DR.

B R AMBEDKAR NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY,

JALANDHAR

Design of Machine Elements – I Lab

MEPC – 313

Submitted by:
Name: Rajat Kumar Singh
Roll no: 19109077
Group: G-2
Branch: Mechanical Engineering
Academic Session: July – December, 2021
EXPERIMENT-1:
To write different Phases of Design of different mechanical
components.

I. Chair-
1. Recognition of Needs: A chair is used to place the weight of the body
while sitting while giving a comfortable position to relax. The chair may
be used in classroom, offices, home, kitchen, desk etc.

2. Definition of Problem:
a. Function-
i- Should be able to handle human weight and provide comfort.
ii- to help one find and sustain such a posture.
iii- The act of sitting can place many stresses on the body by the
chair
b. Design Requirements- The design of a chair must accord with
engineering principles and backrest height, seat depth and seat height
are design requirements.
c. Evaluation Criteria: To check the weight of the body such that it
should be less than ultimate strength of chair material in order to avoid
failure and seat should be comfortable as much as possible.

3. Synthesis: Selection of suitable material with appropriate grade keeping

in view of economics, stability and aesthetics like wood or stainless steel
is best suitable material. A lot of brainstorming is required in this phase
of design.

4. Analysis & Optimization:

When a person sits its weight act on downward direction which is to be

balanced by 4 foots of chair.
Let’s consider mass of person is m and the weight he put on chair is W:
W = mg
The force on each foot of chair is F. So,
4F >= W
F >= W/4
F >= mg/4
If above condition holds than chair is fit to sit.
.
 5. Evaluation: A prototype is manufactured. We check for different
weights whether chair is stable or not along with the comfort level of
chair.

6. Presentation: A final report or ppt is prepared on the design of Chair

with the help of observation and outcomes of all the evaluation tests. It is
then presented to the manufacturers and carpentry shop.

II. Table-
1. Recognition of Needs: A table is used as a surface for working at, eating
from or on which to place things and to handle loads such as computer
monitor, CPU, human load acting on the table from side. The table may
also be used as a study table, office table, classroom table, lab table etc.

2. Definition of Problem:
a. Function- To successfully able to withstand weight of load kept on it.
b. Design Requirements- The design of a chair must accord with
engineering principles and dimensions like length of foots, length and
width of table top are determined.
c. Evaluation Criteria: Determination of stresses induced (
compressive) due to load of items on table should successfully resist
any deformation.

3. Synthesis: Selection of suitable material with appropriate grade keeping

in view of economics, stability and aesthetics like we observe that plastic
is cheap but wood is expensive as it is more durable. A lot of
brainstorming is required in this phase of design.

4. Analysis & Optimization:

Table is supposed to wear weight of all the things on it. Unlike chair
different things of different mass of put on it at different places of it. So
here the sum of all weights should be balance by the four foots.
Let’s take total weight of different things W,
W = f1 + f2 + f3 + f4 +..........
To balance it each foot has a bear force greater than W
4F >= W
 F >= W/4
F >= (f1 + f2+ f3 +f4+........)/4

If above condition holds than table is good to go.

5. Evaluation: A prototype is manufactured to check if there is any error in

design or not. We look for the dimensions used and see if they satisfy
equilibrium conditions or not.

6. Presentation: A final report or ppt is prepared on the design of Table

with the help of observation and outcomes of all the evaluation tests. It is
then presented to the manufacturers and carpentry shop.

III. Spring-
1. Recognition of Needs: We use spring in shockers of bikes and cars
etc.to absorbs shock. When bike runs then dynamic load act on the bike
so spring absorbs those shocks.
2. Definition of Problem:
a. Function- To store mechanical energy, shocks and vibrations and to
deflect under load and regain its shape, to absorb shocks and
vibrations and to store mechanical energy.
b. Design Requirements- The design of a chair must accord with
engineering principles and dimensions like Free length, Spring index,
spring constant, pitch, wire diameter and diameter of the coil. are
determined.
c. Evaluation Criteria: Force exerted by spring should be proportional
to distance the spring is stretched or compressed from its relaxed
position.

3. Synthesis: During selection of proper material we observe that Chrome

Steel is the best suitable material for spring. A lot of brainstorming is
required in this phase of design.

4. Analysis & Optimization: Calculate all those phenomena like diameter

of coil, mean coil diameter, number of active and inactive coils, spring
 rate etc. check whether this spring design is theoretically acceptable or
not.

5. Evaluation: A prototype is manufactured to check if there is any error in

design or not, works properly or not and regains its shape or not.

6. Presentation: A final report or ppt is prepared on the design of spring

with the help of observation and outcomes of all the evaluation tests. It is
then presented to the design engineers and manufacturers.

IV. Trusses-
1. Recognition of Needs:
a. For carrying heavy loads.
b. Used in Roof Construction.
c. For supporting bridges, towers, roofs, ceilings, floors etc.

2. Definition of Problem:
a. Function- To give a stable form capable of supporting considerable
external load over a large span with the component parts stressed
primarily in axial tension or compression.
b. Design Requirements- The design of a roof truss must accord with
engineering principles spaced at regular intervals, typically 600 mm,
900 mm or 1,200 mm apart with appropriate size and thickness to
distribute the weight of load equally.
c. Evaluation Criteria: To check the supports, connection and load
distribution in all the members of a truss.

3. Synthesis: Selection of suitable material with appropriate grade keeping

in view of economics, stability and aesthetics for different area of
applications such as in roofs, bridges, towers etc. A lot of brainstorming
is required in this phase of design.
 4. Analysis & Optimization: The methods to analyse the forces acting on
each member of trusses are-
i- Method of Joints
ii- Method of Section
iii- Graphical Method (Maxwell’s Graph)
Also, changes in dimensions or other changes are need to be done
in this stage if some discrepancy occurs.

5. Evaluation: Shear check of design and other impact tests are done on
prototype of truss with appropriate atmospherical conditions.

6. Presentation: A final report or ppt is prepared on the design of Truss

with the help of observation and outcomes of all the evaluation tests. It is
then presented to the Senior Design Engineers.

