One line diagram:

The simplified diagram composed of a single line and standard symbols of the transmission lines and
associated apparatus of an electric system is called one line diagram.
Since a balanced 3 phase system is always solved as a single circuit composed of one of three lines and a
neutral return it is seldom necessary to show more than one phase and the neutral return when drawing the
diagram of the circuit.
Often the diagram is simplified further by
I. Omitting the complete circuit through the neutral return and by
II. Indicating the component parts by standard symbols rather than by their equivalent ckt.
III. Circuit parameters are not shown.
IV. X-mission line is represented by a single line between its two ends. Such simplified diagram is
called one line diagram.
The purpose of the one line diagram is to supply in concise form of the significant information about
the system.
Apparatus Symbols:
I. Machine on rotating armature (basic) G

II. Two winding power transformer

III. Three winding power transformer

IV. Fuse

V. Ammeter/ Voltmeter A V

VI. C.T

VII. P.T

VIII. Power ckt breaker

IX. Air ckt breaker

X. Three phase three wire delta connection

XI. Three phase three wire Y neutral ungrounded

XII. Three phase three wire Y neutral solidly grounded

XIII. 3 phase wye with grounded neutral through resistance

XIV. 3 phase wye with grounded neutral through reactance

 XV. 3 phase wye with grounded neutral through parallel resonant ckt

Per Unit Quantities:

The per unit value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the actual quantity to its base value
expressed as a decimal.
The ratio expressed in percent is 100 times the value in per unit. Both the percent & per unit (p.u)
methods of calculation is simpler than the use of actual amps, ohms and volts.
The per unit method has an advantages over the percent method because the product of two
quantities expressed in p.u is expressed in per unit itself but the product of two percent quantities
expressed in percent must be divided by 100 to obtain the result in percent.
For example, Let V1= 50 volt V2= 100 volt Vbase=200 volt
V1=50/200=0.25 p.u=25%
V2=100/200=0.5 p.u=50%
For multiplication V1 *V2 =0.25*0.5=0.125 p.u
25∗50
In percent V1 *V2= 100 % = 12.5%
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
Per Unit Quantity=
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦
The base impedance is that impedance which will have a voltage drop across it equal to the base
voltage when current flowing in the impedance is equal to the base value of the current.

Selection of base: Voltage, current, KVA and impedance are so related that selection of base
values for any two of them determines the base values of the remaining two.
Usually base volt-ampere ( in kVA/MVA ) and base voltage ( in kV ) are the quantities selected to
specify the base.
 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴 1−𝜑
Base current = A
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐿𝑁
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑁 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐿𝑁∗𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐿𝑁
Base impedance, Zbase = =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴
(𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑘𝑉 𝐿𝑁)2 ∗1000
=
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴 1−𝜑

(𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑘𝑉 𝐿𝑁)2

=
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑉𝐴 1−𝜑
But in 3-φ system data are usually given as total three phase kVA and line to line kV.
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴 3−𝜑/3
So Base current = 𝑘𝑉𝐿𝐿 A
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒
√3

𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴3−𝜑
= A
√3∗𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐿𝐿

The 3- φ line to line voltage is √3 times the line to neutral voltage of a balanced 3-φ system and
the base line to line voltage is also √3 times the base line to neutral voltage. So the per unit value
of the line to neutral voltage on the line to neutral base is equal to per unit value of the line to line
voltage of the same point in the line to line voltage base for a balanced system.
Similarly, for kVA 1-φ to kVA 3-φ

# Base impedance in terms of three phase data:

(𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 /√3)^2∗1000
Base impedance =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴 3−𝜑/3
(𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 )^2∗1000
Base impedance =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴3−𝜑
(𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑘𝑉𝐿−𝐿 )^2
Base impedance =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑉𝐴 3−𝜑

Changing the base of per unit quantity: We know that a given value of base voltage in 3
phase system is a line to line voltage and a given value of base kVA is the total 3 phase kVA.
Sometimes the p.u impedance of a component of a system is expressed on a base other than the
one selected as base for the part of the system in which the component is located.
Since all impedance in any one point of a system must be expressed on the same impedance base
when making computation it is necessary to have a means of converting p.u impedance from one
base to another.
We know, p.u impedance of a ckt element
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒×𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴
Zp.u= (𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑘𝑉)2 ∗1000
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴
Zp.u∝ (𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑘𝑉)2
𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛/𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓
Zp.u(given/self) ∝ 2 ………………..(1)
(𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑘𝑉𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛/𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 )

