ADVERTISEMENT.

It is coining dollars for others....

^^^Why not for you?

Our Rotar
Has a y Cylin
magical effectder ^'J^equtd^"
on Profits.

It produces more fabri es the cards safely at any

It runs 10 to 25 per c
speed. It Ithasdoes
but away with t'
One Cylinde ditions of the loom. Our
Double Crank and Two-Lever I our method of adjusting
the harness is simple as A.
Our Catalogue No. 12 v y we eare getting stacks ol
repeat orders from manufai J worth rof ,this ingenious
Jacquard machine.

Franklin Institute {j^kar^

5c
•HIA, U. 5. A.
Second and i
Class Accessioi^.^.^...\..^
Jf. B.— To reach our wo
^ Beading K.B. to
 ADVERTISEMENT.

Knowles Loom Works

WORCESTER, MASS., U. S. A.

FiuB Awards
AT THE

Worl.d' s
Columbian

Exposition.
Makers of
Power Looms of Every Description,

Also Jacquards and Dobbies.

The extraordinary demand for our

Rise and Fall 3ingle-Leuer Jacquards

is sufficient evidence that they are superior to all others.
They can be operated at a Higher Rate of Speed than
any other (Rotary not excepted).
V:
We manufacture Jacquards for
every class of Weaving for which such
machines can be used.

The "Mford Dobby" is too well known to need more

than mere reference, over 16,000 being in use. It is adapted for

Lenos, Double Weaves, Towels, or any class of goods requiring

fancy effects, not sufficiently elaborate to require Jacquards.

SEND FOR CATALOGUES AND PRICES OF ALL OUR MACHINERY.

THE "KNOWLES LOOM" FOR FOREIGN COUNTRIES

i^Buiitby HITTCHINSON. HOLLINQWORTH & CO.,
DOBCROSS, ENGI-75ND.
WE ALSO HAVE BRANCH WORKS LOCATED AT PROVIDENCE, R. I., U. S. A.
(See also Outside Back Cover.)
 ADVERTISEMENT.

of every description.
Silk Yarns

In Gray or absolutely FaSt ColOFS,

WARRANTED TO STAND FULLING.

In Skein or Chain Warps and on Spools, Cops, Cones and

Shuttle Bobbins.

S. Friedberger,

435 Bourse Building, Philadelphia.

LONQ DISTANCE TELEPHONE CONNECTION. CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED.

ESTABLISHED 1831..

CURTIS & MARBLE MACHINE COMPANY,

MANUFACTURERS OF

Wool Burring, Picking and Mixing Machinery.

CLOTH Finishing Machinery,

For Cotton, Woolen, Worsted, Plush Goods, Etc.
SHEARING MACHINES A SPECIALTY.

Office and Works, Webster Square, WORCESTER, MASS.

WOOL PREPARING MACHINERY.

Shake Willows or Dusters ; Feafnoughts or Tenter Hook Pickers ; Goddard Burr Pickers ; Steel Ring
and Solid Packing Burring Machines, with Steel Ring Feed Rolls, for Woolen and Worsted Cards.
FINISHING MACHINERY.
Shearing Machines for all kinds of Cotton, Woolen and Worsted Goods, Plushes, Carpets, Rugs,
Mats, etc ; Up and Down, Double Acting, Steam, and Gessner Gigs ; Gessner Rolling Teasel Gigs ; Endless
Felt Gigs ; Wire Nappers for Satinets, Blankets, Knit Fleecings, etc. ; Single and Double Acting Brushing
Machines ; Cotton Brushing Machines ; Gas Singeing Machines ; Steam Finishing Machines ; Stretching
and Rolling Machines ; Patent Doubling and Tacking Machines ; Gessner Rotary Steam Cloth Press ;
Reversible Flock Cutters ; Flock Renovators ; Rag Cutters ; Cloth Winders and Measurers ; Cloth Folding
and Measuring Machines ; Shear Grinders ; Railway Sewing Machines, etc., etc.
Machine Brushes of all kinds made and repaired.
Particular attention paid to repairing and grinding Shear Blades and Burr Cylinders.
SEND FOR OATALOQUE.
iii
 ADVERTISEMENT .

JAME3 BARKER, cotton and¥oolen machinery

S. E. Cor. 2d and Somerset Ste., Philadelphia, Pa.

Double Apron Condenser

1. Increases production 10-40%.
2. Improves quality.
3. Adaptable to fine or coarse numbers
of yarn.
4. Equipped with perfect aprons, plain

5. Nowor working
"pocket." on every grade of
stock carded.
6. Necessary to profitable yarn making.

Fast Running Non-Oil-

Leaking Doffing Comb
For cotton, woolen and
worsted cards.
Can be run at highest speed.
Working parts always in oil.
Adjusted by single
Durable and cheap. screw.

New Automatic Spur-Gear Cutter

Compact and sturdy construction.
Driven by one belt.
Speed limited only by strength of cutter.
4. Minimum amount of over-run.
Cutter table returns at rate of 90 inches a minute.
Perfect spacer, steady cutter.
Entirely automatic.

Moulders' Improved Flask

1. Prevents shifted or shotover castings.
2. Saves time and labor.

3. Increases production.
4. Perfect lift, less patching.

5. All parts renewable.

6. More work done by hinge lift.

7. Positive pin guide.

8. No fins — less work in cleaning shed.
 ADVERTISEMENT.

LIMITED.

Griswold Worsted Co.

^""^r/""-^^^ Wo
rste d Yarns

SUITABLE FOR
Spun Silk Yarns

HOSIERY, UNDERWEAR, UPHOLSTERY FABRICS.

WARPS FOR PLUSHES AND DRESS GOODS ON

CONES OR SPOOLS

ftilk V^rng Fast colors on spools.

CaSSimere

- - Office, 322 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa.

JosiAH Gates & Sons

Oak Tanned
MANUFACTURERS OF

Leather Belting

Lace Leather, Worsted Apron Leather, Picker Leather,

Loom Strapping and Worsted Aprons,

Rubber 3^Iti'^S^ and ]*\ill S^PP^^^^*

307 Market St., Lowell, Mass.

 AnVRRTISEMENT.

Fairmount Machine Co.

Twenty=second and Wood Sts.,

PHILADELPHIA, PA.

Textile Machinery:

Patent Looms, of superior merit, entirely new, patent of 1895.

Patent Harness Motions, best for the manufacturer, best for the weaver, can be j&tted
to any loom.

Patent Warp Tension Attachment, absolutely prevents "smashes" and makes

even cloth, applicable to any loom.
Patent Cop and Bobbin Winding Machines, save yarn and give perfect bobbins.
Plain and Pressure Beaming Machines.

Plain and Pressure Spoolers.

Dyeing and Sizing Hachines.

** Bridesburg " Looms and flachinery.

Power Transmitting flachinery:

Self=oiling Bearings, cleanly, most economical.

Patent Friction Pulleys, simple, eflBcient, can be depended upon.

Vertical Shaft Transmission, the bearings will run cool.

Patent fluley Driving, adjustable, self-oiling.

Patent Belt Tighteners, capable of fine adjustment.

special Forms of Driving, for difficult situations.

Rope Transmission.

vi
 ADVERTISEMENT.

00LENS/.>^^"^|1UALITY /
W ORSTEDS V/UANTITY
..PRODUCED ON THE...

Qrompton High speed

Close Shed ^001118

Witli " 189r> » Patent Harness Motion :—

Giving absolute freedom from mispicks.

With " 1 89.> " Positive Take-up

The number of teeth in the ratchet indicat-
ing the exact and corresponding number
of picks.
Wifli Patent Adjustable Driving Motion:—
Allowing quick change of speed without
removal of pulleys or belt.
CROMPTON " 1895 " WOOLEN AND WORSTED LOOM.

^ROMPTON pANCY (j INGHAM LoOMS

ALL OTHER MAKERS TAKE AS THEIR STANDARD.

Are built vf ith a Positive Take-up Motion.

Number of teeth in gear produces correspond-
ing number of picks in cloth.
WEAB and TEAR
guaranteed at a minimum point.
Our Patent Positive Compound Lever
Sliding Tooth Box Motion,
^as no rival for maximum speed and accuracy.
All Combinations of Shuttle Boxes.
CROMPTON STANDARD QINQMAM LOOM 4 x 1 BOX.

Crompton Loom Works,

WORCESTER, MASS.
Correspondence Solicited..
vii
 Fosselt's Textile Library, Volume I.

TEXTILE

CALCULATIONS

Being a Guide to Calculations relating to

The Construction of all kinds of Yarns and Fabrics,

The Analysis of Cloth,

Speed, Power and Belt Calculations.

For the use of Students, Operatives, Overseers and Manufacturers,

—BY—

B. A. POSSKLT,

Consulting Expert on Textile Designing and Manufacturing. Editor of *' The Textile
Record.^'' Editor of Textile Terms in '"''Standard Dictionary ''''Iconographic
Encyclopizdia of the Arts and Sciences?'* Author and Publisher of '"'' Technology of
Textile Design''\' " The Jacquard Machine Analysed and Explained'''' ; '■^ Structure of
Fibres^ Yarns and Fabrics.^'' Principal of PosseWs Private School of Textile Design ;
formerly Head Master of the Textile Department of The Pennsylvania Museum and
School of Industrial Art^ Philadelphia,

WITH NUMEI^OUS ILLUSTRATIONS.

PHILADELPHIA :
B. A. POSSELT, Author and Pubi^ishbr,
2152 N. Twenty-first Strejkt.

LONDON :
SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON AND COMPANY, LIMITED,
St. Ddnstan's Housb, Fktter IvAnb, Fi,«st Strskx.

1896.
[Copyrighted 1896, by B. • A. Posselt]
 ADVERTISEW-ENT.

M. A. FURBUSH & SON MACHINE CO.

PHILADELPHIA

MAKERS OF

WOOLEN

CARDING, SPINNING AND WEAVING

MACHINERY

ALSO

WORSTED CARDING MACHINES,

MURKLAND INGRAIN CARPET LOOM.

ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE WITH FULL PARTICULARS ON APPLICATION,

viii
THE GETTY CENTr.,
LIBRARY
 LIST OF ADVERTISERS.
xxxx
Altemus, W. W. & Son , Philadelphia ... ix Boston . . . xxiv
American Drosophore Co. Boston ...... xxiii Leigh, Bvan Arthur Philadelphia
Lord, George W. . .
Barker, James Philadelphia ... iv IVIalcolm Mills Co Frankford, Pa
Beer Paul . Philadelphia . . . xxxi Mauger & Avery Boston . . . XXX
xxiv
B^nazet Heddle Co. . . • . Darby, Pa xxiv McCloud, C Philadelphia
Borchers & Co., Richard C. . Philadelphia . . . xxxix Muhlhauser, F. Co Boston Cleveland,
and O.
Branson Machine Co. . . . Phila. (506 St. John st.)
Brophey, D Philadelphia . . . xxvii Phila. (606 Arch St.)
Crehore, C. F. & Son . . . Boston xviii Nye & Tredick
Crompton Loom Works . . Worcester .... vii Parks & Woolson Mach. Co Springfield, Vt. ^ .
Curtis & Marble Worcester .... iii Paterson Reed and i
Harness Co. Paterson, 'N. J.', . . XXlll
Danforth Belting Co. . . . Philadelphia . . . xxxviii Paton, James H XXX
Dolan, Thomas B Philadelphia . . . xxvii Pettee Machine Works . . . Bost6i Up'r' Falls,
Newton ...
Draper, George & Sons . . . Hopedale, Mass. . xiii Mass. ......
Phila Photo. Bngraving Co. Philadelphia .;. . . .. xxxvii
xxix
Elliott & Hall Worcester, Mass. . xviii Posselt, B. A (Publisher) . . Philadelphia . .. . . XXV
Entwistle, T. C Lowell, Mass. . , . xvi , . . XXX
xxxiii-xxxvi
pairmount Machine Co. . , Philadelphia ... vi Posselt's Textile School . Philadelphia
Firth, William Boston '. xvi . . X xviii
Fleming & Chapin Philadelphia . . . xxiv Philadelphia . . . xviii
Friedberger, S Philadelphia ... iii Queen & Co
Funk & Wagnalls Co. . . . New York .... xxxi Rhoads, J. B. & Sons . Phila. (239 Market)
Furbush, M. A. & Son Mach, and Wilmington, Del
Co Philadelphia . Ring, Thomas F. . . . Boston xxx
Rogers, Gorham & Co. Boston . .
Gallagher, D J. & Co. . . . Phila. (245-7 N. Broad st.) Paterson, N. J. . .
Gates, Josiah & Sons .... Lowell, Mass. . Rojde, John & Sons .
. inside back cover
Globe Machine Works . , . Frankford, Pa. . . xxii , Philadelphia 1
Gould, M. A Philadelphia . . . xviii Schaum & Uhlinger . Philadelphia
Griswold Worsted Co. , . . Philadelphia ... v Schnitzler, Charles H. xxii
Schofield, George L. . Philadelphia xviii
Griibnau, Carl Philadelphia . . . xxii Philadelphia
xxiv Sellers, Wm. & Co. .
Hall, Amos H Philadelphia Sprowles & Houseman Frankford, Pa xxxviii
xxxviii Stewart, Thomas . . , Philadelphia xii
xviii
Hall, I. A. & Co Paterson, N. J. Boston . . .
Halton, Thomas ... Philadelphia xxxxXX Sturtevant Co., B. F. . XV
xxx
New York . , Sullivan, Richard T. . Boston . . .
Holbrook M'n'f'g. Co. . .
Houghton, B. F. & Co. Philadelphia xivX xxxii
Howson & Howson . . . Philadelphia I. xxii Textile Record Co Philadelphia
xviii
Howard & Bullougli . . Pawtucket, R, Troemner, Henry Philadelphia
Hunter Machine Co., James North Adams, Mass xvii xix
Wilder, Jacob Paterson, N. J. . . xxxi
Insinger & Co Philadelphia WhitinsvilleSpin'g Ring Co. Whitinsville, Mass.
Wilson, D. H Lowell, Mass. . .
Windle, J. B Worcester, Mass. . xxx
xvi
Janes, S. Walker Boston . . . XXX
xxiv Wolf, W. & Sons Boston xvii
Jones, F. & Co Philadelphia Woolford, George Philadelphia . . . xxiv
Woonsocket Machine and
Kitson Machine Co Lowell . . Press Co Woonsocket, R. I. . xxi
Knowles Loom Works . . . Worcester
ii and back cover Zentmayer, Joseph Philadelphia . . . xxvi

CLASSIFIED INDEX.