V. Beams-
1. Recognition of Needs:
a. For carrying vertical gravitational forces.
b. In supporting commercial and residential constructions.
c. I-beams are used to construct frames for trolley ways, elevators, trailer
and truck beds, etc.
d. H-shaped beams have thicker walls and flanges and are used to
construct mezzanines, platforms and bridges, and common building
constructions.

2. Definition of Problem:
a. Function- Beams support the weight of a building's floors, ceilings
and roofs and to move the load to the framework of a vertical load
bearing element and to withstand the combined weight of stacked
walls and transfer the support load.
b. Design Requirements- The design of a beams must accord with
engineering principles and the determinations of length and
dimensions of span length and effective depth are done according to
the intensity of load expected to be acting upon it.
c. Evaluation Criteria: To check the flexural design, shear deflection,
cracking and bond on the beam.
 3. Synthesis: Selection of suitable material with appropriate grade for
different area of applications such as in roofs, bridges, towers etc. A lot
of brainstorming is required in this phase of design.

4. Analysis & Optimization: Analysis of beams are determined by the

relation of critical moments and shears. The moment and shear that exist
at the critical sections are considered for the design. Critical sections are
the sections where the values are maximum. Critical section for the
moment in a simply supported beam is at the point where the shear force
is zero. Check for the depth based on maximum bending moment is
done.

5. Evaluation: Shear check of design and other impact tests are done on
prototype of beams with appropriate atmospherical conditions.

6. Presentation: A final report or ppt is prepared on the design of Beams

with the help of observation and outcomes of all the evaluation tests. It is
then presented to the Senior Design Engineers.

VI. Pressure Cooker-

1. Recognition of Needs: To cook food faster and in short time and less
wastage of resources.

2. Definition of Problem:
a. Function- A pressure cooker works on a simple principle: Steam
pressure. A sealed pot, with a lot of steam inside, builds up high
pressure, which helps food cook faster.
 b. Design Requirements- The design of a beams must accord with
engineering principles and the determinations of Diameter of the
pressure cooker, thickness of the pressure cooker, suitable material
which must ‘yield before break’ is done.
c. Evaluation Criteria: Stresses induced due to the bursting pressure
inside the walls of cooker, gives rise to resisting stresses;
i- Pressure acting vertically upward and downward over the
cylindrical wall (circumferential stress or Hoop stress).
ii- Pressure acting along the length of the cylindrical shell at
its two ends (longitudinal stress).

3. Synthesis: FBD to compare the bursting stress (internal pressure) and

resisting stress (hoop and longitudinal stress). Both stresses are normal
and act perpendicular to each other.

Hoop stress-
pd
H =
2t

Longitudinal stress-
pd
L =
4t

Selection of suitable material with appropriate grade keeping in view

of economics, stability and aesthetics like steel, copper alloys and
aluminium alloys.

4. Analysis & Optimization: Solving of the equations and calculating hoop

stress and longitudinal stress and comparing them with bursting stress.

5. Evaluation: Performing tests on a prototype by filling gas and checking

at which pressure it bursts.
 6. Presentation: A final report or ppt is prepared on the design of Pressure
Cooker with the help of observation and outcomes of all the evaluation
tests. It is then presented to the Design Engineers and manufacturers.

VII. Columns-
1. Recognition of Needs: Columns are used to support beams or arches
on which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest.
2. Definition of Problem:
a. Function- To provide structural reinforcement and withstand
compressive loads.
b. Design Requirements- The design of a beams must accord with
engineering principles and the determinations of Length Cross
sectional area Shape of the section (Rectangular, Square, Circular etc.)
Slenderness ratio is done.
c. Evaluation Criteria: We should look for column’s ability to
withstand compressive forces and also it should not undergo buckling
and maintain stability of structure.

3. Synthesis: In this part we focus on the Selection of suitable material and

formula related to their geometric dimension, loading conditions by
studying their different phenomena, using of research paper regarding
their uses and do brainstorming regarding their important parameter to
study.

4. Analysis & Optimization: Columns are supposed to support against

vertical load. They have to resist against buckling. Buckling can be
defined as the sudden large deformation of structure due to a slight
increase of an existing load under which the structure had exhibited little
deformation before the load was increased. We can calculate the effects
of all the load applied.
5. Evaluation: Performing tests on a prototype and see for an amount of
load if it shows buckling while under different vertical stress condition or
not.

6. Presentation: A final report or ppt is prepared on the design of column

with the help of observation and outcomes of all the evaluation tests. It is
then presented to the Civil Engineers.
EXPERIMENT-2:
Design involving material selection and probabilistic approach by
Weighted Point Method.

Selection of Material depends on several factors. The factors which

should be considered while selecting the material for a machine
component are as follows:
➢ Availability
➢ Cost
➢ Mechanical Properties
➢ Manufacturing consideration

And the important mechanical properties are:

1. Strength: its ability to withstand an applied load without failure
or plastic deformation.
2. Elasticity: It is the ability of a deformed material body to return
to its original shape and size when the forces causing the
deformation are removed.
3. Plasticity: Plasticity is the ability of a solid material to undergo
permanent deformation.
4. Stiffness: Stiffness is the extent to which an object resists
deformation in response to an applied force.
5. Resilience: Resilience is the ability of a material to withstand
elastic deformation without deforming plastically.
6. Toughness: Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb
energy and plastically deform without fracturing.
7. Malleability: Malleability is a physical property of metals
that defines their ability to be hammered, pressed, or rolled into
thin sheets without breaking.
8. Ductility: Ductility is the ability of a material to be drawn or
plastically deformed without fracture.
9. Brittleness: Brittleness describes the property of a material that
fractures when subjected to stress but has a little tendency to
deform before rupture.
10. Hardness: Hardness is the resistance of a material to
localised plastic deformation.
 11. Weighted Point Method for selection of materials:

Preparation of the list essential

properties of material for particular
application.

Specified the range of magnitude for

important properties.

Screening of Materials

Based on discriminating Based on Go-No-Go

parameters parameters

Availability and Manufacturing

Weightage of Properties
Consideration.
 1. Selection of properties:
a. First prepare a list of the Properties to be considered. This
list includes Strength, Hardness, Weight, and cost and
many other mechanical properties.

2. Check available materials:

a. We have a lot of materials available but one needs to
carefully examine that which material should be used for
particular application.

