Chromosomes are thread-like structures found in the nucleus of most living cells.

They are
made up of DNA and proteins, and they carry genetic information that is passed from one
generation to the next. Each species has a characteristic number of chromosomes. For example,
humans have 46 chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs.

Key points about chromosomes:

1. Structure: Chromosomes are composed of DNA tightly coiled around proteins called
histones. This complex is referred to as chromatin. During cell division, chromatin
condenses to form visible chromosomes.
2. Types:
o Autosomes: In humans, 22 of the 23 pairs of chromosomes are autosomes, which
are identical in both males and females.
o Sex Chromosomes: The 23rd pair are the sex chromosomes, which determine an
individual's sex. Females typically have two X chromosomes (XX), while males
have one X and one Y chromosome (XY).
3. Function: Chromosomes carry genes, which are specific sequences of DNA that code for
proteins. These genes dictate a wide range of biological functions, from determining eye
color to influencing more complex traits like susceptibility to diseases.
4. Cell Division:
o Mitosis: This is the process by which somatic (non-reproductive) cells divide,
producing two identical daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes.
o Meiosis: In this process, germ cells (sperm and eggs) divide, resulting in daughter
cells with half the number of chromosomes (haploid). This ensures that offspring
receive the correct number of chromosomes when sperm and egg unite during
fertilization.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the hereditary material found in almost all living organisms.
It carries the genetic instructions used in the development, functioning, growth, and reproduction
of all known living organisms and many viruses. DNA molecules are composed of two long
strands that form a double helix, which is a twisted ladder-like structure.

Key Points About DNA:

1. Structure:
o Nucleotides: DNA is made up of smaller units called nucleotides. Each
nucleotide consists of:
 A phosphate group.
 A sugar molecule (deoxyribose).
 One of four nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C),
and guanine (G).
o Double Helix: The DNA's two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds
between complementary bases: A pairs with T, and C pairs with G.
2. Function:
 o DNA contains instructions for building proteins, which are essential for all
biological processes. These instructions are encoded in the sequence of the four
bases (A, T, C, G) along the DNA strand.
o Genes: Specific sequences of DNA that code for proteins are called genes. A gene
contains the information to make a specific protein.
3. Replication:
o Before a cell divides, its DNA must replicate. The DNA double helix unwinds,
and each strand serves as a template for the creation of a new complementary
strand. This ensures that each new cell gets an exact copy of the original DNA.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in the
growth, development, functioning, and reproduction of all known living organisms and many
viruses. It is composed of two long strands of nucleotides that coil around each other to form a
double helix.

Components of DNA:

1. Nucleotide: The basic building block of DNA. Each nucleotide consists of three parts:
o Phosphate group.
o Deoxyribose sugar (a five-carbon sugar).
o Nitrogenous base: One of four types:
 Adenine (A)
 Thymine (T)
 Cytosine (C)
 Guanine (G)
2. Double Helix: The structure of DNA is a double helix, where two strands are connected
by hydrogen bonds between complementary nitrogenous bases (A pairs with T, and C
pairs with G).

Functions of DNA:

 Genetic Information: DNA stores genetic instructions for making proteins. These
instructions are encoded in the sequence of the nitrogenous bases (A, T, C, G).
 Replication: DNA can replicate itself, allowing genetic information to be passed on
during cell division. This ensures that each new cell receives an identical copy of the
DNA.
 Protein Synthesis: DNA directs the production of proteins through the processes of
transcription (where DNA is copied into mRNA) and translation (where mRNA is used
to assemble proteins).

Importance:

 Heredity: DNA is the carrier of genetic material and is passed from parents to offspring,
determining inherited traits.
 Mutation and Evolution: Changes (mutations) in the DNA sequence can lead to
variations in traits, which can drive evolution over time.