Belting Burlaps
Card Grinders
Danforth Belting Co Gorham Rogers & Co. T. C, Bntwistle
Josiah Gates & Sons B. A. Leigh
J. B Rhoads & Sons Carbonizing Machines
Geo. L- Schofield Cards for Jacquard Looms
Kitson Machine Co. C. F. Crehore & Son
Blowers Card Clothing
Chas. H. Schnitzler D. Brophey
B. A. Leigh Coal
B. F. Sturtevant Co.
Colors
Boiler Compound Card Cutting and Lacing
Machinery
Geo. W. Lord Queen & Co.
Condensers
Books
B. A. Posselt John Royle & Sons ' James Barker
M. A. Furbush & Son Mach. Co.
Schaum & Uhlinger
 CLASSIFIED INDEX — Continued.
Publications
M. A. Furbush & Son Mach. Co.
Paul Beer Coppersmiths Insinger & Co. See Books and Journals
D. H. Wilson Knowles Loom Works Raw Materials
Cranes Schaum & Uhlinger Carl Griibnau
Wm. Sellers & Co. Woonsocket Mach. & Press Co S. Walker Janes
Mauger & Avery
Dictionaries Machinery (Cotton and Woolen) The F. Muhlhauser Co.
Funk & Wagnalls Co. W. W. Altemus & Son
James ThomasH F.Paton
James Ring
Design Papers RichardBarker
C. Borchers & Co.
F Jones & Co. Richard T. Sullivan
Crompton Loom Works W. Wolf & Sons.
Queen & Co. Curtis & Marble
Dyeing, Prisiting, and Sizing Geo. Draper & Sons Scales
Machines Fairmount Machine Co. Henry Troemner
Fairmount Machine Co. Wm. Firth
Schools
Sprowles & Houseman M. A. Furbush & Son Mach. Co. Design Private School of Textile
Posselt's
Globe Machine Works
Dryers Howard & Bullough
Kitson Machine Co. Shafting, Pulleys, and Couplings
E. A. Ivcigh James Hunter Machine Co. Fairmount Machine Co.
Insinger & Co. James Hunter Mach. Co.
Dye Kettles Kitson Machine Co. Geo. L. Schofield
D. H. Wilson & Co. Knowles Loom Works Wm. Sellers & Co.
Edgings Evan Arthur Leigh Woonsocket Machine and Press Co.
S. Friedberger Parks & Woolson Machine Co.
Pettee Machine Works Slasher and Dresser Cylinders
Fleming & Chapin D. H. Wilson & Co.
Schaum & Uhlinger
Engraving Geo. L. Schofield Silk Yarns
Phila. Photo-Engraving Co. S. Friedberger
Sprowles & Houseman Griswold Worsted Co.
Finishing Machinery J. E. Windle Machine Co. Chas. McCloud Soaps
W W. Altemus & Son Woonsocket
Richard C. Borchers & Co. Machine Tools Holbrook Mfg. Co.
Curtis & Marble Wm, Sellers & Co.
Elliott & Hall Microscopes Spinning Rings
James Hunter Machine Co. Queen & Co. Geo. Draper & Sons
E. A. Leigh Whitinsville Spinning Ring Co
Parks & Woolson Mach. Co. Joseph Zentmayer
Mill Supplies Spur Gear Gutters
J. E. Windle B^nazet Heddle Co. James Barker & Co.
Woonsocket Mach. and Press Co Danforth Belting Co. Stokers
Geo. Draper & Sons Wm. Sellers & Co.
Jacquards and Dobbies
Crompton L,oom Works Josiah Gates & Sons Tanks
M. A. Furbush & Son Mach. Co. M. A. Gould Geo. Woolford
Thomas Hal ton I. A. Hall & Co. Amos H. Hall
Thomas Halton Machinery
Insinger & Co. Warping, Beaming, and WIndiig .
Knowles Loom Works Paterson Reed and Harness Co.
John Royle & Sons IJ. E. Rhoads & Sons W. W. Altemus
Schaum & Uhlinger Thomas Stewart Geo. Draper & Sons
Heating and Ventilating Jacob Walder T. C. Entwistle
Moulder's Flasks Fairmount Machine Co.
American Drosophore Co. M. A. Furbush & Son Machine Co.
B. F. Stiutevant Co. James Barker
Oils Globe Machine Works
Hydro- Extractors E. F. Houghton & Co. Insinger & Co.
Schaum & Uhlinger Patent Solicitors Schaum & Uhlinger
Journals Howson & Howson John Royle & Sons Machinery
Textile Record Co. Wool-Scouring
Pick Measures
Knitting Machinery See Microscopes Wm. Firth
Branson Mach. Co. James Hunter Mach. Co.
E. A. Leigh Pnenmatic Conveyors Kitson Machine Co.
Charles H. Schnitzler E A. Leigh
Nye & Tredick Yarns
Looms Press Papers
C. F. Crehore &Printing
Son Fleming & Chapin
Crompton Loom Works S. Friedberger
Geo. Draper & Sons Griswold Worsted Co.
Fairmount Machine Co. D. J. Gallagher & Co. Chas. McCloud
 ADVERTISEMENT.
W. W. ALTEMUS. J. K. ALTEMUS.
eSTKBI-ISHED 1B65.

W.W. ALTEMUS & SON,

Textile • •

Machinery

2816 North Fourth St., Philadelphia.

BOBBIN WINDING MACHINE

Patented November aa, 1887, and Variable Motion Patented September 6, 1893.
BUILDERS OF ALL KINDS OF
COP AND BOBBIN WINDING MACHINES,

3^ SPOOLERS, WARPERS, REAMERS,

J^m* CHENILLE CUTTING, CARPET ROLLING,
SINGEING MACHINES, AND
SPECIAL MACHINERY TO ORDER.

WE MAKE MACHINERY FOR ALL KINDS OF YARN. Correspondence Solicited

 ADVERTISEMENT.

E. F. HOUQHTON & CO.

OILS:
211 8. FRONT ST.
PHILADELPHIA, PA.

To Textile Manufacturers.

For over tlemen

a quarterGenof *.
a century we have made a
careful study of the requirements of the textile in-
dustries in oils and greases.
Commencing with the steam cylinder of the engine,
we have ascertained the exact requirements necessary
for a lubricating oil to reduce the coefficient of
friction on all classes of textile machinery to the
lowest possible minimum, thereby effecting for our
customers a large saving in fuel and repairs.
We have studied the best and most economical oils
for oiling wool, softening cotton, counteracting the
effect of harsh dyes, etc.
In fact, there is nothing pertaining to oils and
greases for textile mills to which we have not given
much time and attention, and, as a result, we are
making special oils for the various special purposes,
which are superior in quality and more economical
than oils made for general purposes.

Do not worry along with oils that are * * good

enough," when you can easily obtain perfect oils and
save money in the bargain.
It is always a pleasure for us to respond to in-
quiries and give to the textile manufacturers the
benefit of our extensive experience.
Yours respectfully,

E. F. HOUGHTON & CO.

General Manager.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS.

Yarn and Cloth Calculations.

PAGB

Grading of the Various Yarns Used in the Manufacture of Textile Fabrics According to
Size or Counts 5
Cotton Yarns • 5
Table of Lengths from No. i to 240's S
Grading of Two-Ply , Three-Ply, etc. , Yarns 5
To Find Weight in Ounces of a Given Number of Yards of a Known Count 6
To Find Weight in Pounds of a Given Number of Yards of a Known Count 6
To Find the Equivalent Size in Single Yarn for Two, Three or More Ply Yam Composed of Minor Threads of
Unequal Counts 7
Woolen Yams ^
A. "Run "System ■ ^
Table of Lengths from to 15-run ^. ^
To Find the Weight in Ounces of a Given Number of Yards of a Known Count 8
To Find the Weight in Pounds of a Given Number of Yards of a Known Count 9
B. "Cut "System 9
Table of Lengths from i-cut to 50-cut Yarn 9
To Find the Weight in Ounces of a Given Number of Yards of a Known Count 9
To Find the Weight in Pounds of a Given Number of Yards of a Known Count 9
Grading of Double and Twist or More Ply Yarns
Worsted Yarns
Table of Lengths from No. i to 200's » -
Grading of Two-ply, Three-ply, etc., Yarns 11
To Find the Weight in Ounces of a Given Number of Yards of a Known Count n
To Find the Weight in Pounds of a Given Number of Yards of a Known Count 12
To Find the Equivalent Size in Single Yarn of Two, Three or More Ply Yarn Composed of Minor Threads of
■ Unequal Counts
Silk Yarns, ^3
A. Spun Silks '3
B. Raw Silks • — •• '3
Length of raw Silk Yams per Pound and per Ounce from i to 30 Drams 14
Linen Yarns, Jute Yarns, China Grass and Ramie 14
To Find the Equivalent Counts of a Given Thread in Another System 14
A. Cotton, Woolen and Worsted Yarns ^4
B. Spun Silk Yarns Compared to Cotton, Woolen or Worsted Yarns l6
C. Linen Yarns, Jute and Ramie
D. Raw Silk Yarns Compared to Spun Silk, Cotton, Woolen or Worsted Yarns 16
To Ascertain the Counts of Twisted Threads Composed of Different Materials 17
If Compound Thread is Composed of Two Minor Threads of Different Materials. ... , 17
If Compound Thread is Composed of Three Minor Threads of Two or Three Different Materials 17
To Ascertain the Counts for a Minor Thread to Produce, with Other Given Minor
Threads, Two, Three or More Ply Yarn of a Given Count 18
A. One System of Yarn • ^®
^. Two Systems of Yarns... .........f..... » ' *5
 2