3. Evaluate available materials:

a. To evaluate a property of material, add that property of all
materials available then divide property of each component
by sum and we get PV (Percentage Value) of the material.

4. Assign Weightage to properties:

a. Assign weightage to properties listed as per requirement
and multiply PV with Weightage index and calculate total
points.

5. Final Selection:
a. Select the one with highest points.

Problem 1. Select a suitable material for making gears of small

portable machine.
Solution .

Step 1. We will consider Strength, Hardness, Weight and cost in this case.

Step 2. Material suitable for gears with their relevant properties are Medium
carbon steel, High carbon steel, Alloy steel, and Phosphorous Bronze.

Step 3. Material properties are :

 Tensile Hardness Cost
Material Density
Strength (HB) Rs/kg

Medium carbon
500 200 78.5 40
steel

High carbon steel 700 250 78.5 50

Alloy steel 800 260 78.5 60

Phosphorous Bronze 200 80 87.3 120

Now,

Total sum of tensile strength = 500+700+800+200= 2200

Total sum of Hardness = 200+250+260+80=790
Total sum of Density = 78.5+78.5+78.5+87.3=322.8
As we want our cost to be minimum as much as possible, we will take
reciprocal of value so, Total sum of cost = 1/40 + 1/50 + 1/60 + 1/120 = 7/100

Now, PV = Property of material/Total sum of property of all components.

Tensile Hardness Cost

Density
Material Strength (HB) Rs/kg
PV
PV PV PV

Medium carbon
0.2272 0.2531 0.2431 0.3571
steel
 High carbon steel 0.3181 0.3164 0.2431 0.2857

Alloy steel 0.3636 0.3291 0.2431 0.2380

Phosphorous Bronze 0.0909 0.1012 0.2704 0.1190

Step 4. Assign weightage for the properties as per the requirement and calculate
points by multiplying weightage with PV and then further total of points.
• Tensile Strength=5
• Density=4
• Hardness=3
• Cost=2

Tensile Hardness Cost

Strength Density Total
Material (HB) Rs/kg
points points
points points points

Weightage 5 3 4 2

Medium
1.136 0.7593 0.9724 0.7142 3.5819
carbon steel

High carbon
1.5905 0.9492 0.9724 0.5714 4.0835
steel

Alloy steel 1.818 0.9873 0.9724 0.476 4.2537

Phosphorous
0.4545 0.3036 1.0816 0.238 2.0777
Bronze

Step 5. As Total Points of Alloy Steel is highest so It is the most suitable

material in this case.
 Problem 2. Select a suitable material for wind turbine rotor
blade.
Solution.

Step 1. We will consider Yield strength, Tensile strength, Specific Modulus,

Young Modulus, Cost, Machinability, Corrosion rate, Density in this case.

Step 2. Material suitable in this case includes Aluminium (7020 Alloy), Mild
Steel (Grade 55), Stainless steel (A580), Polycarbonate Steel.

Step 3. Material properties are:

Material Properties
Corrosion Rate

Yield Strength
Machinability

Young’ s
Modulus

Modulus
Strength

Specific
Density

Tensile
Material

(GPa)
Cost

Aluminium
25 3.5
(7020 2.78 3 280 400 26 69
(0.04) (0.285)
Alloy)

Mild Steel 5800 1.8

7.8 1 355 450 26 205
(Grade 55) (0.00017) (0.555)

Stainless
2.5 4.9
steel 7.8 1 275 800 25 200
(0.4) (0.204)
(A580)
Polycarbon
1.2 1 1 3 60 75 2 2.4
ate Steel

Total Sum 19.58 1.44017 2.044 8 970 1725 79 476.4

Now, PV = Property of material/Total sum of property of all components.

 Material Properties

Corrosion Rate

Yield Strength
Machinability

Modulus PV
Strength PV
Density PV

(GPa) PV
Young’ s
Modulus
Cost PV

Specific
Tensile
Material

PV

PV

PV
Aluminium
(7020 0.141 0.27 0.136 0.375 0.288 0.231 0.329 0.144
Alloy)

Mild Steel
0.398 0.00018 0.271 0.125 0.365 0.260 0.329 0.4303
(Grade 55)

Stainless
steel 0.398 0.277 0.099 0.125 0.283 0.463 0.316 0.419
(A580)
Polycarbon
0.061 0.694 0.489 0.375 0.061 0.043 0.025 0.005
ate Steel

Step 4. Assign weightage for the properties as per the requirement and calculate
points by multiplying weightage with PV and then further total of points.

• Density =8
• Corrosion rate =7
• Cost =6
• Machinability =5
• Yield Strength =4
• Tensile Strength =3
• Specific modulus =2
• Young’s modulus =1
 Machinability

Modulus PV
Strength PV

Strength PV

Total points
Density PV

Corrosion

(GPa) PV
Young’ s
Modulus
Rate PV

Cost PV

Specific
Tensile
Yield
PV
Weightage 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Aluminiu
m (7020 1.12 1.89 0.816 1.87 1.152 0.693 0.658 0.144 8.356
Alloy)

Mild Steel
3.18 0.00126 0.162 0.025 1.46 0.78 0.658 0.430 7.300
(Grade 55)

Stainless
steel 3.18 1.93 0.594 0.625 1.132 1.38 0.632 0.419 9.919
(A580)
Polycarbon
0.488 4.85 2.93 1.87 0.244 0.129 0.05 0.005 10.583
ate Steel

Step 5. As Total Points of Polycarbonate Steel is highest so it is the most

suitable material in this case.
EXPERIMENT-3:
Design involving both yield and fatigue failure.

DESIGN UNDER FATIGUE FAILURE

➢ Fatigue: Fatigue is a process in which material accumulate

due to cyclic load. This damage compromises strength and
can lead to brittle failure. For the ductile material in fatigue
flaws initially present in the material grow until one
dominates then this crack propagates for every stress cycle.

➢ Origin and growth of crack on component under bending

forces:
 ➢ METHODS FOR INCREASING LIFE OF MATERIAL
UNDER FATIGUE LOADING:
1. Minimizing surface discontinuity
2. Maximizing crack initiation time
3. Maximizing crack propagation time
4. Maximizing critical length
Types of Loads-

1. Fluctuating load: The components are subjected to forces,

which are not static, but vary in magnitude with respect to time.
The stresses induced due to such forces are called Fluctuating
Stresses.
 2. Repeated load: When component subjected to the stress in
such a way that stress interval vary in between some aptitude of
stress and zero stress called repeated stress.

