residue of a function f (z) at z = a,
the Laurent expansion of f (z) about z = a must be
obtained. However, in the case where z = a is a
pole of order k, there is a simple formula for a-1
given by
(4)
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
If k = 1 (simple pole), then we have
(5) Because k = 1, and 0! = 1
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Home Work (p. 211 Schaum’s Outline Series)
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Problem # 2
Solution to problem # 2
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Solution to Problem # 2
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
Home Work (p. 213) Schaum’s Outline)
Chapter 4: Complex
Variables
k You for Listening
han
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