To Ascertain the Amount of Material Required for Each Minor Thread in Laying Out
Lots for Two, Three or More Ply Yarn 19
A. Double and Twist Yarn 19
Composed of Minor Threads of the Same Material 19
Composed of Minor Threads of Different Materials 20
B. Three or More Ply Yams 20
Composed of Minor Threads of the Same Material 20
Composed of Minor Threads of Different Materials 21
To Ascertain the Cost of Two, Three or More Ply Yarn 22
Composed Either of Different Qualities of Yam only, or of the Latter Item in Addition to Different Counts of
Minor Threads 22
If One of the Minor Threads is of a Different Material than the Other 22
If a Three-ply Yarn is Composed of Minor Threads of Unequal Counts as well as of a Different Price 23
If a Three-ply Yarn is Composed of Minor Threads of different Materials as well as of Different Prices 24
To Find the Mean or Average Value of Yarns of Mixed Stocks 24
To Ascertain Medium Price of a Mixture when Price and Quantity of Each Ingredient are Given 24
To Find Quantity of Bach Kind Wool to Use in a Mixture of a Given Value 25
To Find Quantity of Bach Kind to Use when the Quantity of One Kind, the Different Prices of Each Kind and
the Prices of the Mixture are Given 26
Reed Calculations 27
To Ascertain Ends in "Warp Knowing Reed Number, Threads per Dent and Width of Warp in Reed 27
To Ascertain Reed Number if Number of Ends in Warp and Width in Reed are Known 27
To Ascertain Width of Warp in Reed if Reed Number, Threads per Dent and Threads in Warp are Known 28
Warp Calculations ■. 29
To Find Weight of Warp if Number of Ends, Counts and Length are given 29
If Two or More Different Kinds of Yarn are Used 29
If Weight of Warp is Required to be Found for One Yard only 31
When Required to Ascertain the Weight of a Warp Dressed with Yarns of Various Counts and Answer Required
is for the Total Weight of Warp 31
To Find the Counts for Warp Yarn if Number of Ends in Warp and Amount of Material, Length and Weight to
be Used are Given 33
To Find Threads to Use if Counts of Yarns, Lengths and Weight of Warp are Given 34
To Find Length of Warp if Number of Ends, Counts and Weight of Yarn are Given 34
When Two or More Different Materials are Used in the Construction of Cloth 35
Filling Calculations 37
To Find the Length of Filling Yarn Required for Producing One or a Given Number of Yards of cloth, if Picks
per Inch and Width of Cloth in Reed are Known 37
To Find Weight of Filling Yarn Required, Expressed in Ounces, producing One Yard of Cloth, if Picks per Inch,
Width of Cloth in Reed and the Counts of Yarn are Known 37
To Find Weight of Filling Yarn Required, Expressed in Pounds or Fraction Thereof, for any Number of Yards
if Picks per Inch, Width of Cloth in Reed and Counts of Yarn are Known 37
If Two or More Different Kinds of Filling Yarn are Used, and it is Required to Ascertain Weight of Material for
Bach Kind 38
If the Counts are Equal, and Lots Differ only in Color or Twist 38
If Filling Yarns of Different Counts of Materials are Used 39
To Find Counts for a Filling Yam Required to Produce a Given Weight per Yard Cloth 40
If Such Example Refers to Weight Given in Ounces for One Yard 40
If Example Refers to a Given Number of Yards and Weight is Expressed in Pounds 40
To Find the Picks per Inch for a Piece of Cloth of which Counts of Yam, Length of Cloth to be Woven, Width
in Reed and the Amount of Material to be Used are Given 41
If Two or More Different Counts of Filling Yarn are Used 41
If Arrangement as to Counts of the Filling is of a Simple Form 41
If Arrangement of Filling has a Large Number of Picks in Repeat 42
To Ascertain Number of Yards of Cloth Woven for a Certain Amount of Yarn on Hand 42
To Ascertain the Amount and Cost of the Materials Used in the Construction of
Fabrics 44
A. Find the Total Cost of Materials Used, and Find the Cost of the Same per Yard Finished Cloth 44
Fancy Cassimere •' 44
Worsted Suiting .' 44
 8
PAGB

Cotton Dress Goods 45

Woolen Tricot Suiting 46
Worsted Suiting 46
Fancy Cassimere 48
Fancy Cotton Dress Goods 50
Worsted Suiting 52
Beaver Overcoating 53
Ingrain Carpet (IRxtra Fine ; Cotton Chain ; Worsted Filling) 54
Ingrain Carpet (Extra Super ; Worsted Chain) -. 55

Structure of Textile Fabrics.

The Purpose of Wear that the Fabric will Be Subject to 57

The Nature of Raw Materials 57
Counts of Yarn Required to Produce a Perfect Structure of Cloth 58
To Find the Number of Ends which, in Cotton, Woolen, Worsted, Linen and Silk Yarns, can Lie Side by Side in
One Inch 58
Table Showing the Number of Ends of Cotton Yam from Single 5's to 2/160's that will Lie Side by Side in One
Inch , 60
Table Showing Number of Ends of Woolen Yarn "Run Basis," from i-run to lo-run, that will Lie Side by
Side in One Inch 60
Table Showing the Number of Ends of Woolen Yarn "Cut Basis" from 6-cut to 50-cut, that will Lie Side by
Side in One Inch 61
Table Showing the Number of Ends of "Worsted Yarn," from 5's to 2/160's that will Lie Side by Side in One
Inch 61
Table Showing the Number of Ends of Raw Silk Yarn, from 20 Drams to i dram, that will Lie Side by Side in
One Inch , 6r
Table Showing the Number of Ends of Linen Yarns, from id's to 100' s, that will Lie Side by Side iu One Inch... 62
To Find the Diameter of a Thread by Means of a Given Diameter of Another Count of Yarn 62
To Find the Counts of Yarn Required for a Given Warp Texture by Means of a Known Warp Texture with the
Respective Counts of the Yarn Given , 63
A. Dealing with One Material 63
B. Dealing with Two or More Materials 64
Influence of the Twist of Yarns upon the Texture of a Cloth 64
To Find the Amount of Twist Required for a Yarn if the Counts and Twist of a Yarn of the Same System, but
of Difiierent Counts, are Known 65
Influence of the Weave upon the Texture of a Fabric... 66
To Find the Texture of a Cloth 67
To Change the Texture for Given Counts of Yarn from one Weaver to Another 70
To Change the Weight of a Fabric without Influencing its General Appearance 70
1. Given Cloth 71
2. Required Cloth 73
1, Given Cloth 72
2. Required Cloth , 73
To Find number of Ends Per Inch in Required Cloth 73
Weaves which will Work with the Same Texture as the ^ Twill 74
Weaves which will Work with the Same Texture as the — 34 - — etc. Twill • 74
Selections of the Proper Texture for Fabrics Interlaced with Satin Weaves 75
Selection of the Proper Texture for Fabrics Interlaced with Rib Weaves 75
Warp Effects 75
Filling Effects 76
Figured Rib Weaves 76
Selections of the Proper Texture for Fabrics Interlaced with Corkscrew Weaves 76
Selection of the Proper Texture for Fabrics Constructed with Two Systems Filling and One System Warp 77
Selection of the Proper Texture for Fabrics Constructed with Two Systems Warp and One System Filling 79
Selection of the Proper Texture for Fabrics Constructed with Two Systems Warp and Two Systems Filling 82
One End Face, to Alternate with One End Back in Warp and Filling 82
Two Ends Face, to Alternate with One End Back in Warp and Filling -> > 83
 4 PAGE
Analysis.

How to Ascertain the Raw Materials Used in the Construction of Textile Fabrics 85
Miorosoopioal Appearance of Fibres 85
Cotton 85
Silk, Wild Silk, Weighted Silk 86
Wool, Untrue Fibres, Kemps, Shoddy, Mungo, Extract, Foreign Wools, Mohair, Cashmere, Alpaca, Vicugna,
Llama, Camel's Hair, Cow's Hair , 86
Flax, Hemp, Jute and China Grass 90
Tests for Ascertaining the Raw Materials Used in the Construction of Yarns or Fabrics 91
Cotton, Linen, Jute, China Grass, Silk and Wool 91
How to Ascertain the Percentage of Each Material Constituting the Fabric 93
Wool and Cotton. Silk and Cotton, Percentage, Wool and Silk, Cotton Wool and Silk 93
How to Test the Soundness of Fibres or Yarns 94
Illustration and Description of a Testing Machine 95
How to Test Given Counts of Yarn 96
How to Ascertain the Weight of Cloth per Yard from a Small Sample 96
How to Calculate the Weight of Finished Cloth 97
How to Test and Analyze the Various Finishes of Cotton Goods 98
The Best Size for Cotton Goods 99
To Ascertain the Percentage of Size 100
Substances Used in Finishing Cotton Cloth 100
Cotton Spinning , loi
Power Required to Drive the Various Machines in a Cotton Mill — Speed of the Various Machines in a Cotton
Mill— Heat and Moisture Required for Good Cotton Spinning and Weaving— Sliver Table — Roving Table —
Calculation for Yarns 20's to 26's from the Lap to the Yarn — How to Ascertain the Capacity of a Carding
Engine — How to Find the Number of Carding Engines to Give a Regular Supply of Cotton to Each Drawing
Frame — How to Find the Quantity of Filleting Required to Cover a Card Cylinder or Dofifer — Traveler
Table for Spinning at Medium Speeds— To Calculate Loss of Twist in Ring Spinning— To Find the Per-
centage Cotton Yarn Contracts in Twisting— How to Ascertain the Number of Yards of Cotton Yarn on
Bobbin — Twist Table— Draper's Table of the Breaking Weight of American Warp Yarns per Skein— Table
Giving the Amount of Twist for the Various Kinds of Twisted Yarns — Production of Drawing Frames —
Table Giving Production per Spindle for Warp and Filling Yarn from 4's to 6o's— Production of Cards at
Various Speeds with Various Weights of Slivers.
Speed, Belting, Power, Etc.
Speed 107
How to Find the Circumference of a Circle or of a Pulley — How to Compute the Diameter of a Circle or of a
Pulley — How to Compute the Area of a Circle — How to Determine the Speed of a Driven Shaft— A Pair of
Mitre Wheels— How to Compute the Velocities, etc., of Toothed Gears— The Pitch of a Gear— ^Bevel Gears
— The Pitch Line of a Gear— To Measure the Diameter of a Gear — To Ascertain the Pitch of a Gear—
Driving-Driven — How to Distinguish the Driver from the Driven Wheel — How to Find the Speed of the
Driving Wheel— How to Obtain the Size of the Driving Wheel— How to Obtain the Size of the Driven
Wheel— Worm Wheels— A Mangle Wheel— How to Change the Speed of a Driven Pulley, Shaft or Wheel-
To Increase the Speed by Increasing the Size of the Driver— To Increase the Speed by Decreasing the Size
of Driven Wheel — How to Ascertain the Circumferential Velocity of a Wheel, Driver or Cylinder — How
to Find the Speed of Last Shaft— How to Ascertain the Number of Revolutions of the Last Wheel at the End
of a Train of Spur Wheels— How to Ascertain the Number of Teeth in Each Wheel for a Train of Spur Wheels
—How to Find the Number of Revolutions of the Last Wheel of a Train of Wheels— How to Straighten a
Crooked Shaft— How to Cool a Hot Shaft— Cooling Compound— Steel and Iron— How to Harden Cast Iron.
Belting ..^ m
Rules for Calculating the Width of Leather Belting (Single) Required for Given Power— Table of Safe, Actual
Width of Single Belts to Transmit Given Power at Given Speeds— To Find the Length of a Driving Belt
Before the Pulleys are in Position— How to Find Where to Cut Belt-Holes in Floors.
How to Manage Belts 112
Water Power 114
Steam Power 114
Heat 115
Arithmetic 116
U. S. Measures i43
Metric System i44
 YARN AND CLOTH CALCULATIONS

Grading of the Various Yarns Used in the Manufacture of

Textile Fabrics According to Size or Counts.

The size of the yarns, technically known as their "Counts'' or numbers, are based for the ditferent
raw materials (with the exception of raw silks) upon the number of yards necessary to balance one (1)
lb. avoirdupois. The number of yards thus required (to balance 1 lb.) are known as the "Standard"
and vary accordingly ,for each material. Tha higher the count or number, the finer the yarn according
to its diameter.
COTTON YARNS.

Cotton yarns have for their standard 840 yards (equal to 1 hank) and are graded by the number
of hanks 1 lb. contains. Consequently if 2 hanks, or 2 X 840 yards = 1680 yards are necessary 85 to
balance 1 lb. we classify the same as number 2 cotton yarn If 3 hanks or 3 X 840 or 2520 yards are
necessary to balance 1 lb., the thread is known as number 3 cottou yarn. Continuing in this manner,
always adding 840 for each successive number gives the yards the various counts or numbers of cotton
yarn contain for 1 lb.
Table of Lengths for Cotton Yarns.

17 (From number i to 240's.) 64

19 No. No. Yds. to I lb.
No. Yds. to I lb. No. Yds. to I lb. Yds. to I lb. No. Yds. to I lb.

I 840 23
2 18 14, 280 33 28,560
27,720
3 1,680 24 15,120 54
4 2,520 20 25 15,960
34 42,000 1n0o0 71,400
16,800 29,400 i'
5
6 3.360 2212 27 17,640 35 30,240 60 123900 100,800
84,000
4, 200 18,480 43,680
45.360
7 5.040 29 37 47,040
48,720 109,75,600
200
8 5,880 19,320
20,160 31,080
39
31,920 14905
9 6,720
21,000 32,760 6662 50,400
11560
117,600
126,000
92,400
79,800
10 7,560 2 6 21,840 52,080 70
II 8,400 22,68043 34,440 8 180
1213 28 33,600 6 55,440
60,480 134,400
9,240
10,080 53.760 142,800
14 10,920 23,52045
44 36. 120 200
151,200
15 24,360 35,280 62, 160
50
11,760 26,040 36,960 36 74 58,800
57,120 2 168,000
12,600 25,20047 63.840 2 0 159,600
184,800
16 26,880 38,640 52 201,600
13,440 38 65.520
4037,800 2 4 0
40,320
39,480 5856
67,200
41
30 42
Grading
3 of 2-ply, 3-ply, etc., Cotton Yarns.
32 1
46 90
Cotton Yarns are frequently manufactured into 2-ply. In such cases the number of yards required
for 1 lb. is one-half the amount called for in the single 70
48 thread. 72
For Example. — 20's cotton yarn (single) equals 16,800 yards per pound, while a 2-ply thread of
20's cotton, technically indicated as 2/20's cotton, requires only 8400 yards, 7876or equal to the amount
called for in single lO's cotton (technically represented as lO's cotton). Single 7's cotton yarn has 5,880
yards to 1 lb., and thus equals 2-ply 14's cotton yarn ; or 2/14's cotton yarn equals one-half the count
(14-^-2=7), or number 7 in single yarn.
 If the yarn be more than 2-ply, divide the number of the single yarn in the required counts by
the number of ply, and the result will be the equivalent counts in a single thread.
Example. — Three-ply 60's, or 3/60's cotton yarn, equals in size

(60 - 3 = 20)
single 20's cotton yarn, or 16,800 yards of single 2G's cotton yarn weigh 1 lb., and 16,800 yards of
3/60's cotton yarn weigh also 1 lb. Again, 4-ply 60's or 4/60's cotton yarn equals in size

{^rXu^ef cl^nfr} { Number of pi,.} {^^^^^S^^^ ^ \

(60 4 = 15)
single 15's cotton yarn ; or single 15's cotton yarn has 12.600 yards, weighing 1 lb., which is also the
number of yards required for 4/60's cotton yarn.