3. Reversed load: When component subjected to the load in such

a way stress vary between positive and negative aptitude of
stress with same magnitude called reversed stress.

➢ Endurance limit: The maximum of aptitude of completely

reversed stress that a component can sustain for an unlimited
number of cycles without failure.
➢ Fatigue life: The no. of stress cycles that the standard specimen
can complete during the test before the appearance of the first
fatigue crack.

Rotating Beam Experiment:

To test idealized, standard specimens, a rotating-beam fatigue testing machine is
often used, such as the Moore rotating-beam machine. The specimen is
subjected to pure bending, and nom transverse shear is imposed. The specimen
has specific dimensions and a highly polished surface, with a final polishing in
the axial direction to avoid circumferential scratches. If the specimen breaks
into two equal pieces, the test is indicative of the material’s fatigue strength.
 Specimen for fatigue test

Experimental Setup for Rotating Beam

Stair case approach for finding endurance-

Steps for calculating mean endurance limit:

1. Count the number in of failure and survivals in test result.

2. The number of events counts as 𝑛𝑖 with stress level 𝜎𝑖 and
lowest stress will be 𝜎0 and next highest will be 𝜎1 etc.
3. Obtain quantity from 𝐴𝑛 = ∑ 𝑖𝑛𝑖
4. Mean endurance limit estimated Se from,

An 1
Se = σ0 + d ( ± )
∑ ni 2

Problem Statement: - Determination of the endurance limit using the

staircase approach?
Solution.

• Step-1-Experimental testing of samples for fixed number of

cycles. The expected endurance limit is σ1= 450MPa, with an
interval of
d= 25MPa
• Step-2-Calculate total number of failure (𝑛𝑓 ) and survival cases
(𝑛𝑠 ).
𝑛𝑓 = 13, 𝑛𝑠 = 12

The least common event is survival (𝑛𝑠 )=12

• Step-3-Calculate number of least common event for each stress

level

Survival
Assign order Stress (𝝈𝒆 )
cases (𝒏𝒔 )

0 350 1

1 375 3

2 400 7

3 425 1

4 450 0

• Step-4-Calculate mean endurance limit stress value.

𝐴𝑛 1
𝑆𝑒 = 𝜎𝑜 + 𝑑 ( − )
∑ 𝑛𝑠 2

𝐴𝑛 = ∑ 𝑖𝑛𝑠
 𝐴𝑛 = 0 × 1 + 1 × 3 + 2 × 7 + 3 × 1 + 4 × 0
So, 𝐴𝑛 =20
Now,
∑ 𝑖𝑛𝑠 1
𝑆𝑒 = 𝜎𝑜 + 𝑑 ( − )
∑ 𝑛𝑠 2
0×1+1×3+2×7+3×1+4×0 1
𝑆𝑒 = 𝜎𝑜 + 𝑑 ( − )
1+3+7+1+0 2

Mean endurance limit stress 𝐒𝐞 =379MPa.

EXPERIMENT – 5:
Design of Shaft under Fatigue Failure

When a component is subjected to fluctuating stresses as shown, there

is mean stress (𝜎𝑚 ) as well as stress amplitude ((𝜎𝑎 ). It has been
observed that the mean stress component has an effect on fatigue failure
when it is present in combination with an alternating component. When
stress amplitude (𝜎𝑎 ) is zero, the load is purely static and the criterion
of failure is 𝑆𝑢𝑡 or 𝑆𝑦𝑡 .
These limits are plotted on the abscissa. When the mean stress (𝜎𝑚 ) is
zero, the stress is completely reversing and the criterion of failure is the
endurance limit Se that is plotted on the ordinate. When the component
is subjected to both components of stress, viz., (𝜎𝑚 )and (𝜎𝑎 ), the actual
failure occurs at different scattered points shown. There exists a border,
which divides safe region from unsafe region for various combinations
of (𝜎𝑚 ) and (𝜎𝑎 ).
 • Gerber Line: A parabolic curve joining 𝑆𝑒 on the ordinate to
𝑆𝑢𝑡 on the abscissa is called the Gerber line.
• Soderberg Line: A straight line joining 𝑆𝑒 on the ordinate to
𝑆𝑦𝑡 on the abscissa is called the Soderberg line.
Equation of Soderberg line:

• Goodman Line: A straight line joining 𝑆𝑒 on the ordinate to 𝑆𝑢𝑡

on the abscissa is called the Goodman line.
Equation of Goodman line:

The Goodman line is widely used as the criterion of fatigue failure

when the component is subjected to mean stress as well as stress
amplitude. It is because of the following reasons:
(i) The Goodman line is safe from design considerations because
it is completely inside the failure points of test data.
(ii) The equation of a straight line is simple compared with the
equation of a parabolic curve.
(iii) It is not necessary to construct a scale diagram and a rough
sketch is enough to construct fatigue diagram.

MODIFIED GOODMAN DIAGRAM:

The Goodman line is ‘modified’ by combining fatigue failure with
failure by yielding.

Also,

Exercise1:
A cantilever beam made of cold drawn steel 40C8 (𝑆𝑢𝑡 =600 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 )
and (𝑆𝑦𝑡 =380 𝑁/𝑚𝑚2 ) is shown in Fig. The force P acting at the free
end varies from -50N to 150 N. The expected reliability is 90 % and
the factor of safety is 2. The notch sensitivity factor at the fillet is 0.9.
Determine the diameter ‘d’ of the beam at the fillet cross section.
SOLUTION-
Given-
➢ P = –50 N to +150 N
➢ 𝑆𝑢𝑡 = 600 N/mm2
➢ 𝑆𝑦𝑡 = 380 N/mm2
➢ R = 90%
➢ 𝑓𝑠 = 2
➢ q = 0.9
Step I
Endurance limit stress for cantilever beam
𝑆´𝑒 = 0.5𝑆𝑢𝑡 = 0.5 (600) = 300 N/mm2
(Cold drawn steel and 𝑆𝑢𝑡 = 600 N/mm2)
So, 𝐾𝑎 = 0.77
Now, Assuming 7.5 < d < 50 mm
𝐾𝑏 = 0.85
For 90% reliability,
𝐾𝑐 = 0.897
𝑟 𝐷
Since, = 0.2 and = 1.5
𝑑 𝑑

