The Digestive System - Chapter 24

▪ The digestive system has two anatomical subdivisions:

o The digestive tract organs
• Also called the gut or alimentary canal
• A series of hollow organs joined from mouth to anus
• Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large
intestine
• Stomach and intestines are gastrointestinal (GI) tract
o Accessory organs (solid organs)
• Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, pancreas
 Digestive System Processes
▪ The digestive system performs the following processes:

▪ Ingestion: Intake of food through the mouth

▪ Digestion: Breakdown of food into pieces small enough to allow absorption.

o Mechanical digestion: mechanical processes, such as chewing and churning.
o Chemical digestion: digestive enzymes break down macromolecules into their subunits.

▪ Absorption: Uptake of digested food by cells lining the small intestine. From there, nutrients
enter the blood for delivery to cells.

▪ Compaction: water is absorbed, and indigestible residue is compacted into faeces

▪ Elimination: Removal of undigested and unabsorbed food.

 General Structure of Digestive Tract Organs
Layers:
1. Mucosa (mucous membrane)
▪ Epithelium
o Stratified squamous in mouth, pharynx,
esophagus, and anal canal
o Simple, cuboidal in other structures

▪ Lamina Propria
o Areolar connective tissue.
o Contains mucosal associated lymphoid tissue

▪ Muscularis Mucosa
o Usually 2 layers of smooth muscle.
o Tenses the mucosae creating grooves and
ridges (increases surface area).
 General Structure of Digestive Tract Organs
2. Submucosa
▪ Areolar connective tissue.
▪ Blood vessels, lymphatic vessels.
▪ Mucous glands.
▪ Submucosal plexus.
o Local circuitry of neurons that regulates glandular secretions and local blood flow, and
muscularis mucosa
 General Structure of Digestive Tract Organs
3. Muscularis Externa
▪ Usually 2 layers of smooth muscle:
o Inner layer circularly oriented around lumen
o Outer layer longitudinally oriented around lumen.
o Inner smooth muscle layer forms valves (sphincters) in some regions.
▪ Myenteric plexus
o Regulates contraction of muscularis externa.
o Produces peristalsis and mixing of food
 General Structure of Digestive Tract Organs
4. Serosa or Adventitia
▪ Serosa
o Surrounds intraperitoneal organs that lie
within peritoneal cavity
o Double-walled serous membrane
(peritoneum)

▪ Adventitia
o Fibrous connective tissue layer.
o Surrounds retroperitoneal organs that lie
outside of the peritoneal cavity.
o Attaches organs to the abdominal wall
 Recap on Peritoneum and Intraperitoneal versus Retroperitoneal
▪ Intraperitoneal
o Enclosed on both sides by visceral peritoneum.
▪ Retroperitoneal
o Lies against body wall with only anterior surface covered by visceral peritoneum
 Mesenteries
▪ Double-layers of visceral peritoneum
▪ Contain a thin layer of connective tissue in between
o Maintain positions of abdominal organs in relation to each
other.
o Prevent twisting of the small intestine.
o Nerves and blood vessels serving digestive organs pass
through.
 Digestive Organs: Oral Cavity
▪ Site of food ingestion.
▪ Lined by stratified squamous epithelium.
▪ Extends from oral fissure to fauces of oropharynx.

Palate
▪ Separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity.
▪ Hard palate: anterior region; supported by bone
(maxilla and palatine); immovable.
▪ Soft palate: posterior region; skeletal muscle and
glands but no bone; movable.
o Uvula: projection from the middle of soft palate.

▪ Teeth
▪ Break food into smaller pieces.
▪ Suspended in an alveolus by a fibrous joint
(gomphoses)
Tongue Digestive Organs: Oral Cavity
▪ Epithelium: stratified squamous.
▪ Sensory receptors for taste, texture, and temperature of food.
▪ Forms bolus: semisolid mass of chewed food mixed with saliva.