Rule for finding the Weight in Ounces of a given Number of Yards of Cotton Yarn
of a known Count.

Multiply the given yards by 16, and divide the result by the number of yards of the known
count required to balance 1 lb.

Example (single yarn). — Find weight of 12,600 yards of 30's cotton yarn. 12,600X16=
201,600 ; 1 lb. 30's cotton yarn=25,200 yards. Thus, 201,600-^-25,200=8.
Answer. — 12,600 yards of 30's cotton yarn weigh 8 oz.
Example (2-ply yarn).— Find the weight of 12,600 yards of 2/30's cotton yarn. 12,600X16=
201,600 ; 1 lb. 2/30's cotton yarn=-12,600 yards. Thus, 201,600-r-12,600=16.
Answer. — 12,600 yards of 2/30's cotton yarn weigh 16 oz.
Example— {Z-])\y yarn).— Find the weight of 12,600 yards of 3/30's cotton yarn. 12,600X16=
201,600 ; 1 lb. 3/30's cotton yarn=8,400 yards. Thus, 201,600-^-8,400=24 oz.
Answer. — 12,600 yards of 3/30's cotton yarn weigh 24 oz.
Another 'rule for ascertaining the weight in ounces for a given number of yards of cotton yarn of
a known count is as follows : Divide the given yards by the number of yards of the known count
required to balance one ounce (being yards per lb. ^16).

Example (single yarn). — Find the weight of 12,600 yards of 30's cotton yarn. 25,200-^16 =
1,575 yards 30's cotton yarn=l oz.; 12,600^1,575=8.
An^er. — 12,600 yards of 30's cotton yarn weigh 8 oz.
Example (2-ply yarn).— Find the weight of 12,600 yards of 2/30's cotton yarn. 12,600--1G=
7871 yards 2/30's cotton yarn=l oz.; 12,600-^787|=16.
Answer. — 12,600 yards of 2/30's cotton yarn weigh 16 oz.
Example (3-ply yarn).— Find the weight for 12,600 yards of 3/30's cotton yarn. 8,400-^16=525
yards 3/30's cotton yarn=l oz. ; 12,600-4-525=24.
Answer. — 12,600 yards of 3/30's cotton yarn weigh 24 oz.

Rule for finding the Weight in Pounds of a given Number of Yards of Cotton Yarn
of a known Count.

Divide the given yards by the number of yards of the known count required to balance 1 lb.

Example (single yarn).— Find the weight of 1,260,000 yards of 30's cotton yarn. 30's cotton
yarn=25,200 yards to 1 lb. Thus, l,260,000--25,200=50.
Answer. — 1,260,000 yards of 30's cotton yarn weigh 50 lbs.
 7

Example (2-ply yarn). — Find the weight of 1,260,000 yards of 2/30's cotton yarn. 2/30's cotton
yarn=l 2,600 yards to 1 lb. Thus, 1,260,000^12,600=100.
Answer. — 1,260,000 yards of 2/30's cotton yarn weigh 100 lbs.
Example (3-ply yarn).— Find the weight of 1,260,000 yards of 3/30's cotton yarn. 3/30's cotton
yarn=8,400 yards to 1 lb. Thus, 1,260,000--8,400=150.
Answer. — 1,260,000 yards of ^/30's cotton yarn weigh 150 lbs.

To find the Equivalent Size in Single Yarn for Two, Three, or More, Ply Yarn Composed
of Minor Threads of Unequal Counts.

jlU the manufacture of fancy yarns the compound thread is often composed of two or more
minor threads of unequal counts. If so, the rules for finding the equivalent in single yarn is as follows :
Mule. — If the compound thread is composed of two minor threads of unequal counts, divide the
product of the counts of the m-inor threads by their sum.
Example. — Find the equal in single yarn to a two-fold thread composea of single 40's and 60's.
40X60=2400^100 (40+60)=24.
Answer. — A two-fold cotton thread composed of single 40's and 60's equals a single 24's.
Bule. — If the compound thread is composed of three minor threads of unequal counts, com-
pound any two of the minor threads into one, and apply the previous rule to this compound thread and
the third minor thread not previously used.

Example. — Find equal counts in a single thread to a 3-ply yarn composed of 20's, 30's and 50's.
20x30=600-^50 (20+30)=12; 12x50=600^-62 (12+50)=9li
Answer. — A 3-ply cotton yarn composed of 20's, 30's and 50's equals iu size a single 9fr's thread.
A second rule for finding the'^quivalent counts for a yarn when three or more minor threads are
twisted together is as follows : Divide one of the counts by itself, and by the others in succession, and
afterwards by the sum of the quotients. To prove the accuracy of this rule we give again the previ-
ously given example.

Example.— ¥md equai counts in a single thread to a 3-ply yarn composed of 20's, 30's and 50's.
50--50=l
50^30=11 50^5i=9H
50-T-20=2l6i . -

Answer. — A 3-ply cotton thread composed of 20's, 30's and 50's equals in size a single OIt s thread.
Example. — Find equal counts in a single yarn for the following 3-ply yarn composed of 40's,
30's, and 20's cotton threads.
40^40=1
40-^30=11 40-^4i=9A
40^20=2

Answer. — The 3-ply yarn given in the example equals a single 9t\ cotton thread.
of two, three, or more minor
Memo. — In the manufacture of twisted 41 yarns (composed either out
threads) a certain amount of shrinkage will take place by means of the twisting of the threads around
each other. No doubt if both minor threads are of equal counts this shrinkage will be equal for both,
but if the sizes of the yarns, or the raw materials of which they are composed, are different, such
''take-up'' will be different for each minor thread. For example: a strong and heavy minor thread
twisted with a fine soft thread ; in this case the finer thread will wind itself (more or less) around the
thick or heavy thread, not having sufficient strength to bend the latter, thus the finer thread will take
tip more m proportion than the heavy thread. Twisting a woolen thread with a cotton thread, both
supposed to be of the same counts, will stretch the former more than the latter; i. e. it will lose less in
length during twisting compared to the latter. Again two or more minor threads twisted with differ-
ent turns per inch will accordingly take up differently. In giving rules for any of the yarn calcula-
tions in 2, 3, or more ply yarn, no notice of shrinkage or take-up by means of twisting the minor
threads is taken in account, since otherwise an endless number of rules of the most complicated char-
acter would be required with reference to raw materials, the different counts of threads, turns of twist
per inch and tension for each individual minor thread during the twisting operation. Such rules would
thus be of little value to the manufacturer since his practical experience regarding this subject will
readily assist him to calculate quickly and exactly by rules given, with a proportional allowance for a
take up of minor threads as the case may require.
WOOLEN YARNS.

A. "Run" System.

Woolen yarns are with the exception of the mills in Philadelphia and vicinity, graded by " runs "
which have for their standard 1600 yards. Consequently 1 run yarn requires 1600 yards to 1 lb., 2
run yarn— 3200 yards to 1 lb., 3 run yarn— 4800 yards to 1 lb., etc., always adding 1600 yards for
each successive run. In addition to using whole numbers only as in the case of cotton and worsted
yarn, the run is divided into halves, quarters, and occasionally into eighths, hence —
200 yards equal ^ run 1000 yards equal f run
8^
400 " " 1 " 1200 " " I " 13
600 " f " 1400 " " I "
800 " " 1 " 1600 " 6X " 1 " &c. 15
Table of Lengths for Woolen Yarns {Run System). 8>^
(From one-fourth Ruu to fifteeu Run)
Run. Yds. to I lb. Run. Yds. to I lb. Run. Yds to I lb Run. Yds to I lb
6)4
5^ 8X 10;^

800 33X
6
1,200 14
109
I 10,000 • 13,600
16,800
.1,604000 3^
4X 6,4,0080000 10,400 14,400
14, 000
2,000 4 402000 10,800 16,000
2,400 3.^ 5,5,60
6, 7%
7 11,200200 15,200
7^ II
2,800 4H
4/2 6,800 9,
11,600 12
5X 9,600
12,000
12 400
5
3,200 8 20,800
22,400
600 0020000
8,7,40 17,600
2 3/ 43,,000 7,80
8, 60 12,800 19, 200
' 5/2
2 4,400 13,200 24,000
Rule for Finding the Weight in Ounces of a Given Number of Yards of Woolen Yarn of a
Known Count Graded After the Run System.

The run basis is very convenient for textile calculations by reason of the standard number equaling
100 times the number of ounces that 1 lb. contains ; thus by simply multiplying the size of the yarn
given in run counts by 100, and dividing the result into the number of yards given (for which we have
to find the weight), gives us as the result the weight expressed in ounces .
Example.— F'mdi the weight of 7200 yards of 4 run yarn— 4X100=400. 7200-^400=18.
Answer. — 7200 yards 4 run yarn weigh 18 ounces.

Example.— F'mdi the weight of 3750 yards of 3| run woolen yarn— 3750-^375=10.
Answer. — 3750 yards of 3| run woolen yarn weigh 10 ounces.
 9

Rule for Finding the Weight in Pounds of a Given Number of Yards of Woolen Yarn of a
Known Count Graded After the Run System.

If the weight of a given number of yards and of a given size of woolen yarn, run system, is
required to be calculated in pounds, transfer the result obtained in ounces into pounds or fractions thereof.
Example.— Find the weight of 100,000 yards of run yarn— 100,000-^-625=160 oz. --16=10.
Ansioer. — 100,000 yards of 6J run yarn weigh 10 lbs.

B. "Cut" System.

As heretofore mentioned, woolen yarn is also graded by the " cut " system. 300 yards is the basis or
standard, consequently if 300 yards of a given woolen yarn weigh 1 lb., we classify it as 1 cut yarn ;
if 600 yards weigh 1 lb. we classify it as 2 cut yarn ; if 900 yards weigh 1 lb. we classify it as 3 cut
yarn, and so on ; hence the count of the woolen yarn expressed in the cut multiplied by 300 gives as
the result the number of yards of respective yarn that 1 lb. contains. 65
23
Table of Lengths for Woolen 24 Yarns (Cut System),
25
(From I cut to 50 cut Yam.)
13 27
Cut. Yards to lb. Cut. 141 Yards to lb. Cut. Yards29 to lb. Yards to lb. Yards to lb.
5 '30 Cut. Cut.
I 12 17 45
2 600 10,200
300 19 6,900 10, 500 13,500
3 3,600 26 35 10, 800
4 1,20000 34
39 13,800
5 16 9000
3,20 7.200 II, 100
11,400 14,400
6 1,5009 4, 28 37 11,700
16,200
1,800 18 4,500 8, 100
8,400 60 15,000
7 2,100 4,800 5000
7,80 12,000 54 18,000
8 7, 12,300 17,400
9 2,400 20 5,100 8, 700 43
ID 2,700 21 5,400
6,000 12,600 75 222,500
1 ,000
19,500
22 5,700 12,900 80
II 3,000 6,300 33 44
3.300 6,600 9,000
9,300 13,200
9,600 24,000
9,900 Number
Rule for Finding the Weight in Ounces for a Given of Yards
36 of Woolen Yarn of
a Known Count Figured by the "Cut" Basis.
31 38 46
32 40 yards by 16 and divide 48
This rule is similar to the one given for cotton yarn. " Multiply the given
41
the result by the original number of yards for the given count of cotton yarn 2
4 that 1 lb. contains." 50
58
Example.— Find the weight of 12,600 yards of 40-cut woolen yarn. 12,600X16=201,600; 1
70
lb. of 40-cut woolen yarn=12,000 yards. Thus, 201,600-f-12,000=16.8.
Amwer. — 12,600 yards of 40-cut woolen yarn weigh 16.8 oz.
The other rule for ascertaining the weight in ounces for a number of yards of cotton yarn of
a known count is as follows : Divide the given yards by the number of yards of the known count
required to balance one ounce.
Example. — Find the weight for 12,600 yards of 40-cut woolen yarn. 12,000-f-16=750
12,6OO--750=16.8.
Answer. — 12,600 yards of 40-cut woolen yarn weigh 16.8 oz.