So,
𝐾𝑡 = 1.44
Now
𝐾𝑓 = 1 + q (𝐾𝑡 – 1)
𝐾𝑓 = 1 + 0.9 (1.44 – 1)
𝐾𝑓 =1.396
1
Since, 𝐾𝑑 =
𝐾𝑓
 1
𝐾𝑑 = = 0.176
1.396

𝑆𝑒 = 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑏 𝐾𝑐 𝐾𝑑 𝑆´𝑒
= 0.77 × (0.85) × (0.897) × (0.716) × (300)
Se = 126.11 N/mm2
Step II
Construction of modified Goodman diagram
At the fillet cross-section,
(𝑀𝑏 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 150×100 = 15000 N-mm
(𝑀𝑏 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 = –50 × 100 = –5000 N-mm

1
(𝑀𝑏 )𝑚 = [( (𝑀𝑏 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) + ( (𝑀𝑏 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) ]
2
1
= [15000–5000]
2

= 5000 N-mm
1
(𝑀𝑏 )𝑎 = [( (𝑀𝑏 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) - ( (𝑀𝑏 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) ]
2
1
= [15000+5000]
2

= 10,000 N-mm
(𝑀𝑏 )𝑎 10000
tanӨ = = =2
(𝑀𝑏 )𝑚 5000

Ө= 63.435°
The modified Goodman diagram: -

Step III
Permissible stress amplitude, refer to the above diagram. The
coordinates of the point X are determined by solving the following
two equations simultaneously.
(i) Equation of line AB
𝑆𝑒 𝑆𝑚
+ =1
126.11 600

(ii) Equation of line OX

𝑆𝑎
= tanӨ= 2
𝑆𝑚

Solving the two equations,

𝑆𝑎 = 114.12 N/mm2 and 𝑆𝑚 = 57.06 N/mm2

Step IV
Diameter of beam
 𝑆𝑎
Since, 𝜎𝑎 =
𝑓𝑠

32 (𝑀𝑏 )𝑎 𝑆𝑎
∴ =
𝜋𝑑3 𝑓𝑠

32 × 10000 114.12
=
𝜋𝑑3 2
d = 12.13mm

Exercise 2:
A cantilever spring made of 10 mm diameter wire is shown in Fig. The
wire is made of stainless steel 4Cr 18Ni10 (Sut=860 N/mm^2) and
(Syt=690 N/mm^2). The force P acting at the free end varies from 75
N to 150 N. The surface finish of the wire is equivalent to the machined
surfaces. There is no stress- concentration and the expected reliability
is 50%. Calculate the number of stress cycles likely to causes fatigue
failure.

SOLUTION-
Given-
d = 10 mm
l = 500 mm
P = 75 to 150 N
Sut = 860 N/mm2
Syt = 690 N/mm2
R = 50%
Step I
Endurance limit stress for cantilever beam
𝑆´𝑒 = 0.5𝑆𝑢𝑡 = 0.5 (860) = 430 N/mm2
(Machined surface and 𝑆𝑢𝑡 = 860 N/mm2)
So, 𝐾𝑎 = 0.72
Now, Assuming 7.5 < d < 50 mm
𝐾𝑏 = 0.85
For 50% reliability,
𝐾𝑐 = 1
𝑆𝑒 = 𝐾𝑎 𝐾𝑏 𝐾𝑐 𝑆´𝑒
= 0.72 × (0.85) × (1) × (430)
Se = 263.16 N/mm2
Step II
Construction of modified Goodman diagram
(𝑀𝑏 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 150×500 = 75000 N-mm
(𝑀𝑏 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 75×500 = 37500 N-mm

1
(𝑀𝑏 )𝑚 = [( (𝑀𝑏 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) + ( (𝑀𝑏 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) ]
2
1
= [75000＋37500]
2
= 56250 N-mm
1
(𝑀𝑏 )𝑎 = [( (𝑀𝑏 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) - ( (𝑀𝑏 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) ]
2
1
= [75000－37500]
2

= 18750 N-mm

32(𝑀𝑏 )𝑚 32(56250)
σ m= = =572.96 N/mm2
𝜋𝑑3 𝜋(10)3

32(𝑀𝑏 )𝑎 32(18750)
σ a= = =190.99 N/mm2
𝜋𝑑3 𝜋(10)3

The modified Goodman diagram: -

From similar triangles XDC and AOC,

𝑋𝐷 𝐷𝐶
=
𝐴𝑂 𝑂𝐶
 𝑋𝐷 × 𝑂𝐶 190.99(860)
Sf = 𝐴𝑂 = = = 572.22 N/mm2
𝐷𝐶 860−572.96

Step III
Construction of S-N diagram
0.9Sut = 0.9 (860) = 774 N/mm2
log10 (0.9Sut) = log10 (774) = 2.8887
log10 (Se) = log10 (263.16) = 2.4202
log10 (Sf) = log10 (572.22) = 2.7576

S-N curve for this problem-

Step IV
Fatigue life of cantilever spring from S-N diagram-
𝐷𝐵 × 𝐴𝐸 (6−3)(2.8887−2.7576)
𝐸𝐹 = = = 0.8395
𝐴𝐷 (2.8887−2.4202)

log10N=3+𝐸𝐹 = 3+0.8395 = 3.8395

N = 6910.35 cycles
EXPERIMENT – 6:
Design of Shaft Under Combined Stresses (Fatigue Loading)

