Physics 2024-04-13

Key Terms
Capacitance

Capacitance is the ability of a system to store electrical charge.

Capacitance is measured in the unit of Farads (F).

It is determined by the physical characteristics of the system such as the area of the plates
and the distance between them.
A higher capacitance allows for a larger charge to be stored for a given voltage.
Capacitance plays an important role in many areas of technology, including electronics and
power systems.

Charge Conservation

Charge conservation is a principle that states that the total amount of electric charge in an
isolated system remains constant.

According to charge conservation, electric charge cannot be created or destroyed.

Charge can only be transferred from one object to another.
Charge is conserved in all interactions involving electric charge.
Charge conservation is a fundamental principle in understanding electrical phenomena.

Charge Density

Charge density refers to the amount of electric charge per unit volume in a given material or
space.

Charge density is often denoted by the symbol ρ and is measured in coulombs per cubic
meter.
It plays a crucial role in understanding the behavior of electric fields and currents within a
medium.
Charge density can be uniform throughout a material or vary depending on the location within
the substance.
Higher charge density indicates a greater concentration of charge, while lower density
signifies a more dispersed charge distribution.

Charge Polarization

Charge polarization refers to the redistribution of charge within a system, resulting in the
separation of positive and negative charges.

Charge polarization occurs when an external electric field is applied to a system.

It is a temporary phenomenon that happens in insulators and dielectrics.
The positive charges shift towards the negative charges, creating a dipole moment in the
material.
It plays a crucial role in the functioning of capacitors and the behavior of electromagnetic
waves.

Conductors

Conductors are materials that allow the flow of electric current through them due to the presence
of free electrons.

Conductors have high electrical conductivity, allowing electric charges to move easily.
Metals are excellent conductors due to the large number of free electrons.
Conductors can be used to transfer electrical energy efficiently.
The conductivity of a conductor depends on its resistance and the temperature.

Coulomb's Law

Coulomb's Law states that the force between two charged objects is directly proportional to the
product of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

The force between charged objects is strongest when the charges are larger and the distance
between them is smaller.
Coulomb's Law can be used to calculate the force between charged particles in situations
involving static electricity.
The force between charged objects can be either attractive or repulsive, depending on the
signs of the charges.
Coulomb's Law is similar to Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation, but applies to the electric
force instead of the gravitational force.

Dielectric material

Dielectric material is a substance that does not conduct electricity easily but can support the
formation of an electric field.

It is commonly used in capacitors to store and release electrical energy.

Dielectric materials reduce the strength of an electric field passing through them.
They can be polar or nonpolar, affecting their ability to align with an external electric field.
Dielectric constant is a measure of a material's ability to store electrical energy.

Electric Dipole
An electric dipole is a pair of equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance that
create a non-uniform electric field.

An electric dipole can be represented using an arrow where the positive charge is at the
arrow's head and the negative charge is at the arrow's tail.
The magnitude of the dipole moment is the product of the magnitude of the charge and the
distance between the charges.
The electric field at points on the axial line of a dipole is larger than at points on the equatorial
line.
The torque experienced by a dipole in a uniform electric field is zero when the dipole is
aligned parallel or anti-parallel to the field direction.

Electric displacement field

The electric displacement field represents the ability of a material to polarize in response to an
electric field, aiding in the study of electric flux and charge distribution.

It accounts for the effects of free and bound charge within a material.
It is related to the permittivity of the material and the electric field present.
It provides a useful tool in the analysis of dielectric materials and capacitor behavior.
The concept is crucial in understanding how charges interact with insulating materials.

Electric field

Electric field is a physical quantity that describes the force experienced by a charged particle in
the presence of other charged particles or electrically charged objects.

Electric field is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction.
The direction of the electric field is defined as the direction a positive test charge would
move.
Electric field lines represent the direction and strength of the electric field.
The magnitude of the electric field decreases with increasing distance from the source
charge.

Electric Field Lines

Electric field lines are visual representation of electric fields, showing the direction and strength
of the field at different points.

