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NDA AND CDS

SUB: SCIENCE BIOLOGY THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE
 THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

1. Introduction
- Robert Hooke's discovery in 1665: Observation of cork under a microscope.
- Hooke's term "cell" for the honeycomb-like structures.
- Importance of this discovery in the history of science.

3. Types of Organisms
- Unicellular organisms (e.g., Chlamydomonas, Paramoecium, bacteria).
- Multicellular organisms (e.g., fungi, plants, animals).
- The concept that all multicellular organisms originate from a single cell.

4. Variations in Cell Types

- cells can have different shapes and sizes based on their functions.
The longest cell in the human body is
the nerve cell
The largest cell in the human body is
female ovum. Smallest cell in the
human body is male gametes, that is,
sperm.

6. Historical Development of Cell Biology

- Timeline of key discoveries in cell biology:

- 1665: Robert Hooke's discovery of cells in cork.
- 1674: Leeuwenhoek's observation of free-living cells in pond water.
- 1831: Robert Brown's discovery of the cell nucleus.
- 1838-1839: Schleiden and Schwann's cell theory.
- 1855: Virchow's addition to the cell theory (cells arise from pre-existing cells).
- 1940: Discovery of the electron microscope.

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A cell's structural organization is characterized by its organelles.
Common features found in almost every cell: plasma membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm.

Plasma Membrane or Cell Membrane:

The outermost covering of a cell that separates its contents from the external
environment.
Functions: Allows selective entry and exit of materials, prevents the movement of others.
The plasma membrane is referred to as a selectively permeable membrane.

Diffusion and Osmosis:

Movement of substances across the plasma membrane by diffusion.
Diffusion: Spontaneous movement of substances from high concentration to low
concentration.
Role of diffusion in gaseous exchange between cells and their environment (e.g., CO2 and
O2).
Osmosis: A specific case of diffusion involving the movement of water molecules through
a selectively permeable membrane.

Osmosis and Its Effects:

Factors influencing osmosis: solute concentration and water movement.
Three possible outcomes when placing animal or plant cells in solutions:
Hypotonic solution: Cell gains water, swells.
Isotonic solution: No net water movement, cell size remains constant.
Hypertonic solution: Cell loses water, shrinks.

Composition of the plasma membrane: Lipids and proteins.

The structure of the plasma membrane observed with an electron microscope.
The plasma membrane's flexibility enables endocytosis processes (e.g., in Amoeba) for
food and material uptake.

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Cell Wall:
Plant cells have an outer covering called the cell wall in addition to the plasma
membrane.
The plant cell wall is primarily composed of cellulose, providing structural strength to
plants.

Plasmolysis:
Plasmolysis is the phenomenon that occurs when a living plant cell loses water through
osmosis, resulting in the contents of the cell shrinking or contracting away from the cell
wall

Nucleus
The nucleus is a crucial organelle in eukaryotic cells.
It is the site of genetic information storage, including DNA and genes.
The nucleus is typically a darkly colored, spherical or oval, dot-like structure located near
the center of the cell.
It is surrounded by a double-layered nuclear membrane with pores for material transfer
between the nucleus and cytoplasm.

Chromosomes and DNA:

Chromosomes are visible as rod-shaped structures when

the cell is about to divide.
Chromosomes contain DNA, which holds genetic
information for inheritance.
DNA is composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
proteins.
DNA contains the information required for cell construction
and organization.
Functional segments of DNA are called genes.
In non-dividing cells, DNA is part of chromatin, visible as a
mass of thread-like structures.
Chromatin organizes into chromosomes before cell division.

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Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes:
In some organisms like bacteria, the nuclear region may be poorly defined due to the
absence of a nuclear membrane. This region is called a nucleoid.
Organisms with cells lacking a nuclear membrane are called prokaryotes, where "pro"
stands for primitive or primary.
Eukaryotes, on the other hand, have cells with a well-defined nuclear membrane and
other organelles in the cytoplasm.