Theory:
Whensoever we encounter a case when only axial forces or bending or
torsional moment is being applied individually, we opt for the modified
goodman diagrams for the stress and diameter calculation. However, in
real cases we observe that there is a combination of loads acting on the
body instead of a single load type. So, this makes the real-life problems
tricky and complex and we need to devise a means to solve these
problems. So, to deal with them we study the design of shafts under
combined loading wherein we will be developing theory for the case
when there is a combination of axial forces and bending / torsional
moment. Also, if we stretch our discussion to two dimensional stresses
then we have to consider the mean and alternating components of the
stresses and moments.
Now to solve these problems we use the distortion energy theory of
failure expressed as:
1 2
𝜎2 = [(𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 )2 + (𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑧 ) + (𝜎𝑧 − 𝜎𝑥 )2
2
2
+6(𝜏𝑥𝑦 + 𝜏𝑦𝑧 + 𝜏𝑧𝑥 ) ] … … . . (𝑎)
Where 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧 are normal stresses in X, Y and Z directions and
𝜏𝑥𝑦 , 𝜏𝑦𝑧 , 𝜏𝑧𝑥 are shear stresses in their respective planes. 𝜎 is a stress
which is equivalent to these three- dimensional stresses.
In case of two-dimensional stresses, the component is subjected to
stresses 𝜎𝑥 and 𝜎𝑦 in X and Y directions. Substituting 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 =
𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 0 in Eq. (a),

𝜎 = √𝜎𝑥 2 − 𝜎𝑥 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑦 2 … … (𝑏)

The mean and alternating components of 𝜎𝑥 are 𝜎𝑥𝑚 and

𝜎𝑥𝑎 respectively. Similarly, the mean and alternating components of 𝜎𝑦
are 𝜎𝑦𝑚 and 𝜎𝑦𝑎 respectively. In this analysis, the mean and alternating
components are separately combined by the equation.

𝜎𝑚 = √𝜎𝑥𝑚 2 − 𝜎𝑥𝑚 𝜎𝑦𝑚 + 𝜎𝑦𝑚 2

Similarly,

𝜎𝑎 = √𝜎𝑥𝑎 2 − 𝜎𝑥𝑎 𝜎𝑦𝑎 + 𝜎𝑦𝑎 2

The two stresses 𝜎𝑎 and σm obtained by the above equations are used
in the modified Goodman diagram to design the component.
In case of combined bending and torsional moments, there is a normal
stress 𝜎𝑥 accompanied by the torsional shear stress 𝜏𝑥𝑦 .
Substituting 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑦 = 𝜏𝑥𝑧 = 0 in Eq. (a)
2
𝜎 = √(𝜎𝑥 + 3𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 )
The mean and alternating components of 𝜎𝑥 are 𝜎𝑥𝑚 and 𝜎𝑥𝑎
respectively. Similarly, the mean and alternating components of 𝜏𝑥𝑦 are
𝜏𝑥𝑦𝑚 and 𝜏𝑥𝑦𝑎 respectively. Combining these components separately by
Eq.
2
σm = √(𝜎𝑥𝑚 + 3𝜏𝑥𝑦𝑚 2 )
Similarly,
2
𝜎𝑎 = √(𝜎𝑥𝑎 + 3𝜏𝑥𝑦𝑎 2 )
The two stresses 𝜎𝑚 and 𝜎𝑎 are obtained by the above equations are
used in the modified Goodman diagram to design the component.
Exercise:
A steel cantilever beam, as shown in Fig., is subjected to a transverse
load at its end that varies from 45 N up to 135 N down as the axial load
varies from 110 N (compression) to 450 N (tension). Determine the
required diameter at the change of section for infinite life using a factor
of safety of 2. The strength properties are as follows: Ultimate strength
= 550 MPa Yield strength = 470 MPa Endurance limit = 275 MPa. The
stress concentration factors for bending and axial loads are 1.44 and
1.63 respectively, at the change of cross-section. Take size factor = 0.85
and surface finish factor = 0.9.

Solution:
Given: l = 180 mm; 𝐿𝑎 = 125 𝑚𝑚; W a(max) = 450 N;
W a(min) = – 110 N; W t(max) = 135 N; W t(min) = – 45 N; Fos = 2;
σy = 470 MPa = 470 N/mm2; σe = 275 MPa = 300 N/mm2; Ktb = 1.44;
Kta = 1.63; Ksize = 0.85; Ksur = 0.90; q = 0.90
First of all, let us find the equivalent normal stress for point A which
is critical. It is assumed that the equivalent normal stress at this point
will be the algebraic sum of the equivalent normal stress due to axial
loading and equivalent normal stress due to bending (i.e., due to
transverse load acting at the free end). Let us first consider the
reversed axial loading.
We know that mean or average axial load,
𝑊𝑎(𝑚𝑖𝑛) +𝑊𝑎(𝑚𝑎𝑥) 450+(−110)
Wm = = = 170 𝑁
2 2

And alternating load Wa,

𝑊𝑎(𝑚𝑖𝑛) −𝑊𝑎(𝑚𝑎𝑥) 450−(−110)
Wa = = = 280 𝑁
2 2

Mean or average axial stress,

𝑊𝑚 170 × 4 216.45 𝑁
𝜎𝑚 = = =
𝐴 𝜋𝑑2 𝑑2 𝑚𝑚2
And alternating axial stress,
𝑊𝑎 280 × 4 356.5 𝑁
𝜎𝑎 = = =
𝐴 𝜋𝑑2 𝑑2 𝑚𝑚2
We know that fatigue stress concentration factor for reversed axial
loading,
Kfa = 1 + q (Kta – 1) = 1 + 0.9(1.63-1) = 1.567

We know that equivalent normal stress at point A due to axial

loading,
𝜎𝑎 × 𝜎𝑦 × 𝐾𝑓𝑎
𝜎𝑒𝑞.𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝜎𝑚 +
𝜎𝑒 × 𝐾𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 × 𝐾𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓

356.5
216.45 𝑑 2 × 470 × 1.567
𝜎𝑒𝑞.𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 = +
𝑑2 275 × 0.85 × 0.9