In terms of new bases the p.u impedance

𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑛𝑒𝑤
Zp.u(new) ∝ (𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ………………..(2)
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑘𝑉𝑛𝑒𝑤)2
Now (1)÷(2)
𝑍𝑝.𝑢 (𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛) 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 (𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑘𝑉𝑛𝑒𝑤)^2
=(𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 2×
𝑍𝑝.𝑢 (𝑛𝑒𝑤) 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑘𝑉𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛) 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴𝑛𝑒𝑤

(𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑘𝑉𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛)2 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑛𝑒𝑤

𝑍𝑝. 𝑢 (𝑛𝑒𝑤)=Zp.u (given)× (𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 ×
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 𝑘𝑉 𝑛𝑒𝑤)2 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑘𝑉𝐴 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛

Prove that:
The p.u impedance of x-former is same regardless of whether it is determined in ohmic value
referred to H.T or L.T sides of the X-former, provided bases one selected properly.
The turn ratio a=N1/N2
Now the per unit impedance of a x-former in L.T side
ZT2p.u

N1: N2
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 (𝐿.𝑇)
ZT2(p.u)=
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 (𝐿.𝑇)

= 𝑍𝑇2
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒2
 2
= 𝑎 ∗𝑍𝑇2
𝑎2 ∗𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒2

= 𝑍𝑇1
𝑍𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒1
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 (𝐻.𝑇)
ZT2(p.u)=
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 (𝐻.𝑇)
=ZT (p.u)
1

=p.u impedance of the transformer referred to the primary side

ZT1 =ZT2 in pu

EX-6.4:
A 1-φ x-former is rated 110/440 V, 2.5 kVA, leakage reactance measured from L.T is 0.06 Ω.
Determine leakage reactance in p.u.
0.1102 ∗ 1000
Solution: Low tension base impedance= = 4.84Ω
2.5
0.06
X in p.u = 4.84 =0.0124.

If leakage reactance measured on H.T side the value should be X=0.06*(440/110)^2= 0.96 Ω.
0.4402 ∗ 1000
H.T base impedance = = 77.5Ω
2.5

In p.u X=0.96/77.5=0.0124 p.u

300Ω
A B C

1:10 2:1

Example 6.5:
A-B 10,000 kVA, 138/13.8 leakage reactance 10%
B-C 10,000 kVA, 138/69 leakage reactance 8%
If base ckt B is chosen as 10,000kVA, 138 kV, find the p.u Impedance of 300Ω resistive load in
ckt C referred to ckt C, B and A
Draw the impedance diagram neglecting magnetizing current, transformer resistance and line
impedance. Determine the voltage regulation if the voltage of the load is 66 kV with the
assumption that the voltage input to the ckt A remaining constant.
Solution:
Base voltage for ckt A =0.1×138=13.8 kV
Base voltage for ckt C =0.5×138=69 kV
692 ∗1000
Base Impedance for ckt C = =476Ω
10,000

Per unit Impedance of load for ckt C =300/476=0.63

1382 ∗1000
Base Impedance for ckt B = =1900Ω
10000

Impedance of load referred to ckt B =300 ×22=1200 Ω

Per unit Impedance of load referred to ckt B =1200/1900=0.63
13.82 ∗1000
Base Impedance for ckt A = =19Ω
10000

Impedance of load referred to ckt A =300 ×22×0.12=12Ω

Per unit Impedance of load referred to ckt A =12/19=0.63
Voltage at load=66/69=0.957+0j p.u
0.957+j0
Load current= 0.63+𝑗0 =1.52+j0 p.u

Voltage input=0.957+j0 + ((1.52+j0)×(j0.1+j0.08)) = 0.957+j0.274=0.995 p.u

0.995−0.957
V.R= *100 =3.97%
0.957

Voltage Input= voltage at load with load removed.

Per unit impedance of three phase three winding X-former:

Three impedances may be measured by standard short ckt test as follows:
Zps= Leakage impedance measured in primary with secondary short circuited and tertiary open
circuited.
Zpt=Leakage impedance measured in primary with tertiary short circuited and secondary open
circuited.
Zst= Leakage impedance measured in secondary with tertiary short circuited and primary open
circuited.