Rule for Finding the Weight in Pounds of a Given Number of Yards of Woolen Yarn
of a Known Count, Graded by the Cut Basis.
This rule is also similar to the one previously given for cotton yarn. Divide the given yards
by the original number of yards for the given count of woolen yarn (cut basis) in 1 lb. The
result expresses the weight in pounds, or fractions thereof.
 10

Example. — Find the weight of 1,260,000 yards of 40-cut woolen yarn. 40-cut woolen yarn=
12,000 yards to 1 lb. Thus, 1,260,000--1 2,000=105.
Answe?'. — 1,260,000 yards of 40-cut woolen yarn weigh 105 lbs.
Grading of Double and Twist or more Ply Woolen Yarn.

Woolen yarns are sometimes manufactured in double and twist (c?<$;^?^.), seldom in' a more ply.
If produced in dMw, and if both single threads are of the same counts, the established custom
is to consider the compound thread one-half the count of the minor. Thus, a d&tw. 6-run woolen yarn
will equal a single 3-run ; or either yarn figures 4,800 yards to a lb. A d&tw. 7|-run woolen yarn will
equal a single 3|-run woolen yarn ; or either yarn requires 6,000 yards per lb. A d&tw. 30-cut woolen
yarn equals a single 15 -cut, or both kinds of yarn required 4,500 yards per lb.
If the compound thread is composed of three or more single threads, divide the number of the
single yarn by the number of ply, and the result will be the required counts in a single thread.
Examples. — Three-ply 10-run woolen yarn equals a (lO-f-3) 3|^-run single thread, or requires
5,3331 yards per lb. A 3-ply 45-cut woolen yarn equals a (45-^3) 15-cut single yarn, or requires
4,500 yards per lb.

Double and twisted woolen yarns, used in the manufacture of ^* fancy cassimeres," are frequently
composed of two minor threads of unequal counts. If so, the rule for finding the equal in a sin-
gle thread as compared with the compound thread is as follows : Divide the product of the counts of
the minor threads by their sum.
Example. — Find the equal counts in single woolen yarn (run basis) for a double and twist
thread composed of single 3-run and 6-run woolen yarn. 3 X6=18-f-9(3 + 6)=2.
Answer. — A 3-run and 6-run woolen thread being twisted equal a single 2 -run woolen thread.
Example, — Find the equal counts in single woolen yarn (cut basis) for a double and twist thread
composed of single 20-cut and 30-cut yarn. 20X30=600^50 (20+30)=12.
Answer. — A 20-cut and 30-cut woolen yarn twisted equal single 12-cut woolen yarn.
As previously mentioned, we may in a few instances be called on to calculate for a 3-ply yarn. If
such a compound thread is composed of three minor threads of unequal counts, compound any of the
minor threads into one, and apply the previously-given rule for d&tw.
Ecample. — A 3-run, 6-run and 8-run thread being twisted together, what are the equal counts in
one thread for the compound thread ?
3X6=18^9(3 + 6)=2. (A 3-run and a 6-run thread compounded equal a 2-run single thread)
Thus, 2x8=16--10(2+8)=l/<5=lf.
Answer. — Compound thread given in example equals 1| run.
Example. — A 20-cut, 30-cut and a 36 -cut thread, being twisted together, what is its equal size in a
single yarn? 20X30=600^50(20+30)=12, and 12x36=432-^-48(12 + 36)=9.
Answer. — Compound thread given in example equals a single 9-cut thread.
As already mentioned, under the head of cotton yarns, a second rule for finding the equivalent
counts for a yarn where three or more minor threads are twisted together is as follows : Divide one of
the counts by itself, and by the others in succession, and afterwards by the sum of the quotients.
To prove this rule, we will use examples heretofore given.
Example. — Find equal counts in one thread for the following compound thread, composed of a
3-run, 6-run and 8-ruu thread.
8-4-8 = 1
8--6 = li 8^5 = li
8 ^ 3 = 24

6
 11

Answer. — Compound thread given in example equals If run.

Example. — A 20-cut, 30-cut and 36-cut thread, being twisted together, what is its equal size in a
single yarn ?

36H-30=:li 36--4=9
36-5-20=H

4
Answer. — Compound thread given in example equals a single 9-cut thread.

WORSTED YARNS.

Worsted yarns have for their standard measure 560 yards to the hank. The number of hanks
that balance one pound indicate the number or the count by which it is graded. Hence if 40 hanks
85
each 560 yards long, weigh 1 lb. such a yarn is known as 40's worsted. If 48 hanks are required to
balance 1 lb. it is known as 48's worsted. In this manner the number of yards for any size or count
of worsted yarns is found by simply multiplying the number or count by 560.
29
Table of Lengths for Worsted Yarn.

15 (From No. i to 20o's).

No. Yds. to I lb. 17Yds. to 1 lb. No. Yds. to I lb. No. Yds. to I lb. No. Yds. to I lb.
No.
19 64
I 16,240 74
2 16 8,400 16,800
3 1,120
560 23 8,960 26,880
25,760 80 41,440
1,680 18 17,360
4 2,240 10,080 28,000
10,640
5 2,800 20 2425 33 17,920
18,480 54 42,560
6 21 9.520
11,200 29,120
7 11,760 19,040 30,240 100
8 3.360 22 27 12,320 34 no95
3,9200 35 20,160
19,600 62 120 61,600
44, 800
9 4,48 12,880 20,720 60 31,360 50,400
ID 5>o4o 13.440 21,280 32,480 130 47,600
111
12 3 5,600
6,160 39
37 321,840
0 66 140
180
56,000
67,200
26 14,000 22,400 68 160 53. 200
6,720 14,560 31 6 ,600
433 200
28 35.840
34,720 100,800
72,800
112,000
7,280 15,120 44 36.960
23,520 78,
7,840 15,680 32
24,640 48 89, 400
600
38,080
50
52
40,320
36 39, 200
Grading of 2-ply, 3-ply, etc. Worsted Yarns. 56 76
38
58
Worsted yarn is like cotton yarn, very frequently
40 produced in 2-ply. If such is the case, only
one-half the number of yards as required per pound42 for the single yarn are required to balance the
90
pound of 2-ply yarn. Hence 40's worsted (technically for single 40's worsted) requires 22,400 yards
70
per lb. and 2/80's worsted (technically for 2-ply 80's worsted) requires also 22,400 yards per pound.
72
2/60's worsted has 16,800 yards per pound corresponding to single 30's worsted.
If the yarn be more than 2-ply, divide the number of yards of single yarn by the number of ply.
Examples. — 3-ply 90's (3/90's) worsted yarn equals in size (90-4-3) a single 30's thread; or both
kinds of yarn require 16,800 yards to balance 1 lb. — 4/80's worsted yarn equals a (80-f-4) single 20's.
Rule for Finding Weight in Ounces for a Given Number of Yards of Worsted Yarn of a
Known Count.

Multiply the given yards by 16, and divide the result by the number of yards the given count of
worsted yarn contains balancing 1 lb.
 12

Example (single yarn). — Find the weight for 12,600 yards of 40's worsted. 12,600X16=201,-
600. 1 lb. of 40's worsted =22,400 yards, thus:— 201,600-^22,400=9.
Answer-. — 12,600 of 40's worsted weigh 9 oz.

Example (2-ply yarn).— Find the weight of 12,600 yards of 2/40's worsted. 12,600X16=
201,600. 1 lb. of 2/40's=ll,200 yards. Hence 201,600-^-11,200=18
Answer. — 12,600 yards of 2/40's worsted weigh 18 oz.

Example (3-ply yarn).— Find the weight of 12,600 yards of 3/40's worsted. 12,600X16=201,-
600. 1 lb of 3/40's=7,466f yards, thus 201,600 -f-7,466f =27.
Answer. — 12,600 yards of 3/40's worsted weigh 27 oz.
Another rule for ascertaining the weight in ounces for a given number of yards of worsted yarn
of a known count is as follows : Divide the given yards by the number of yards of the known count
required to balance 1 oz.

Example (single yarn).— Find the weight for 12,600 yards of 40's worsted. 22,400-7-10=
I, 400. 12,600-^1,400=9.
Answer. — 12,600 yards of 40's worsted weigh 9 oz.

Example (2-ply yarn).— Find the weight of 12,600 yards of 2/40's worsted. ll,200-f-16=700
12,600 --700=18.
Answer. — 12,600 yards of 2/40's worsted weigh 18 oz.

Example (3-ply yarn).— Find the weight of 12,600 yards of 3/40's worsted. 7466f-^16=
4661 and 1 2,600 ^466f =1 2600 ^^*/^= Hm^-='-=27.
Answer. — 12,600 yards of 3/40's worsted weigh 27 ounces.

Rule for Finding the Weight in Pounds of a Given Number of Yards of Worsted Yarn
of a Known Count.

Divide the given yards by the number of yards of the known count required to balance 1 lb.

Example (single yarn).— Find the weight of 1,260,000 yards of 40's worsted yarn, 40's worsted=
22,400 yds. to 1 lb. Thus, 1,260,000—22,400=561 .
Answer. — 1,260,000 yds. of 40's worsted weigh 56^ lbs.
Example (2-ply yarn).— Find the weight of 1,260,000 yards of 2/40's yarn. 2/40's worsted=
II, 200 yards to 1 lb. Thus, 1,260,000^11,200=1121.
Answer. — 1,260,000 yards of 2/40's worsted yarn weigh 1121 lbs.
Example (3-ply yarn).— Find the weight of 1,260,000 yards of 3/40's worsted yarn. 3/40's
worsted=7,467 yards to 1 lb. Hence, 1,260,000^7,467=168|.
Answer. — 1,260,000 yards of 3/40's worsted yarn weigh 168f lbs.

To Find the Equivalent Size in Single Yarn of Two, Three or More Ply Yarn Composed
of Minor Threads of Unequal Counts.

Worsted yarn is also occasionally manufactured in 2, 3, or more ply yarn in which the minor
threads are of unequal counts ; if so the rules for finding the equivalent in a single yarn are similar to
those given for cotton and woolen yarns.
If the compound thread is composed of two minor threads of unequal counts, divide the product of
the counts of the minor threads by their sum.
 13

Example. — Find the equal in single yarn to a 2-fold thread composed of single 20's and 60's.
20X60=1200^80 (20+60)=15.
Answer. — A 2-fold worsted yarn composed of 20's and 60's equals a single 15's.
If the compound thread is composed of 3 minor threads of unequal counts, compound any two of
the minor threads into one, and apply the rule given previously to this thread and the third minor
thread not previously used.

Example. — Find equal counts in a single thread to a 3-ply yarn composed of 20's, 40's, and 60's.
20X40=800--60 (20+40) =13^. 131- X 60=800^731 (131+60) =10H.
Answer. — A 3-ply 20's, 40's, and 60's worsted thread equals in size a single 1 Oil's.
These examples can be proved by the second rule, viz. : Divide one of the counts by itself and by
the others in succession, and after this by the sum of the quotients.

Example. — Find equal counts in a single thread to a 3-ply yarn composed of 60's, 40's and 20's
worsted.
60--60=l
60-^40=11 60h-51=10H.
60h-20=3

Answer. — A 3-ply 20's, 40's and 60's worsted thread equals in size a single lOxi's.
SILK YARNS.

A. Spun Silks.

Spun silks are calculated as to the size of the thread, on the same basis as cotton (840 yards to 1
hank), the number of hanks one pound requires indicating the counts. In the calculation of cotton,
woolen or worsted, double and twist yarn, the custom is to consider it as twice as heavy as single ; thus
double and twisted 40's (technically 2/40's) cotton, equals single 20's cotton for calculations. In ihv
calculation of spun silk the single yarn equals the two-fold ; thus single 40's and two-fold 40's require
the same number of hanks (40 hanks equal 33,600 yards). The technical indication of two-fold in
spun silk is also correspondingly reversed if compared to cotton, wool and worsted yarn. In cotton,
wool and worsted yarn the 2 indicating the two-fold is put in front of the counts indicating the size of
the thread (2/40's), while in indicating spun silk this point is reversed (40/2's), or in present example
single 80's doubled to 40's.
B. Raw Silks.