1464.5 𝑁
𝜎𝑒𝑞.𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 =
𝑑 2 𝑚𝑚2
Now let us consider the reversed bending due to transverse load. We
know that mean or average bending load,
𝑊𝑡(𝑚𝑖𝑛) +𝑊𝑡(𝑚𝑎𝑥) 135+(−45)
Wm = = = 45 𝑁
2 2

and variable bending load,

𝑊𝑡(𝑚𝑖𝑛) −𝑊𝑡(𝑚𝑎𝑥) 135−(−45)
Wa = = = 90 𝑁
2 2

Mean bending moment at point A,

𝑀𝑚 = 𝑊𝑚 × 𝐿𝑎
𝑀𝑚 = 45 × 125
𝑀𝑚 = 5625 𝑁𝑚𝑚
and variable bending moment at point A,
𝑀𝑎 = 𝑊𝑎 × 𝐿𝑎
𝑀𝑎 = 90 × 125
𝑀𝑎 = 11250 𝑁𝑚𝑚
We know that section modulus,
𝜋 × 𝑑3
𝑍= = 0.0982 × 𝑑3 𝑚𝑚3
32
Mean or average bending stress,
𝑀𝑚 5625 57281.06 𝑁
𝜎𝑚 = = =
𝑍 0.0982 × 𝑑 3 𝑑3 𝑚𝑚2
and variable bending stress,
𝑀𝑎 11250 114562.12 𝑁
𝜎𝑎 = = =
𝑍 0.0982 × 𝑑3 𝑑3 𝑚𝑚2
We know that fatigue stress concentration factor for reversed axial
loading,
Kfb = 1 + q (Ktb – 1) = 1 + 0.9(1.44 -1) = 1.396
We know that equivalent normal stress at point A due to axial
loading,
𝜎𝑎 × 𝜎𝑦 × 𝐾𝑓𝑏
𝜎𝑒𝑞.𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝜎𝑚 +
𝜎𝑒 × 𝐾𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 × 𝐾𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓

114562.12
57281.06 × 470 × 1.396
𝜎𝑒𝑞.𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = + 𝑑3
𝑑3 275 × 0.85 × 0.9

57281.06 357297.67
𝜎𝑒𝑞.𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = +
𝑑3 𝑑3

471859.79 𝑁
𝜎𝑒𝑞.𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝑑3 𝑚𝑚2

Total equivalent normal stress at point A,

𝜎𝑒𝑞. = 𝜎𝑒𝑞.𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 + 𝜎𝑒𝑞.𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙
471859.79 1464.5 𝑁
𝜎𝑒𝑞. = +
𝑑3 𝑑2 𝑚𝑚2
We know that equivalent normal stress at point A,
𝜎𝑦 470 𝑁
𝜎𝑒𝑞. = = = 235
𝐹𝑜𝑠 2 𝑚𝑚2
On equating stresses at A,
473324.29 1464.5
𝜎𝑒𝑞. = + = 235
𝑑3 𝑑2
473324.29 + 1464.5𝑑 = 235𝑑3
On solving the cubic equation, we get the 3 roots and the root that is
an integer is the answer. So, on solving we get the value of d as,
𝑑 = 12.46 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑟,
𝑑 = 12.5 𝑚𝑚
Hence the diameter of shaft for infinite length is 12.5 mm.
EXPERIMENT – 7:
Design of power screw

Theory:
• Power Screw: It is a mechanical device used for converting
rotary motion into linear motion and transmitting power. It is also
known as translation screw. There are three essential parts of a
power screw viz., screw, nut and a part to hold either the screw
or the nut in its place.

• Forms of thread: The popular types of threads used for power

screws, viz., Square Threads, Trapezoidal Thread, Acme and
Buttress threads etc.

• Power Screw terminology:

(i) Pitch: The pitch is defined as the distance measured parallel to the
axis of the screw from a point on one thread to the corresponding point
on the adjacent thread. It is denoted by the letter p.

(ii) Lead: The lead is defined as the distance measured parallel to the
axis of the screw which the nut will advance in one revolution of the
screw. It is denoted by the letter l. For a single-threaded screw, the lead
is same as the pitch. For a double-threaded screw, the lead is twice of
the pitch, and so on.
l = m*p, m is the start of threads.

(iii) Nominal Diameter: Nominal diameter is the largest diameter of

the screw. It is also called major diameter. It is denoted by the letter d.
dm = ( d – 0.5p)
(iv) Core Diameter: The core diameter is the smallest diameter of the
screw thread. It is also called minor diameter. It is denoted by the letters
dc.
dc = (d- p)

(v) Helix Angle: The helix angle is defined as the angle made by the
helix of the thread with a plane perpendicular to the axis of the screw.
The helix angle is related to the lead and the mean diameter of the
screw. It is also called lead angle. The helix angle is denoted by a.
Tan a = 1 / pi * dm
Now, for power screw with square threads,
Problem Statement 1: A double-threaded power screw, with ISO
metric trapezoidal threads is used to raise a load of 300 kN. The
nominal diameter is 100 mm and the pitch is 12 mm. The coefficient of
friction at the screw threads is 0.15. Neglecting collar friction, calculate
(i) torque required to raise the load; (ii) torque required to lower the
load; and (iii) efficiency of the screw.

Case 1: MATLAB Program to calculate variation of raising torque,

lowering torque and efficiency with coefficient of friction.
 µ Raising Torque Lowering Torque Efficiency

0.1 2627764.4 289468.65 0.43608

0.15 3378159.2 962694.77 0.33921

0.2 4134975.7 1635920.9 0.27713

0.25 4898296.8 2309147 0.23394

0.3 5668206.5 2982373.2 0.20217

0.35 6444790.6 3655599.3 0.1778

0.4 7228136.2 4328825.4 0.15854

0.45 8018332.1 5002051.5 0.14291

0.5 8815468.5 5675277.7 0.12999

0.55 9619637.2 6348503.8 0.11912

0.6 10430932 7021729.9 0.10986

0.65 11249447 7694956 0.10186

0.7 12075280 8368182.2 0.0949

0.75 12908530 9041408.3 0.08877

0.8 13749296 9714634.4 0.08334

0.85 14597681 10387861 0.0785

0.9 15453790 11061087 0.07415

0.95 16317727 11734313 0.07023

1 17189600 12407539 0.06666

Case 2: MATLAB Program to calculate variation of raising torque
and lowering torque with external load carrying capacity.
W (kN) Raising toque Lowering Torque

50 563026.5 160449.1

100 1126053 320898.3

150 1689080 481347.4

200 2252106 641796.5

250 2815133 802245.6

300 3378159 962694.8

350 3941186 1123144

400 4504212 1283593

450 5067239 1444042

500 5630265 1604491

550 6193292 1764940

600 6756318 1925390

650 7319345 2085839

700 7882371 2246288

750 8445398 2406737

800 9008425 2567186

850 9571451 2727635

900 10134478 2888084

950 10697504 3048533

1000 11260531 3208983

EXPERIMENT – 9:
Design of Knuckle by considering axial load.