Zps= Zp+Zs
Zpt = Zp+Zt
Zst = Zs + Zt
Zp, Zs and Zt are the impedances of the primary, secondary and tertiary windings referred to the
primary ckt if Zps, Zpt and Zst are the measured impedances referred to the primary ckt.
Zp=(1/2)×(Zps+,Zpt - Zst)
Zs=(1/2)×(Zps - Zpt + Zst)
Zt=(1/2)×(- Zps+,Zpt+Zst)

Example 6.8: The three phase ratings of a three-winding transformer are:

Primary Y connected 15MVA, 66 kV
Secondary Y connected 10MVA, 13.2 kV
Tertiary Δ connected 5MVA, 2.3 kV
Neglecting the resistance the leakage impedances are
Zps= 7 % on 15MVA, 66 kV base
Zpt= 9 % on 15MVA, 66 kV base
Zst= 8 % on 10MVA, 13.2 kV base
Find the p.u. impedances of the star connected equivalent circuit for a base of 15 MVA, 66kV in
the primary circuit
Base 15MVA, 66kV, in the primary ckt
Base in secondary ckt= 15MVA, 13.2 kV
Base in tertiary ckt= 15MVA, 2.3 kV
Zps and Zpt are measured in the primary ckt
𝐾𝑉 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
Zstmeasure=Zstgiven× (𝐾𝑉 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒)2 × ( )
𝐾𝑉𝐴 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛

13.2 15
=0.08×(13.2)2 × 10=j0.12 p.u

Zp=0.02 p.u, Zs = 0.05 p.u and Zt = 0.07p.u

Impedance diagram and reactance diagram of previous diagram:
 I. Base KV and base KVA is selected in one part of the system and for 3 phase system KV line
to line KV, KVA in total 3 phase KVA or MVA.

II. For other part of 3 phase X-former is determined line to line voltage ratio. The base MVA or
KVA will be the same in all parts of the system. It will be helpful to make the base KV of
each part of the system on the online diagram.

III. Impedance will be in per unit or percent on the base determined by the ratings.

IV. For 3, single phase transformer connected as a 3-phase unit the 3-𝚽 ratings are determined
from the 1-𝚽 rating. Impedance in percent for 3-𝚽 unit as the same as that for each
individual transformer.

V. P.U impedance given on a base other than that determined for the part of the system in which
the element is located must be changed to the proper base.

See Example 6.10

Advantages of P.U computations 6.13
i. Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of a piece of apparatus in percent or per
unit on the base of the nameplate rating.
ii. The per unit impedance of machines of the same type and widely different rating
usually lie within a narrow range, although the ohmic values differ materially for
machines of different ratings. For this reason, when the impedance is not known
definitely, it is generally possible to select from tabulated average values per unit
impedance which will be reasonably correct.
iii. The per unit impedance, once it is expressed on the proper base, it is same referred to
either side of any transformer, although actual impedance will be multiplied by the
square of the ratio.
iv. The way in which transformers are connected in three phase circuits does not affect the
per unit impedances of the equivalent circuit.

Problem 6.15:
Generator 1: 20 MVA, 13.8 KV, X//= 0.2 p.u
Generator 2: 30 MVA, 18 KV, X//= 0.2 p.u
Generator 3: 30 MVA, 20 KV, X//= 0.2 p.u
Transformer 1: 25 MVA, 220 Y/13.8 Δ KV, X=10%
Transformer 2: single phase unit with rated 10 MVA, 127/18 KV, X=10%
Transformer 3:35 MVA, 220 Y/22Y KV, X=10%
➢ Base 50 MVA, 13.8 KV in circuit of generator 1
Draw the impedance diagram of with all reactance marked in p.u and with letters to indicate points
corresponding to one line diagram.
 ➢ 3-𝚽 ratings of T2: 10*3= 30 MVA, √3 * 127/18 KV= 220/18 KV
Generator 1:
X//= 0.2 *(50/20) * (13.8/13.8)2 =0.5 p.u
Transmission line B to C
Base Impedance = (220) 2/50 = 968 Ω
Line impedance in p. u. = j80/968= j0.0826 p.u
T1: X= 0.1 × (50/25) ×(220/220)2 = 0.2 p.u
Transmission line C to E
Base imp 968 Ω
Line impedance in p.u.= j100/968= j0.1033 p.u
T2: X = 0.1 ×(50/30) = 0.1677 p.u
Generator 2:
X// = 0.2 × (50/30)×(18/18)2 = 0.333 p.u
T3: 0.1 × (50/35) = 0.1429 p.u
Generator 3:
X// = 0.2 × (50/30)× (20/22)2 = 0.2755 p.u
 Load flow studies
Power-flow studies are of great importance in planning and designing the future expansion of
power systems as well as in determining the best operation of existing systems. The principal
information obtained from a power-flow study is the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage at
each bus and the real and reactive power flowing in each line.
However, much additional information of value is provided by the printout of the solution from
computer programs used by the electric utility companies. Most of these features are made evident
in our discussion of power-flow studies in this chapter.