▪ Body of tongue
o Anterior 2/3; lies in oral cavity.
▪ Root of tongue
o Posterior 1/3; lies in oropharynx.
o Contains lingual tonsils.
▪ Terminal sulcus: V-shaped groove lies between body and
root

▪ Lingual papillae: projections on the surface of the tongue

o 4 different types
o 3 types contain taste buds
o 1 type is just for gripping and scraping food
 Digestive Organs: Oral Cavity
Muscular arches; run from roof to floor.
Palatoglossal arch: Palatine tonsils located between.

Palatopharyngeal arch:
• Marks beginning of pharynx
 Accessory Organ: Salivary Glands
▪ Intrinsic glands are dispersed among oral tissues
o Tongue, inside cheeks and lips
▪ Extrinsic glands are connected to the mouth via ducts

Salivary glands secrete saliva, which contains:

▪ Salivary amylase (carbohydrate digestion)
▪ Lipases (lipid digestion)
o Become activated in the stomach
▪ Antibacterial agents
▪ Mucus: helps bind/lubricate chewed food.
 Digestive Organs: Pharynx

▪ Funnel-shaped organ. Commonly called the “throat.”

o Conducts food and air.

▪ 3 regions
o Nasopharynx: communicates with the nasal cavity.
o Oropharynx: communicates with the oral cavity.
o Laryngopharynx: communicates with the larynx.
 Digestive Organs: Esophagus
▪ Straight, muscular tube.
▪ Lined by nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium.

▪ Mucous glands in submucosa help keep esophagus

moist.

▪ Conducts bolus to stomach.

▪ Skeletal muscle in upper region of muscularis

externa assist in swallowing.

▪ Lies posterior to trachea.

▪ Passes through mediastinum in thoracic cavity.

 Digestive Organs: Esophagus
▪ Passes through an opening in the diaphragm,
the esophageal hiatus, connecting with the
stomach in the abdominal cavity.
▪ Lower esophageal sphincter
o Located at the junction between esophagus
and stomach.
o Prevents regurgitation of stomach contents
into the esophagus.
 Digestive Organs: Stomach
▪ Most dilated region of the GI tract. J shaped.

▪ Food is temporarily stored here.

▪ Chemical digestion of proteins and fats begins.

▪ Rugae: temporary folds present in an empty

stomach; allow for distension.

▪ Lesser curvature: superior margin; attached to

lesser omentum.

▪ Greater curvature: inferior margin: attached to

greater omentum.
 Digestive Organs: Stomach
▪ The muscularis externa is composed of three
layers of smooth muscle: Inner oblique,
middle circular, and outer longitudinal.
o Contraction produces churning action.
o Mechanically breaks food down and mixes it
with digestive enzymes.

▪ The bolus converted to chyme: liquefied,

acidified food.

▪ Pyloric sphincter: controls the entry of chyme

into the small intestine.
 Digestive Organs: Stomach
Microscopic Anatomy
▪ Stomach lined by simple columnar
epithelial cells.

▪ Indentions called gastric pits are present in

the mucosa.

▪ Glands open into the base of the pits.

 Digestive Organs: Stomach
Cell types in stomach glands
▪ Mucous cells or mucous neck cells
o Secrete mucus which coats the stomach lining.
▪ Regenerative stem cells
o Produce a continual supply of new cells
▪ Parietal cells
o Secrete HCl
o Secrete gastric intrinsic factor (vitamin B12
absorption)
o Secrete ghrelin: appetite stimulating hormone
▪ Chief cells
o Secrete pepsinogen and gastric lipase.
▪ Enteroendocrine cells
o Secrete hormones/other signal molecules that
regulate digestion.
 Digestive Organs: Small Intestine
▪ Primary site of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption.
▪ 3 regions
o Duodenum: initial segment; receives chyme, bile, pancreatic
enzymes and bicarbonate ions.
• Major duodenal papilla: bile duct and pancreatic ducts open
here.
• Minor duodenal papilla: receives accessory pancreatic duct.
o Jejunum: Most digestion and absorption occurs here.
o Ileum
• Joins to cecum of large intestine.
• Contains Peyer Patches secondary lymphoid tissue
• Ileocecal valve: sphincter formed by the muscularis externa;
regulates movement of food residue into the large intestine.
 Digestive Organs: Small Intestine
Surface Modifications Increasing the Surface Area for Absorption

▪ Plicae Circulares: Circular folds of the mucosa and submucosa

▪ Villi (Villus): Projections of the mucosa. Lined by:
o Enterocytes: simple columnar epithelial cells; nutrient absorptive cells.
o Goblet cells: mucous secreting cells
o Contains blood vessels and a lacteal
▪ Microvilli: Highly folded regions of the plasma membrane of enterocytes. Also called a brush border.