Assumptions :
(a) Axial force = 25kn
(b) Material = plane carbon steel (45𝐶8 )
(c) Yield strength = 380mpa
(d) shear strength = 219.26mpa

Procedure :
To understand the procedure, we have to observe some general points
• General arrangement of knuckle joint

• Free body diagram of knuckle joint

(Where p = axial force applied)

 • General procedure to consider

CASE STUDIES
(1). MATLAB code for variation of rod diameter and pin
diameter with yielding stress.
 • Results
YIELDING STRESS (MPa) DIAMTER OF ROD (mm) DIAMETER OF PIN (mm)

50 39.89423 50.24828

100 28.20948 25.65425

150 23.03294 29.17065

200 19.94711 25.29889

250 17.84124 22.65328

300 16.28675 20.69838

350 15.0786 19.17775

400 14.10474 17.95112

450 13.29808 16.93445

500 12.61566 16.07

550 12.02856 15.33317

600 11.51647 14.68678

650 11.06467 14.11625

700 10.66218 13.6078

750 10.30065 13.15092

800 9.973557 12.73743

850 9.675772 12.36087

900 9.40316 12.01604

950 9.152364 11.69872

1000 8.920621 11.40542

 • Plot

YIELDING STRESS vs DIAMETER OF PIN

60

50
DIAMETER OF PIN (mm)

40

30

20

10

0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000
YIELDING STRESS (MPa)

YIELDING STRESS vs DIAMETER OF ROD

300

250
DIAMETER OF ROD (mm)

200

150

100

50

0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000
YIELDING STRESS (MPa)
(2). MATLAB code for variation of diameter of rod and diameter
of pin with external load
• Results
LOAD(N) DIAMETER OF ROD (mm) DIAMTER OF PIN (mm)

2 4.093061 5.274096

4 5.788463 7.432893

6 7.08939 9.08496

8 8.186123 10.47533

10 9.152364 11.69872

12 10.02591 12.80362

14 10.82922 13.81884

16 11.577 14.7631

18 12.27918 15.64941

20 12.9434 16.48724

22 13.57515 17.28373

24 14.17878 18.04441

26 14.75774 18.7737

28 15.31483 19.47518

30 15.85236 20.15177

32 16.37225 20.80594

34 16.87612 21.43978

36 17.36539 22.05504

38 17.84124 22.65328

40 18.30473 23.23581
 • Plots

LOAD vs DIAMETER OF ROD

300

250
DIAMETER OF ROD (mm)

200

150

100

50

0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000
Load (N)

LOAD vs DIAMETER OF PIN

300

250
DIAMETER OF PIN (mm)

200

150

100

50

0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000
Load (N)
EXPERIMENT – 10:
Design of Cotter joint.

Theory:
A cotter joint is used to connect two co-axial rods, which are
subjected to either axial tensile force or axial compressive force.
Free body diagram for Cotter Joints

Stresses in Socket End (a)

Tensile Stress (b) Shear
Stress (c) Compressive Stress
 Stresses in Spigot End (a) Tensile
Stress (b) Shear Stress (c)
Compressive Stress

Shear Failure of Cotter

Bending Failure of Cotter

Design Procedure:

Case 1: Variation of Diameter of rod, cotter thickness and cotter

width with external load
• Results
Thickness of
Load Diameter of Rod Width of Cotter
Cotter

5 5.046265 1.564342 9.85094

10 7.136496 2.212314 13.93136

15 8.740387 2.70952 19.09859

20 10.09253 3.128684 25.46479

25 11.28379 3.497975 31.83099

30 12.36077 3.83184 38.19719

35 13.35116 4.13886 44.56338

40 14.27299 4.424628 50.92958

45 15.1388 4.693026 57.29578

50 15.95769 4.946884 63.66198

55 16.73657 5.188336 70.02817

60 17.48077 5.41904 76.39437

65 18.19457 5.640316 82.76057

70 18.88139 5.853232 89.12677

75 19.5441 6.058671 95.49297

80 20.18506 6.257369 101.8592

85 20.80628 6.449948 108.2254

90 21.40949 6.636942 114.5916

95 21.99616 6.818809 120.9578

100 22.56758 6.995951 127.324

• Plots

LOAD vs DIAMETER OF PIN

300
DIAMETER OF PIN (mm)

250
200
150
100
50
0

Load (N)

LOAD vs THICKNESS OF COTTER

300
THICKNESS OF COTTER (mm)

250
200
150
100
50
0

Load (N)

LOAD vs WIDTH OF COTTER

300
WIDTH OF COTTER (mm)

250

200

150

100

50

Load (N)
Case 2: Variation of Diameter of rod, cotter thickness and cotter
width with Yielding Stress
• Results
Yielding Diameter of Thickness of
Width of Cotter
Stress Rod Cotter

50 31.91538 9.893769 254.6479

100 22.56758 6.995951 127.324

150 18.42635 5.71217 84.88264

200 15.95769 4.946884 63.66198

250 14.27299 4.424628 50.92958

300 13.0294 4.039114 42.44132

350 12.06288 3.739493 36.37827

400 11.28379 3.497975 31.83099

450 10.63846 3.297923 28.29421

500 10.09253 3.128684 25.46479

550 9.62285 2.983083 23.14981

600 9.213177 2.856085 21.22066

650 8.851734 2.744038 19.5883

700 8.529745 2.644221 18.18914

750 8.240516 2.55456 16.97653

800 7.978846 2.473442 15.91549

850 7.740617 2.399591 15.11069

900 7.522528 2.331984 14.685

950 7.321891 2.269786 14.29334

1000 7.136496 2.212314 13.93136

• Plots

YIELDING SRESS vs DIAMETER OF ROD

300
DIAMETER OF ROD (mm)

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50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000
YIELDING STRESS (MPa)

YIELDING STRESS vs THICKNESS OF COTTER

300
THICKNESS OF COTTER (mm)

250

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50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000
YIELDING STRESS (MPa)

YIELDING STRESS vs WIDTH OF COTTER

300
WIDTH OF COTTER (mm)

250

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150

100

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0
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000
YIELDING STRESS (MPa)