The objective of any load-flow program is to produce the following information:

• Voltage magnitude and phase angle at each bus.
• Real and reactive power flowing in each element.
• Reactive power loading on each generator.
The above objectives are achieved by supplying the load-flow program with the following
information:
• Branch list of the system connections i.e., the impedance of each element, sending-end
and receiving-end node #. Lines and transformers are represented by their π-equivalent
models.
• Voltage magnitude and phase-angle at one bus, which is the reference point for the rest of
the system.
• Real power generated and voltage magnitude at each generator bus.
• Real and reactive power demanded at each load bus.
Electrical Bus bar: An electrical bus bar is defined as a conductor or a group of conductors used
for collecting electrical energy from incoming feeder /lines and distributes them to outgoing
feeder/lines.
Variable of Load Flow study:
At any bus bar the stat of the bus bar in relation to the rest of the network maybe fully obtained by 4 by
four variables │V│, δ, P and Q

At a particular busbar it is not possible to specify all these four variables because they are
interdependent. It is general practice to specify on fix two of these variables and the other two are
determined (the other two must not be specified otherwise we end up with more unknowns than
equations). These give rise to three types of buses.
Bus Types Known Variables Unknown Variables
Swing bus/slack bus/ reference bus/ │V│, δ (δ→ 0) P, Q
floating bus
Generator/voltage controlled bus / PV bus P, │V│ Q, δ
Load Bus or P, Q bus P, Q V, δ
Swing bus: The bus at which, the real power flow is not specified is called swing bus. In this type
of bus Voltage magnitude and angle is a specified. Normally only one bus is considered as swing
or slack bus in a power system. Its main purpose is to take account of losses in the system.
(Since the system losses are unknown until a solution to the load-flow problem has been found, it
is necessary to specify one bus that will supply these losses. This is called the slack (or swing, or
reference) bus and since P and Q are unknown, │V│ and θ must be specified. Usually, an angle of
θ = 0 is used at the slack bus and all other bus angles are expressed with respect to slack.)
i. Slack bus must be a generator bus.
ii. The voltage angle of the swing on generator is to set zero on any arbitrary value. So its
voltage becomes the reference point for other voltages of the system.
iii. The bus connected to the largest generating station selected as the slack bus.
Generator/ voltage control bus: This represents a bus where P and V are specified and Q and δ
are determined.
(Likewise, the real power output of a generator is controlled by the prime mover and the
magnitude of the voltage is controlled by the exciter, so P and │V│ are specified at generators,
which are called PV buses.)

I1=V1* Y10 + (V1- V2) * Y12 + (V1- V3) * Y13

Si = Pi +jQi = (PGi- PDi )+j(QGi- QDi)

Load bus: Here the load P and Q are specified as negative inputs i.e load and V and δ are
determined.
(Because records enable the real and reactive power to be accurately estimated at loads, P and Q
are specified quantities at loads, which are called PQ buses. This means that │V│ and θ are
unknown at each load bus and θ and Q are unknown at each generator bus.)

Power Relation: For any Circuit we know, I=V/R= Y*V

Now for a power system of N bus
𝐼1 𝑌11 𝑌12 𝑌1𝑛 𝑉1
Ibus= Ybus * Vbus=[𝐼2 ] = [𝑌21 𝑌22 𝑌2𝑛 ] ∗ [𝑉2 ]
𝐼𝑛 𝑌𝑛1 𝑌𝑛2 𝑌𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑛
So the elements of I bus
𝐼𝑖 = Yi1V1 + Yi2V2 + ……………………..+ YiN VN
𝐼𝑖 = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘 … … … … … … . . (1)

Now, V= V 𝑒 𝑗.𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉)

I= I 𝑒 𝑗.𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝐼)
I*= I 𝑒 −𝑗.𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝐼)
S= VI*= V 𝑒 𝑗.𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉) *𝐼𝑒 −𝑗.𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝐼)

= VI 𝑒 𝑗.𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒(𝑉−𝐼)
=VI (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃)
= 𝑃 + 𝑗𝑄
And 𝑆 ∗ = 𝑉 ∗ 𝐼 = 𝑃 − 𝑗𝑄
So 𝑆𝑖∗ = 𝑉𝑖∗ 𝐼𝑖 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑗𝑄𝑖
𝑃𝑖 −𝑗𝑄𝑖
𝐼𝑖 = …………………….(2)
𝑉𝑖∗

𝑃𝑖 −𝑗𝑄𝑖 𝑛
Using equation (1) and (2) = ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘 = 𝑌𝑖𝑖 𝑉𝑖 + ∑𝑘=1 𝑌𝑖𝑘 𝑉𝑘
𝑉𝑖∗
𝑘≠𝑖
Because of Non-linearity of equation A and B the solution may be obtained by an iterative method
➢ Gauss-Seidel Method
➢ Newton- Raphson

𝑄𝑖 = − ∑ 𝑉𝑖 ∗ 𝑉𝑘 ∗ 𝑌𝑖𝑘𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝛿𝑘 + 𝛿𝑖𝑘 − 𝛿𝑖)

𝑘=𝑖

Successful power system operation:

Under normal balanced three phase steady state conditions requires the followings,
➢ Generation supplies the demand (load + losses)
➢ Bus voltage magnitudes remain close to needed value
➢ Generator operate within specified real and reactive power limits
➢ Transmission losses and transformers are not overloaded.