Intestinal crypts
▪ Contain Paneth cells that secrete antimicrobial substance
Digestive Organs: Small Intestine
 Digestive Organs: Small Intestine
Ingested Absorbed
Carbohydrates → Monosaccharides
Lipids → Glycerol and Fatty Acids
Proteins → Amino Acids
 Digestive Organs: Large Intestine
▪ No plicae circulares or villi present.
▪ Primary functions are water and ion absorption.
▪ Lined by simple columnar epithelium except in
lower anal canal.
 Digestive Organs: Large Intestine
▪ The longitudinal smooth muscle layer of
muscularis externa of the colon is gathered into 3
ribbons of muscle fascicles called taeniae coli.
▪ Taeniae coli are shorter than the colon, which
results in puckering of the wall called haustra
coli.
▪ Give the colon its segmented appearance
 Digestive Organs: Large Intestine
4 regions:
Cecum
▪ Initial segment; joins with ileum.
▪ Attached to appendix

Colon
▪ Ascending colon
o Passes up right side of abdominal cavity.
▪ Transverse Colon
o Crosses abdominal cavity horizontally.
▪ Descending Colon
o Passes down left side of abdominal cavity.
▪ Sigmoid Colon: S-shaped region
 Digestive Organs: Large Intestine
4 regions:
Rectum
▪ Continuation of large intestine into pelvic cavity.
▪ Transverse rectal folds (rectal valves): mucosal folds
that retain the feces

Anal Canal
▪ Passes through the pelvic floor (through levator ani
muscle).
▪ External opening is the anus.
▪ Anal columns: Support column of feces.
▪ Internal anal sphincter (smooth muscle)
▪ External anal sphincter (skeletal muscle)
 Accessory Organs: Liver
▪ Largest gland in the body.
▪ Multiple functions!
▪ Digestive function: Produces bile which contains bile salts that emulsify fats.
o Bile transported from liver by right and left hepatic ducts
Gross Anatomy
Accessory Organs: Liver
▪ 4 lobes: Right, left, quadrate, and caudate.
▪ Falciform ligament:
o Broad and thin peritoneal fold separating the right and left lobes and attaches the liver to the
ventral body wall.
▪ Porta hepatis: hepatic portal vein and hepatic arteries enter here, and bile passages exit.
 Accessory Organs: Liver
Hepatic Portal System
▪ Liver receives ~70% of its blood from the hepatic portal vein
o Receives blood from the stomach, small intestines, large intestines, spleen and pancreas.
▪ Liver receives ~30% of blood from the hepatic artery
▪ Hepatic portal vein and hepatic artery both drain into the liver sinusoids
 Accessory Organs: Gall Bladder
▪ Located between right and quadrate lobes of liver.
▪ Function: Stores and concentrates bile.

▪ Cystic duct
o Conducts bile to and away from gallbladder.
o Merges with the common hepatic duct forming
the bile duct.

▪ Bile duct and pancreatic duct merge into the

hepatopancreatic ampulla (chamber)
o Conducts bile to duodenum.

▪ Hepatopancreatic sphincter regulates flow

 Accessory Organs: Pancreas
▪ Exocrine and endocrine gland.

▪ Secretes 1,200 – 1,500 ml of pancreatic juice/day: water, NaHCO3, enzymes, zymogens.

▪ Head, body, and tail.

▪ Digestive enzymes are transported by the

pancreatic duct to the hepatopancreatic
ampulla and then to the duodenum.

▪ Accessory pancreatic duct: branches from

main pancreatic duct.
o Allows pancreatic juice to enter small
intestine even when bile is not added.