The adopted custom of specifying the size of raw silk yarns is in giving the weight of the 1000
yards hank in drams avoirdupois ; thus if one hank weighs 5 drams it is technically known as " 5 dram
silk," and if it should weigh 8J drams it is technically known as " 8 J dram silk." As already men-
tioned the length of the skeins is 1000 yards, except in fuller sizes where 1000 yard skeins would be
rather bulky, aud apt to cause waste in winding. Such are made into skeins of 500 and 250 yards in
length and their weight taken in proportion to the 1000 yards; thus if the skein made up into 500
yards weighs 8 J drams, the silk would be 17-dram silk ; if a skein made up into 250 yards weighs 4
drams the silk would be 16-dram silk. The size of yarn is always given for their "gum" weight;
that is their condition " before boiling otf," in which latter process yarns lose from 24 to 30 per cent,
according to the class of raw silk used ; China silks losing the most and European and Japan silks the
least. The following table shows the number of yards to the pound and ounce from 1 dram
silk to 30 dram silk. The number of yards given per pound in the table is based on a pound of
gum silk.
 17
19
14

23 889
Length of Gum Silk Yarn per Pound and per Ounce.
24
(From 6I dram to 30 drams.)
K
Drams per Yards Yards Drams per Yards
Yards Drams per 7 29
2Yards Yards
^%
1000 yards. 1000 yards 1000 yards.
16
per lb. per oz. 2,909
I per lb. per oz. 13,474 615
256,000 16,000 5 46,545 2,667
2,133 per16,000
lb.
204,800 10,667
12,800 13 15,058 per oz.
^% 170,666 61% 18
9143 42,667
2 ^Va 146,286
113.777
128,000
5)4. 1415 51,200 2.462 2;2
20
12, 190 1,000
842
800
7 28 14,222
12,800
11,636
% 8,000 26,4
,944
•34,133
39,38547 3,200
2,286 21
^5 10, 667
11,130 727
102, 400 8 36,571 696
85,333 6,400 1,684
1.455
5,333 2,000
1,778 10, 240
33X 93,091 7,111 109 21,333
32,000 1,882
1,333 8.533 666
1% 78,769 II 23,273 640
68,267
73, 143 5,818
4,923 30,118 1,600
1,143 26
60,235 9/2 8,827
4 4,267 12 25,600 28 9 143
64,000 4,571- 1,231 533
19,692 1,067 941
56,889 3,765 0 18,286
4,00 17,067
9,846
53.368 3,556 762
3,368 •LINEN YARNS. 9.481

Linen yarns are graded, or have for their standard 300 yards to the hank or " lea," which is the 2
same basis for calculations with reference to size, count, or diameter of thread, as the one given for the55791
1
woolen yarn, viz., (cut system) ; hence, rules given for woolen yarn (cut system), will also apply to linen55
yarns by simply changing the denomination.

Jute Yarns, Chinagrass and Ramie

Are also graded similar to the woolen yarn (cut system), with 300 yards to the hank, the30 number of
hanks required to balance 1 lb. indicating the size or count of the yarn.

For Reproducing Fabrics in a Required Material From a Given Fabric Made Out of
Another Material it is Often Necessary to Find the Equivalent Counts, Thus we Give

Rules for Finding the Equivalent Counts of a Given Thread in

Another System.

A. COTTON, WOOLEN AND WORSTED YARN.

Mufe. — The counts of a given thread are the counts of an equal thread (in size) of a different
material, or a thread of the same material but figured after the different " standard " in the same pro-
portion asthe " standard number " of the one to be found is to the " standard number " of the one
given.
Example. — Cotton-Worsted. Find equal size in worsted yarn to 20's cotton yarn.
(Cottou standard.) : (Worsted standard).
840 : 560 =3:2
Thus 20: x: : 2: 3 and 3X20=^60^2=30.
Answer. — A thread of 20's cotton yarn equals (in size) a thread of 30's worsted yarn.
 15

Example. — Cotton-Wool (run system). Find equal size in woolen yarn (runs) to lO's cotton
yarn.
(Cotton standard.) : (Run standard.)
840 : 1,600 =21 : 40
Thus 10 : X : : 40 : 21 and 21 X 10=210--40=5i.
Answer. — A thread of lO's cotton equals (in size) a thread of 6|-run (wool).

Example. — Cotton-Wool (cut system). Find equal size in woolen yarn (cut basis) to lO's
cotton yarn.
(Cotton standard.) : (Cut standard,)
840 : 300 = 14 : 5
Thus 10:x :: 5:14 and 14X10=140^5=28.

Answer. — A thread of lO's cotton yarn equals (in size) a thread of 28-cut woolen yarn.
Example. — Worsted- Wool (run system). Find equal size in woolen yarn (run basis) to
20's worsted yarn.
(Worsted standard.) : (Run standard.)
560 : 1,600 =7:20
Thus 20 : X : : 20 : 7 and 7 X 20=140-^20=7.
Answer. — A thread of 20's worsted equals (in size) a thread of 7-run woolen yarn.

Example. — Worsted- Wool (cut system). • Find equal size in woolen yarn (cut basis) to 15's
worsted yarn.
(Worsted standard.) : (Cut standard.)
560 : 300 =28:15
Thus 15: x:: 15:28 and 15x28=428-^15=28.
Answer.— A thread of 15's worsted equals (in size) a thread of 28-cut woolen yarn.

Example. — Worsted- Cotton. Find equal size in cotton yarn to 30's Worsted.
30 : X :: 3 : 2and 30 X 2=60^3=20.
Answer. — A thread of 30's worsted equals (in size) a thread of 20 s cotton yarn.

Example. — Wool (run system) -Cotton. Find equal size in cotton yarn to a 5J-run woolen
yam
5.25:x :: 21:40 and 5.25X40=210^-21=10.
Answer. — A 5J-run woolen yarn equals (in size) a lO's cotton yarn.

Example.— V/ool (run system) -Worsted. Find equal size in worsted yard to a 7-run woolen
yarn.
7 : X : : 7 : 20 and 7 X 2=140--7=20.
Answer. — A 7-run woolen yarn equals in size a 20's worsted yarn.

Example. — Wool (run system) -Wool (cut system). Find equal size in the cut basis for a 6-
run woolen thread.
6 : X : : 3 : 16 and 6 X 1 6=96^3=32.
Answer. — A 6-run woolen thread equals (in size) a 32-cut thread of the same material.

Example. — Wool (cut system) -Cotton. Find equal size of cotton yarn to a 28-cut woolen yarn.
28:x :: 14:5 and 5X28=140^14=10.
Answer, — A 28-cut woolen yarn equals (in size) a lO's cotton yarn.
 16

Example. — Wool (cut system) -Worsted. Find equal size worsted yam to a 28-cut woolen

yarn. 28 :x:: 28:15 and 28X15=420^28=15.

Answer. — A 28-cut woolen yarn equals (in size) a 15's worsted yarn.
Example. — Wool (cut system) -Wool (run system). Find equal size of the run basis for a 32-
cut woolen yarn.
32:x:: 16:3 aud 3X32=96-^-16=6.
Answer. — A 32-cut woolen yarn equals (in size) a 6-run woolen yarn.

B. SPUN SILK YARNS COMPARED TO COTTON, WOOLEN

OR WORSTED YARNS.

As already stated in a previous chapter the basis of spun silk is the same as that of cotton ;
therefore
silk. the rules and examples given under the heading of " Cotton " refer at the same time to spun

C. LINEN YARNS, JUTE AND RAMIE.

These yarns have the same standard of grading as woolen yarn (cut system) ; thus examples given
under the latter basis will also apply to the present kind of yarns.

D. RAW SILK YARNS COMPARED TO SPUN SILK, COTTON, WOOLEN OR

WORSTED YARNS.

Rule. — Find the number of yards per pound (in table previously given) in raw silk and divide
the same by the standard size of the yarn basis to be compared with.
Example. — Raw Silk-Cotton (or spun silk). Find equal size ia cotton yarn to 9-dram raw
silk. 9-dram raw silk=28,444 yds. per lb. Thus 28,444^-840 (cotton standard)=33f.
Answer. — 2-dram raw silk equals (nearly) 34's cotton.
Or if calculating without a table proceed as follows : 1 lb.=16 oz. 1 oz.=16 drams. Thus
16 X 16=256 drams per lb.
(Counts given.) : (Yards in i hank.) (Drams per lb.) (Yards per lb. )
9 : 1000 :: 256 : x
256 X 1000=256,000-^9=28,4441 yds. per lb. of 9 drams raw silk.
(Yards per lb.) ;; (Basis of yarn to compare with.)
28,444 ^ 840 =33f
being with the same result as before.

Example. — Spun Silk or Cotton to Raw Silk. Find equal size in raw silk to 38's cotton.
38's CO tton=(38 X 840) 31,920 yds. per lb. Refer to previously given table for raw silk, where you
will find 8 drams to equal 32,000 yards per lb.
Answer. — A 38's cotton thread equals (nearly) an 8-dramraw silk thread.
Or if calculating without table find result by :
Rule. — Divide the standard measure (number of yards per lb.) of the given yarn by 1000 (yards
in one hank) and the quotient thus obtained into 256. (drams in 1 lb.)

Example. — Find the answer by this rule for previously given question. 38's cotton=31,920
yards. Thus 31,920^1000=31.92 and 256--31.92=8.02.
Answer, — A 38's cotton thread equals (nearly) an 8-dram raw silk thread,
 17

Ascertaining the Counts of Twisted Threads Composed of

Different Materials.

The above question may often arise when manufacturing fancy yarns and of which it is requisite
to know the compound size for future calculations.
RULE A.— If the compound thread is composed of two minor threads of different
materials, one must be reduced to the relative basis of the other thread and the resulting count found
in this system.

Example. — Find equal counts in a single worsted thread to a 2-ply thread composed of 30's
worsted and 40's cotton yarn.
40's cotton=60's worsted. Thus, 30X60=1800^90 (30+60)=20.
Answer. — Compound thread given in example equals a single 20's worsted thread.

Example. — Find the equal counts in single cotton yarn to a 2-ply thread composed of single 30's
worsted and 40's cotton yarn.
30's worsted=20's cotton. Thus, 40X20=800^-60 (40+20)=13|.
J.nswjer.— Compound thread given in example equals a single cotton thread of number 1 3^.
Example. — Find the equal counts in single woolen yarn (run basis) to a 2-ply thread composed of
single 20's cotton yarn and 6-run woolen yarn.
20's cotton=10i-ruu woolen yarn. Thus, 10JX6=63-=-16| (10i+6)=3A.
Answer. — Compound thread given in example equals a single woolen thread of 3TT-run.
Example. — Find the equal counts in single woolen yarn (cut basis) to a 2-ply thread composed of
single 40's cotton and 28-cut woolen yarn.
40's cotton=112-cut. Thus, 28X112=3136--140 (28+112)=22/(t.
Answer. — Compound thread given in example equals a single woolen yarn of 22|-cut.
Example. — Find the equal counts in single worsted yarn to a 2-ply thread composed of single 20's
worsted and 60's spun silk. 60's silk==90's worsted. Thus, 20X90=1800^110 (20+90) 16A.
Answer. — Compound thread given in example equals a single 16i*r's worsted.
RULE B. — If the compound thread is composed of three minor threads of two or
three different materials, they must by means of their relative length be transferred in one basis
and the resulting count found in this system.
Example. — Find equal counts in single woolen yarn, run basis, for the following compound thread
composed of a 3-run, a 6-run woolen thread, and a single 20's cotton twisted together.
3X6=18^9 (3+6)z^2.
(3-run and-6 run threads compounded, equal a single 2-run thread.)
20's cotton equals 10|-run, thus 2XlOJr=21--12i (2+10^) =1H.
Answer. — The three-fold thread given in example equals in count a single woolen yarn of lU
(nearly 1|) run.
6i
The previously given example may also be solved as follows :— 20's cotton =10|-run woolen yarn,
thus,
10i--10J=l
101^ 6 =lf 10i^6J=m.
101-- 3 =31

Answer. — A 3-run, a 6-run woolen thread, and a single 20's cotton twisted together equal in size
a lU-run woolen thread.
 18

Ascertaining the Counts for a Minor Thread to Produce, with

Other Given Minor Threads, Two, Three, or More
Ply Yarn of a Given Count.

A. ONE SYSTEM OF YARN.

In some instances it may be required that the compound thread produced out of two, three, or
more, minor threads must be of a certain count. We may be requested to twist with a minor thread
of a given count a minor thread of unknown count (to be ascertained) ; both threads to produce a com-
pound thread of known count. If such is the case proceed after the following Rule : Multiply the
counts of the given single thread by the counts of the compound thread, and divide the product by the
remainder obtained by subtracting the counts of the compound threads from the counts of the given
single thread.
Example. — Find size of single yarn required (run basis) to produce with a 4-run woolen yarn a
compound thread of 3-run. 4X3=12--1(4— 3)=12.
Answer. — The minor thread required In the present example is a 12-run thread, or a 4-run and
a 12-run woolen thread compounded into a 2-fold yarn, are equal in counts to a 3-run single woolen
thread.
P/-oo/.-^4Xl2=48^16=3-run, or compound thread, as required.
Example. — Find size of single yarn required (worsted numbers) to produce with a 48's worsted
thread a compound thread the equal of 16's worsted yarn. 48 Xl 6=768 --32(48— 16)= 24.
Answer. — The minor thread required in the present example is a 24's worsted thread, or a 48's
worsted thread and a 24's worsted thread compounded into a two-fold yarn, are equal in counts to a
single 1 6's worsted thread.
Proof. — 48X24=1152-T-72=16's worsted or compounded size required.
Example. — Find size of single yarn required (cotton numbers) to produce with an 80's cotton
thread a 2-fold yarn of a compound size of equal 30's cotton yarn. 80X30=2400^-50(80— 30)=48.
Answer. — The minor thread required in. the present example is a 48's cotton thread compounded
into a 2-fold yarn equal in this compound size to a single 30's cotton thread.
Proof. — 80 X 48=3840^ 128=30's cotton, or compound size required.
If one of the minor threads is to be found for a 3-ply thread of which two minor threads are
known, use the following Rule: Compound the two minor threads given into their equal -in a single
thread, and solve the question by the previously given rule.