Field lines always start from positive charges and end on negative charges.
Field lines never cross each other.
The density of field lines represent the strength of the electric field.
Closely spaced field lines indicate a strong electric field.
Electric Flux

Electric Flux is a measure of the number of electric field lines that pass through a given surface
area.

Electric flux is a scalar quantity measured in units of volt meters squared (V·m²).
The magnitude of the electric flux depends on the strength of the electric field and the
surface area it passes through.
Electric flux is proportional to the number of electric field lines passing through a given area.
The direction of the electric flux is perpendicular to the surface it passes through.

Electric flux density

Electric flux density, also known as electric displacement, measures the electric flux passing
through a unit area, providing insight into the electric field strength.

Symbolized by D, it is independent of the medium and is related to electric field intensity and
permittivity.
It accounts for free charge and bound charge distribution in a material, showcasing
polarization effects.
Electric flux density is an essential concept in understanding electric fields and their
interactions with materials.
In integral form, it is expressed as the surface integral of electric flux density over a closed
surface.

Electric potential

Electric potential is the amount of electric potential energy per unit charge at a given point in an
electric field.

The electric potential is measured in volts (V).

The electric potential at a point depends on the distance from the source of the electric field.
A positive charge will move from a region of higher electric potential to a region of lower
electric potential.
The electric potential is a scalar quantity and its unit is derived from the joule per coulomb.

Electric Potential Energy

Electric Potential Energy refers to the energy possessed by an object due to its position in an
electric field.

Electric potential energy is directly proportional to the amount of charge and the strength of
the electric field.
The unit of electric potential energy is the Joule (J).
 Potential energy can be converted into kinetic energy when an electrically charged object is
released in an electric field.
The electric potential energy between two charges can be calculated using the equation U = k
* q1 * q2 / r, where k is Coulomb's constant.

Electric Shielding

Electric shielding refers to the practice of using conductive materials to block electric fields from
reaching a certain area or object.

Common materials used for electric shielding include metals like aluminum, copper, and
steel.
Electric shielding is crucial in industries such as aerospace, automotive, and electronics to
prevent electromagnetic interference.
The effectiveness of electric shielding depends on factors like the material used, thickness,
and grounding techniques.
Faraday cages are a well-known example of electric shielding and are used to block
electromagnetic fields from entering or leaving an area.

Electric Voltage

Electric voltage is the force that drives electric current, measured in volts. It is the potential
difference between two points in an electric circuit.

Voltage causes electric charges to move.

Higher voltage results in a greater push on charges.
Voltage is analogous to pressure in a water pipe.
Voltage can be thought of as electrical 'pressure.'

Electrostatic Equilibrium

Electrostatic equilibrium refers to a state in which the net electric charge within a conductor is
zero and the electric field inside the conductor is also zero.

In electrostatic equilibrium, charges are distributed in such a way that there is no net force
acting on them.
Electrostatic equilibrium occurs when the electric force and the electric field cancel each
other out.
In electrostatic equilibrium, the potential is uniform and constant throughout the conductor.
Electrostatic equilibrium is achieved when the charges on the conductor redistribute
themselves until a stable state is reached.

Electrostatic force

Electrostatic force is the attraction or repulsion between electrically charged objects due to the
presence of electric charges.

Electrostatic force is responsible for the phenomenon of static electricity.

The force between charged objects decreases when the distance between them increases.
The force between charged objects depends on the magnitude and sign of the charges.
The electrostatic force obeys the inverse square law, meaning it decreases with the square of
the distance between charges.

Electrostatic induction

Electrostatic induction is a phenomenon where charges redistribute within a conductor due to

the presence of a charged object nearby.

Occurs without direct contact between objects

Induces temporary charges in the conductor
Results in attraction or repulsion of objects
Used in various technologies like capacitors and transformers

Electrostatic Potential Energy

Electrostatic Potential Energy is the energy stored within a system of charged particles due to
their arrangement relative to each other.