Prokaryotic Cell: Generally small (1-10 µm)

Eukaryotic Cell: Generally large (5-100 µm)

Chlorophyll in Prokaryotic Bacteria:

Prokaryotic bacteria are simple cells without a nucleus or organized organelles.

Some types of bacteria can do photosynthesis (turn sunlight into energy), and they have a
green substance called chlorophyll to help with this.
In these bacteria, chlorophyll is found in little bag-like structures (vesicles) but not in
organelles like plastids found in eukaryotic cells.

Cytoplasm:
The cytoplasm is a large region inside the cell enclosed by the cell membrane.
It contains specialized cell organelles, each with specific functions for the cell.
These organelles are enclosed by membranes.
Prokaryotic cells lack defined nuclear regions and membrane-bound organelles, while
eukaryotic cells have both.
Important cell organelles include the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
mitochondria, and plastids.

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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

The ER is a network of membrane-bound tubes and sheets in the cell.

Two types of ER: Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) and Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum (SER).
RER looks rough due to ribosomes on its surface, where protein synthesis occurs

SER is involved in the production of

.
lipids and fats.
ER plays a role in membrane
biogenesis and the transport of
materials within the cell.
ER functions as a cytoplasmic
framework and channels for material
transport.

Golgi Apparatus:

The Golgi apparatus is a system of

membrane-bound vesicles in stacks
called cisterns.
It was first described by Camillo Golgi.
Golgi apparatus packages and
dispatches materials synthesized near
the ER to various cell targets.
It is involved in the storage,
modification, and packaging of
products in vesicles.
Complex sugars may be formed from
simple sugars in the Golgi apparatus.
The Golgi apparatus is also linked to the
formation of lysosomes.

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Lysosomes:
Lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs filled with digestive enzymes.
These enzymes are produced by the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER).
Lysosomes function as the cell's waste disposal system, breaking down foreign
materials and worn-out cell organelles.
They contain powerful digestive enzymes that can break down organic material.
During cellular disturbances, lysosomes may burst and digest their own cell,
earning them the nickname "suicide bags."

Mitochondria:

Mitochondria are often referred to as the "powerhouses of the cell."

They have two membrane coverings: an outer porous membrane and an inner
membrane with deep folds, which increase the surface area for ATP-generating
chemical reactions.
Mitochondria release energy in the form of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate), which is
known as the energy currency of the cell.
ATP is used by the body for various chemical activities and mechanical work.
Mitochondria are unique because they have their own DNA and ribosomes, allowing
them to synthesize some of their own proteins.

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Plastids:

Plastids are organelles found only in plant cells.

There are two types of plastids: chromoplasts (colored plastids) and leucoplasts (white or
colorless plastids).
Chloroplasts, a type of chromoplast, contain the pigment chlorophyll and are essential for
photosynthesis in plants.
Leucoplasts primarily store materials like starch, oils, and protein granules.
Chloroplasts have an internal organization with numerous membrane layers embedded in a
material called the stroma.
Similar to mitochondria, plastids also have their own DNA and ribosomes.

Vacuoles:

Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents in cells.

Animal cells typically have small-sized vacuoles, whereas plant cells have very large
vacuoles.
In some plant cells, the central vacuole may occupy a significant portion of the cell
volume.
Vacuoles in plant cells are filled with cell sap, providing turgidity and rigidity to the cell.
They store various substances, including amino acids, sugars, organic acids, and
proteins.
In single-celled organisms like Amoeba, food vacuoles contain consumed food items.

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Cell Division:

Cell division is the process by which new cells are formed in organisms for growth, tissue
replacement, and the production of gametes for reproduction.
There are two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis is the process by which most cells divide for growth and tissue repair. It results in two
identical daughter cells, each with the same number of chromosomes as the mother cell.
Meiosis is a different process used by specific cells in reproductive organs to form gametes.
It involves two consecutive divisions, resulting in four new cells, each with half the number of
chromosomes as the mother cell.

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