Example. — Find minor thread required to produce with single 30's and single 60's worsted a 3-
ply yarn to equal single 12's worsted. 60's and 30's worsted compound =(60x30=1800-f-90-(60 +
30)=20) single 20's worsted.
Thus 20 X 12 :=240--8 (20 — 12) =30

C size IS known. J ( J' J"^^ ■ J size is known. J \^ jj j

Answer. — The size of the third minor required to be ascertained in the given example is single
30's worsted yarn, or a 3-ply thread composed of single 30's, 60's, and 30's worsted yarn equals single
12's worsted counts as shown by the
Proof— 60 60 = 1
60 -f- 30 = 2 60^5=1 2's worsted.
60 -f- 30 = 2

5
 19

B. TWO SYSTEMS OF YARNS.

In the manufacture of fancy yarns we may be called on to select the proper minor thread required
in another material. This, however, will not change previously given rules, for after finding the counts
in the given system we only have to transfer the same to the required system.
Example (2-ply yarn). — Find the size of single worsted yarn required to produce with an 8-run
woolen yarn a compound thread of 6-run yarn.
8x6=48-4-2(8 — 6)=24-run woolen yarn required.
24-run woolen yarn=38,400 yards per lb. and 38,400H-560=68i
Answer. — The single worsted thread required in given example is GSf^s.
Example (3 -ply yarn). — Find the size of the spun silk required to produce with a 40's and 60's
worsted a 3-ply yarn of equal count to single 12's worsted. 40 X 60=2,400-=- ipO (40-^60)=24=com-
pound size of 40's and 60's. 24X12=288-4-12 (24 — 12)=24's worsted size required to be trans-
ferred in spun silk.
24X560=13,440--840=16
Answer. — 16's spun silk is required in present example.

Ascertaining- the Amount of Material Required for Eacin Minor

Thread in Laying Out Lots for Two, Three, or More Ply Yarn.

A. DOUBLE AND TWIST YARN.

Composed of Minor Threads of the Same Material.

For producing a certain amount of fancy double and twist yarn it is necessary to ascertain the
amount of stock required for each minor thread. This question will readily be solved by —
Rule. — The sum of both counts is to the one of the counts, in the same proportion as the amount
of double and twist yarn required is to the amount of the yarn required for producing the other minor
thread.

Example. — Find amount of material required for each minor thread for producing 1000 lbs. of
double and twist yarn made out of 6 and 7-run minor threads.
(6+7)=13:6:: 1,000 :x
(6 + 7)=13:7 :: l,000:x
6 X l,000=6,000--13=461i^j
7 X 1,000=7,000-4-13=538tV

Answer. — In previously given example the following 1,000amount of yarn (of minor threads) js
required :— 461tV lbs. of 7-run yarn.
536A " " 6-run yarn.
Proof.— 461tV lbs. of 7-run yarn=(46lTVX ll,200)=5,169,2301f yds.
SSSA lbs. of 6-run yarn=(538TVX 9,600)=5,169,230^:f yds.
Example. — Find amount of material required for each minor thread for producing 250 lbs. of
double and twist yarn made out of 32's and 40's worsted for the minor threads.
(32+40)=72:32:: 250:x
(32+40)=72:40:: 250 :x
32X250= 8,000^72=11H
40X250=10,000^72=1381
250
 20

Answer. — For producing 260 lbs. of double and twist worsted yarn composed of 32's and 40*s
for minor threads,
111^ lbs. of 40's and 1381 lbs. of 32's are required.
Proof.— 1 Hi lbs. of 40's worsted equal (llliX22,400)=2,488,888f yds.
1381 lbs. of 32's worsted equal (1381 X17,920)=2,488,888I yds.
Example. — Find amount of material required for each minor thread for producing 1,000 lbs. of
double and twist cotton yarn made with 60's and 80's for minor threads.
(60 + 80) = 140 : 60 :: 1,000 : x
(60 + 80) = 140 : 80 :: 1,000 : x
60 X 1,000 = 60,000 140 = 428f
80 X 1,000 = 80,000 -f- 140 = 671f

1,000yarn made out of single 60's and

Answer. — For producing 1,000 lbs. of double and twist cotton
80's the following amount of each are required :
428f lbs. of 80's
571f lbs. of 60's
Proof.— 428f lbs. of 80's cotton equal (428tX67,200)=28,800,000 yards.
5711 lbs. of 60's cotton equal (571f X50,400)=28,800,000 yards.
Composed of Minor Threads of Different Materials.

If the minor threads are of different materials transfer either one to the relative length of the
other, and solve example by previously given rule.
Example. — Find amount of material required for each minor thread to produce 100 lbs. double
and twist yarn made out of 40-cut woolen yarn and 60's spun silk.
60's spun silk equals 168-cut. Thus,
(40 + 168) = 208 : 40 :: 100 : x
(40 + 168) = 208 : 168 :: 100 : x
40 X 100 = 4,000 ^ 208 = 19fV
168 X 100 = 16,800 208 = SOU
100

Answer. — To produce 100 lbs. of double and twist yarn as mentioned in example, 19tt lbs. of
60's spun silk and 80H lbs. of 40- cut woolen yarn are required.
Proof— 19A lbs. of 60's spun silk equal to (19AX 50,400)==969,230if yards.
80if lbs. of 40-cut woolen yarn equal (80}t X 1 2,000)=969,230H yards.
As already mentioned in a previous chapter, if twisting silk yarn with a woolen yarn the former
thread will twist proportionately more around the latter, thus we must add an allowance for it to the
silk yarn, which in turn we must deduct from the woolen yarn. But as this difference (or allowance)
is regulated by the turns of twist per inch, also the tension of the yarn when twisting it will vary (as
little as it will be) in each different d & tw. yarn ; but will be readily ascertained by the manufacturer
in his practical work.
B. THREE-PLY YARN.

Composed of Minor Threads of the Same Material.

Sometimes it may be required to find the amount of material for each minor thread for a given
weight of a 3-ply yarn. If so the example must be solved by
 21

Rule. — Transfer the given three counts to their equivalent in a single thread and find number of
yards required to balance given weight. Afterwards divide each standard (number of yards necessary
to balance 1 lb.) of the three given minor threads in the number of yards required, the result being
pounds necessary for each count.

Example. — Find amount of material required for each minor thread for 100 lbs. of 3-ply yarn,
produced out of 5, 6 and 7-run woolen yarn for the minor threads.
5, 6, and 7-run.
7-f-7=l
7--6=l/7
7-^5=lM

3iff 7-=-3H=1t§7 equivalent count in a single thread for 5, 6 and 7-run.

Ixtf Xl,600=3,140A'V yards per lb., XlOO lbs. (total amount of yarn wanted) =314,01 8i^/t total
number of yards of 3-ply yarn required.
314,018-4- 8,000 (Standard for 5-run)=39.25
314,018 -f- 9,600 (Standard for 6-run)=32.71
314,018-5-11,200 (Standard for 7-run)=:28.04
100.00

Answer. — The amount of yarn for each minor thread in given example is as follows :
39.25 lbs. of 5-run woolen yarn.
32.71 lbs. of 6-run woolen yarn.
28.04 lbs. of 7-run woolen yarn.

100 lbs. Total amount of yarn wanted.

Composed of Minor Threads of Different Materials.

If in a 3-ply yarn one of the minor threads is of a different material (compared to the other two),
transfer this thread to its equivalent count of the other basis, and solve example by previously given rule.

Example.-^'FvaA amount of material required to produce 1,000 lbs. of 3-ply yarn made out of 30's
worsted, 45's worsted and 60's spun silk.
60's spun silk equals 90's worsted yarn, thus :
30 — 45—90 90-5-90=1
90-5-45=2 90-5-6=1 5*8 equivalent count in single thread.
90-r-30=3

6
15X560=8,400 yards per lb. X 1,000 lbs. (total amount of yarn wanted) =8,400,000 total number
of .yards of 3-ply yarn required.
8,400,000^-16,800 (Standard for 30's worsted)=500.00
8,400,000-^25,200 (Standard for 45's worsted)=333.33-f (J)
8,400,000^50,400 (Standard for 90's worsted)=166.66-f (f)
1000.00
Answer. — The amount for each minor thread in given example is as follows :
500 lbs, of 30's worsted.
333^^ lbs. of 45's worsted.
166f lbs. of 60's spun silk.
1,000 lbs. Total amount of yarn wanted.
 22

Ascertaining the Cost of Two, Three, or More Ply Yarn.

COMPOSED EITHER OF DIFFERENT QUALITIES (AS TO PRICE) OF YARN

ONLY, OR OF THE LATTER ITEM IN ADDITION TO DIFFERENT
COUNTS OF THE MINOR THREADS.

If a 2-ply yarn is composed of minor threads of equal counts, but different qualities, (as to cost)
the average between the two prices will be the cost of the 2-ply thread.

Example. — Find the price for 2/40's worsted composed of minor threads worth respectively $1.00
and $1.36.
$1.00+$1.36=$2.36^2==$1.18.
Answer. — The price of the yarn in question is $1.18 per pound.
By means of the average we will also find the price for a three or more ply yarn provided the
counts of each minor thread are the same.

Example. — Find the price for a 3-ply yarn composed of minor threads of equal counts, but costing
respectively 60 cts., 80 cts. and $1.00 per pound.
$0.60+$0.80+$1.00=$2.40h-3=$0.80.
Ayiswer. — The price for the yarn in question is 80 cents.
If a 2-ply yarn is composed of minor threads of unequal counts as well as of different price we
must find the cost per pound of the compound thread by —
Rule. — Multiply each count by the price of the other yarn, next divide the sum of the products
by the sum of the counts.

Example. — Find cost per pound for 2-ply yarn composed of 32's and 40's worsted. The price of
the 32's to be $1.04 and that of the 40's $1.60.
40X$1.04=$41.60 - _* t

32 X 1.60= 51.20 $92.80--72— $1.28t

72 $92.80
Answer. — The price for the yarn in question is $1,281 or nearly $1.29.
Proo/.— 40's and 32's.
40 X 32=1, 280^72(40 +32)=1 7 J compound size of thread.
171X560=9,957 standard number of yards in compound thread, or number of yards of each
minor thread required.
40's worsted = 22,400 yards per lb. s.
32's worsted = 17,920 yards per lb., thus:
q ■>/ 1 60
'
22,400:1.60:: ' :x or Q '
9,957 V 01 04 =$0.7112—
22,40
057 = 71.12 cents.

17,920:1.04:: 9,957 : x or '^' :;^^ - = $0.5777— = 57.77 "

Answer.— 128tVo cents = $1.29.

If one of the minor threads is of a different material than the other, reduce the one
thread to its equivalent counts in the basis of the other and find the cost per pound of compound yarn
by previously given rule.
Example. — Find cost per pound for 2 ply fancy cassimere yarn, composed of 5-run woolen yarn
and 40's cotton yarn for minor threads. Value of the single woolen yarn 86 cents per pound, and
value of the cotton yarn 36 cents.
 23

40's cotton equals 21 -run woolen yarn thus :

5-run at 86 cents, and 21 -run at 36 cents.
5X36== 180 iQQR.ofi 7fiQ«

21X86.^1,806 1,986^26=76.38
26 1,986
Answer. — The price of given 2-ply fancy cassimere yarn is 7Qt\% cents (or about cents.)
Proof. — 5 and 21-run.
5 X 21= 105h-26(5 + 21)=4^V compound size.
42^6 X 1,600= 6,461.5 yards length of each minor thread.
5 run = 8,000 yards per lb.
21 " =33,600 " " " thus :

8,000:86 :: 6,461.5: x or ^^XM61-5 ^ 69.46 cents.