It follows the principle that like charges repel each other, storing potential energy.
The formula to calculate electrostatic potential energy is U = k * (q1 * q2) / r, where U is the
potential energy, q1 and q2 are the charges, r is the separation distance, and k is the
electrostatic constant.
The unit of electrostatic potential energy in the International System of Units (SI) is the joule
(J).
The greater the charges involved or the closer they are together, the higher the electrostatic
potential energy within the system.

Equipotential Surface

An equipotential surface is a surface in a field where all points have the same potential energy.

Equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to electric field lines.

On an equipotential surface, no work is done in moving a charge.
The potential difference between two equipotential surfaces determines the strength of the
electric field.
Equipotential surfaces can be represented by contour lines on 2D diagrams.

Excess Charge
Excess charge refers to an imbalance of electrons on an object, leading to a net positive or
negative charge, influencing its interactions with other objects.

It can result from the transfer of electrons between objects.

Objects with excess charge can attract or repel each other based on the sign of their charges.
Excess charge can be discharged through grounding or neutralization processes.
Materials can become charged through various methods such as friction, induction, or
conduction.

Faraday's ice pail experiment

Faraday's ice pail experiment was a demonstration of electrostatic induction showing charged
objects induce charge separation in a nearby insulated conductor.

Michael Faraday conducted the experiment in the 19th century to illustrate the concept of
electric fields.
He used a charged brass ball to induce a charge separation in an ice pail that was initially
uncharged.
The charge separation was observed by hanging a light metal ball inside the pail, which was
repelled due to the induced charges.
This experiment contributed to Faraday's understanding of electric fields and laid the
foundation for modern electromagnetism.

Gauss's Law

Gauss's Law states that the electric flux through a closed surface is directly proportional to the
electric charge enclosed by that surface.

Gauss's Law is a fundamental principle in studying electric fields and their behavior.
The closed surface can be any shape, but it must be a closed surface with no holes.
The electric flux is a measure of the flow of electric field lines through a given area or surface.
The electric charge enclosed refers to the total charge contained within the closed surface.

Induction

Induction is a process in which a changing magnetic field creates an electric current in a

conductor.

Induction is the basis for generating electricity in power plants.

It is used in devices like transformers, generators, and electric motors.
The direction of the induced current follows Faraday's Law of electromagnetic induction.
The strength of the induced current depends on the rate of change of the magnetic field.

Insulators
Insulators are materials that do not allow the flow of electric current easily due to their tightly
bound electrons.

Insulators have high resistivity, making them good for preventing the loss of energy through
unwanted conduction.
Common examples of insulators include rubber, plastic, glass, and ceramic.
Insulators are used in electrical wiring and circuit boards to prevent short circuits and ensure
safe transmission of energy.
Electric charge is generally retained on the surface of insulators instead of flowing through
them.

Permittivity

Permittivity is a fundamental property of materials that determines their ability to store electric
potential energy when a voltage is applied.

Permittivity can be thought of as a measure of the resistance a material has to the creation of
an electric field.
Materials with high permittivity, such as dielectric materials, are often used in capacitors to
increase their storage capacity.
The permittivity of a material is influenced by factors like temperature, pressure, and the
presence of impurities.
Permittivity is typically represented by the symbol 'ε' and its SI unit is farad per meter (F/m).

point charges

Point charges are particles where all the charge is concentrated at a single point in space,
simplifying calculations for electric fields and potential.

Point charges follow Coulomb's Law for electrostatic interactions.

The electric field is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the point charge.
Potential due to a point charge goes to zero as distance approaches infinity.
Electric field lines diverge from positive point charges and converge toward negative point
charges.

Polarization

Polarization is a phenomenon where the oscillation direction of a wave is restricted to a specific

plane.

Polarization occurs when an unpolarized wave interacts with certain materials, filters, or is
reflected.
Polarization can be linear, circular, or elliptical, depending on the orientation of the wave's
electric field.
Polarized light is used in various applications such as 3D movies, sunglasses, and optical
microscopes.
Polarization plays a crucial role in telecommunications and satellite transmission, improving
signal quality and reducing interference.