Gauss-Seidel method:
In the iterative method bus 1 is considered as swing bus on reference bus so no voltage iteration is
required. Calculation starts from bus 2. The generator buses are then numbered from 2 to G and
the rest of buses are the load buses numbered from G 1 to N for N bus system.
Bus Types Known Variables Unknown Variables
Swing bus/slack bus reference bus/ V1=V1∠0 P1,Q1
floating bus- 1
Generator voltage controlled bus / PV bus Pk, Vk Qk, δk
K=2,3……G
Load Bus on P, Q bus Pk,Qk Vk, δk
K=G+1……….N

Then,
Control of load or power flow:
The flow of active and reactive power in a synchronous link will now be studied. The approach
will be analytical and armature resistance will be considered for generality of results.

Figure shows the schematic diagram of a synchronous generator wherein E̅f leads V̅t by angle δ.
The synchronous impedance is

as shown by the impedance triangle of Fig. wherein

The armature current in Fig. 8.42 can be expressed as

The complex power output is

Substituting for /a from Equation

Fig: Impedance Triangle Fig: Phasor diagram of load power flow

Equating the real and imaginary parts of this Eq., the following expressions for real and reactive
power output are obtained as

The net mechanical power input to the machine is given by

It is convenient to express the above results in terms of angle a defined in the impedance triangle
of Figure above the then modify as below

The real electrical power output, Pe, as per Equation above is plotted in Figure below from which
it is observed that its maximum value is
occurring at δ= θ, which defines the limit of steady-state stability. The machine will fall out of step
for angle δ> θ. Of course, θ will be 90° ifresistance is negligible in which case the stability limit
will be at δ= 90° as already explained in Sec. 8.8

It follows from Equation above that

Since the angle δ in Eq. is more than θ, the maximum mechanical power input (net) operation for a
generator lies in the unstable region.
Figure shows the operation of the synchronous machine as a motor*. Here the angle δ by which
Ef lags Vt is defined as positive. Also the direction of power flow is now into the machine while
the mechanical power flows out at the machine.

It then follows from Eqs by changing the sign of S that for motoring operation
The maximum mechanical power output from Eq. is given by

It occurs at δ = θ which defines the limit of steady-state stability. It is easily seen from Eq. that the
maximum electrical power input occurs at δ = θ + 2α which lies outside the stability limit. The
reader should compare these results with that of the generator.

For the case of negligible resistance

The control of load on power flow the following three methods are used:
By changing the dc excitation of the generator thus the generated voltage can be cntrolled in power
control.
 By using the capacitor banks at the buses of both transmission and distribution levels far from
generator buses. This will increase the bus voltage at that point and increase the flow of real power.

Using the load tap changing transformer(LTC) or tap changing under load (TCUL) transformer.
Thus transformer will regulate the magnitude Vton the power angle δ at that bus and thus control
the flow of power.

By Capacitor bank:
A Capacitor Bank is a group of several capacitors of the same or different rating that are
connected in series or parallel with each other to store electrical energy. The resulting bank is then
used to counteract or correct a power factor lag or phase shift in an alternating current (AC) power
supply

Ic×Rth

Load Tap changing transformer:

If we have two bused connected by a transformer and if the ratio of the line to line voltages of the
transformer is the same as the ratio of the voltages of the two buses the equivalent ckt is simply
the transformer impedance in p.u on the chosen base connected between the buses.

If we have a regulating transformer (rather than LTC which changes the voltage level as well as
providing the tap changing feature.)
The fig may be interpreted as two transmission line in parallel with a regulating transformer in one
line.
The fig is a more detailed representation of the LTC with a turn ratio of 1/n on the regulating
transformer with each transformation ratio 1/a.
Y= admittance of transformer
a=n//n= off nominal turn ratio
For a regulating transformer a may be real or imaginary
• a → real such that 1.02 for 2% boost in magnitude
• a →imaginary ejπ/60 for 3º shift per phase