8,000
33,600:36
' :: 6,461.5:
' x or 3^X^>461.5
33,600 ^ 6.92 cents.
Answer. — 76AV cents.
If a 3-ply yarn is composed of minor threads of unequal counts as well as of a differ-
ent price, we must find the cost of the compound yarn by
Rule. — Find average price and compound counts between any two minor threads given, and after-
wards proceed in the same manner between the respective results and the third minor thread.
Example. — Find cost per pound of 3-ply fancy yarn composed of the following minor threads :
60's worsted costing $2.00 per pound; 40's worsted costing |1.50 per pound ; and 30's worsted costing
$1.00 per pound.
60's at $2.00. 40's at $1.50
60 X 1 .50=90 J 70.00^ 1 00=1 .70.
40X2.00=80
100 170.00

$1.70 average price between 60's worsted at $2.00, and 40's at $1.50.-
60 X 40= 2,400 -^100 (60 + 40)=24. 24's worsted compound counts for 60's and 40's worsted ; thus ;
24's worsted at $1.70. 30's worsted at $1.00.
24X1.00=24.00 75.00^54=1.3888.
30X1.70=51.00
54 75.00
AnMoer. — The price for the 3-ply yarn given in the example is $1.3888 or nearly $1.39.
Proo/.— 60's, 40's and 30's worsted.
60--60=l
60—40=11

60^30=2^
4| 60-f-4J=13|^'s worsted compound counts for 60's, 40's and 30's.
l^ worsted=13|X560=7,466| yards per pound.
60's worsted=33,600 yards per lb. at $2.00
40's worsted=22,400 yards per lb. at $1.50
30's worsted^ 16,800 yards per lb. at $ 1 .00
 2.00X7,4661
33,600:2.00:: 7,466|: x
33,600
1.50x7,466f $0.4444
22,400: i.50 :: 7,466|: x
22,400 $0.5000
1.00X7,4661
16,800:1.00:: 7,466f: x
16,800 $0.4444
Answer :— $1.3888
Answer. — The price as found before ($1.38) is correct.
If a 3-ply yarn is composed of minor threads of different materials as well as different
prices, and we must find the cost per pound for the compound yarn, reduce the different counts to
their equivalent counts in one basis and find the result by previously given rule.

To Find the Mean or Average Value of Yarns of Mixed Stocks.

In the manufacture of mixed yams wools of different price are frequently mixed together.
To ascertain the medium price of a mixture when the price and quantity of each ingredient
are given, use —
Rule. — Divide the cost of all the ingredients by the sum of the quantities mixed, the quotient will
be the average value.
Example.— ¥md the mean or average value of the following wool mixture:
160 lbs. costing 75/ per lb.
160 " " 86/ " "
40 " " $1.10 " "
40 " " 1.16 " "
400 lbs. total amount of wool used in this lot.

75/X160 lbs.=$120.00
85/X160 lbs.= 136.00
$1.10 X 40 1bs.= 44.00
$1.16 X 40 1bs.= 46.40

400 lbs. $346.40

(Cost of all the Ingredients .) (Sum of the Quantities.)
$346.40 400 lbs. =$0,866
Answer. — The value of the wool mixture is 86iV per lb.

Example.— -Find the value per lb. for the following mixture of wool.
680 lbs. costing 66/ per lb.
300 " " 68/ " "
20 " « 98/ " «
1,000 lbs. in lot.
65/X680=$442.00
68/x300= 204.00 $665.60--l,000=$0.6656
98/ X 20= 19.60

$665.60
Answer. — Wool mixture in question is worth 66fA/ per lb.
 25

Another question frequently appearing in the mixing of lots for the manufacture of " Mixed
Yarns " is —

To Find the Quantity of Each Kind of Wool to Use in a Mixture of a Given Value.

In such a mixture the total loss on the kinds of wool used of the several prices or qualities must
equal the total gain.
Rule. — Arrange the prices of the diiferent kinds of wool, we have at our disposal, in a vertical
column with the mean price at the left. Next find the gain or loss on one unit of each ; take such au'
additional portion of any as will make the losses balance the gains or vice versa.

Example. — Two kinds of wool at respective values of 56/ and 63)^ per pound are required to be
mixed to produce a mixture worth 60/. Find quantities of each kind wanted.
56+4X1 =4 gain.
63— 3Xli=4 loss.
Answer. — 1 part of the wool costing 56/ and
" " " " 63/ are required for
2^ parts to produce a mixture of the required value of 60/.
Proof.— 1 lb. @ 56/=56/
H " @ 63/=84/
21 140/
140X3
140-f-2J=140-j-l= — ^— - =420-f-7=60/ average price of mixture per lb.

Example — Three different qualities of wool at respective values of 60/, 68/ and 70/ per lb. are
required to be mixed to produce a mixture worth 64/ per lb. Find quantities of each kind required.
70—6x1 =6
64 68—4X1 =4_ 10/ loss.
60+4X21= 10/ gain.
Answer. — To produce mixture of a value of 64/ per lb., use —
1 part from the wool costing 70/
1 part from the wool costing 68/
2| parts from the wool costing 60/ in

4|^ parts.
Proof.— 1 lb. @ 70/= 70/
1 " @ 68/= 68/
21 " @ 60/=150/
41 lbs. 288/
288-4-4.5=64/ average price of mixture per lb.

Example. — Four different qualities of wool at respective values of 80/, 85/, 96/ and 98/ per lb.
are required to be mixed to produce a mixture worth 92/. Find quantities of each kind required.
80+12x1 =12
92 85+ 7X1 =_7 19/ gain.
96— 4X1 — 4
98— 6x21—15 19/ loss.
 26

Answer. — To produce mixture of wool of a value of 92/ use —

1 part of the wool costing 80j^
1 part of the wool costing 85
1 part of the wool costing 92
2| parts of the wool costing 98 m

5^ parts.
Proof.— 1 lb. @ 80/= 80/
1 lb. @ 85 ■= 85
1 lb. @ 96 = 96
21 lbs. @ 98 =245
51 lbs. 506/
506/-^5.5=92/ being the average price of mixture per lb.

Another question frequently arising in laying out " wool-lots " is—
To Find the Quantity of Each Kind to Use When the Quantity of One Kind, the Different
Prices of Each Kind and the Prices of the Mixture, are Given.

Example. — What quantity of each kind of wool costing 60/, 80/ and 90/ must be mixed with 20
lbs. at 71/ so as to bring the mixture to a value of 75/ per lb.

/ / lbs.
60 + 15X 1=15/
71+ 4X20=80 — 95/ gain.
80— 5X 1— 5/
90— 15X 6—90
—
28 95/ loss.

Ansfwer. — Use 1 part or lb. of the wool costing 60/

20 parts or lbs. " " " 71
1 part crib. " " "80
6 parts or lbs. " " "90
28 parts or lbs. Mixture so as to bring the price of the latter to 75/ per lb.
Proof.— 1 lb. @ 60/= 60/
20 lbs. @ 71 =1,420
1 lb. @ 80 = 8
6 lbs. @ 90 = 540 or

28 lbs. at 2,100/. Hence 2,100/-^-28=75/ average price of mixture per lb.

Example. — Having four diiferent lots of wool at respective values of 70/, 74/, 82/ and 84/ on
hand, how many lbs. of each kind must we use to make up a lot of 500 lbs. costing us 78/ per lb.
70+ 8X1 =8
74+ 4X1 =4
70
82— 4Xli=6— 12/ gain.
84— 6X1 =6 12/ loss.
 27
500-^41=1 Hi
]Xllli=llU lbs. @ 70
1X11U=11U " @ 74
lXllU=166f " @ 82
1X11U=11H " @ 84
500 lbs.
Ansioer. — We must use 11 U lbs. of the lot valued at 70/ per lb,
11 U " " " " 74 "
. 166! " " " " 82 "
llli " " " • " 84 "

to make up a lot of 500 lbs. at a value of 78/ per lb.

Proof.— llliX70/=$77.77i
11UX74 = 82.221
166fX82 ==136.661
11UX84 = 92.331

$390.00— and 500 lbs. at 78/ = also $390.00.

Reed Calculations.

The reed is named by numbers, the number in each case indicating how many splits are in each inch,
Thus a number 8-reed means a reed with 8 splits in every inch over the required width. If we
call for number 16|-reed, we want a reed having 16| splits in one inch, equal to 33 dents in every 2
inches over the entire width of the fabric. Whole numbers or half numbers alone are used for grading
of reeds.

Example. — Suppose we have a number 9-reed, four threads in one split or dent, how many
ends are in one inch ? How many are in full warp if 70 inches wide in reed ?
Answer. — 9 X 4=36 ends of warp in one inch.
X 70 width of warp in reed.

2,520 ends in warp.

Rule for ascertaining the number of ends in the warp if the reed number, the threads
per dent and the width of the warp in the reed are known : Multiply the reed number by the
threads per dent and multiply the result by the width of the warp in reed.
Example. — How many ends are in the warp if using 13|-reed, 6 threads per dent, 80 inches wide
in reed ?
131X6=81X80=6,480.
Answer. — 6,480 ends are in warp.

Rule for ascertaining the reed number, if the number of ends in the warp and the width
in the reed are known, the threads per dent, either given or to be selected, according to the
fabric : Divide the number of ends in the warp by the width in the reed, which gives the number of
threads per inch ; divide this result again by the number of threads in one dent according to the weave
or pattern required, the answer being the reed (number) required.
 28

Example. — 6,480 ends in warp, 80 inches wide in ree5. How many ends per inch and what reed is
required if 6 ends per dent are to be used ?
6,480-^80=81 -4-6=131.
Answer. — 81 ends per inch and 13^ is the reed number required.

Rule for ascertaining the width of the warp in the reed if the reed number, the threads
per dent, and the number of threads in the warp are known : Divide the number of ends in
the warp by the number of ends per inch, giving as the result the number of inches the warp will
be in the reed.

Example. — Find width In reed for fabric made with 3,600 ends in warp, reeded 3 threads per dent
in a number 12-reed.
12X3=36 3,600^36=100.
Answer. — The width of the fabric in reed is 100 inches.

Example. — Find width in reed for fabric made with 4,752 ends in warp, reeded 4 threads per
dent in a number 16|^-reed.
16|X4=66 4,752--66=72
Answer. — The width of the fabric in reed is 72 inches.
The number of ends to put in one dent has to be regulated according to the fabric and the weave.
Experience is the only guide for this. The coarser the reed, to a certain extent, the easier the picks go
into the fabric. The finer the reed, the smoother the goods, and with perfect reeds, the less reed marks.
The same number of ends are not always used in each dent, but in such a case the preceding rules
may be used with the average number of threads per dent.

Example. — "What are the threads per inch ? Reed number 20, using one dent, 4 ends — one dent
5 ends.
(Average threads per dent.) (Number of reed.)
4+5=9^2 = 4J X 20 -= 90
Answer. — 90 threads per inch.

Example. — What are the threads per inch? Eeed number 18, using 1 dent, 3 ends — 1 dent, 4
ends — 1 dent, 3 ends — 1 dent, 6 ends.
(Threads in four dents.) (Average thread per dent.) (Number of reed.)
3+4+3+6 =16 -5- 4 X 18 = 72
An^er. — 72 threads per inch.
Sometimes it happens that the average number of threads includes an inconvenient fraction. To
avoid a calculation with this fraction, multiply the sum of the contents of the dents by the dents per
inch, and then divide by the dents per set.
Example. — What are the threads per inch, warp reeded as follows in number 12-reed : 1 dent, 5
threads — 1 dent, 3 threads — 1 dent, 3 threads.

3+3+5=11X12=132^-3=44.
Answer. — 44 threads per inch.

Example. — What are the threads per inch, warp reeded as follows in a number 15-reed: — 1 dent,
4 threads — 1 dent, 4 threads — 1 dent 5 threads.
4+4+5=13X16=195^-3=65
Answer. — 65 threads per inch.
 29

Warp Calculations.

TO FIND WEIGHT OF WARP IF NUMBER OF ENDS, COUNTS AND LENGTH

ARE GIVEN.

Multiply number of ends in the width of the cloth by yards in length (dressed), and divide pro-
duct by the number of yards of the given count per pound.

Example. — Cotton Yarn. Find weight of warp, 50 yards long, 2, 800 ends, single 40's cotton in
warp.
2,800 X 50=140,000 yards. 40 X 840=33,600 yards per lb. in 40's cotton.
140,000-^-33,600=4i
Answer. — The weight of the warp in the present example is 4i lbs.

J^xample. — Woolen Yarn (run system). Find weight of warp, 40 yards long, 3,600 ends, 4^-
run woolen yarn.
3,600X40=144,000 yards. 4i-run= 7,200 yards. 144,000^7,200=20.
Answer. — The weight of the warp in present example is 20 lbs.

Example — Woolen Yarn (cut system). Find weight of warp, 45 yards long, 4,800 ends, 32-cut
woolen yarn.
4,800X45=216,000 yards. 32-cut=9,600 yards. 216,000--9,600=22i
Answer. — The weight o^ the warp in the present example is 22|^ lbs.

Example. — Worsted Yarn. Find weight of warp, 60 yards long, 6,000 ends, 2/60's worsted yarn.
2/60's worsted=l 6,800 yards. 6,000X60=360,000 yards. 360,000^16,800=21f.
Answer. — The weight of the warp in present example is 2I7 lbs.

If two or more different kinds of yarn are used, ascertain number of threads in warp for each
kind by proportion, and solve answer (for each kind) by previously given rule.

Example. — Find weight of warp, 50 yards long, 6,000 ends.

Dressed. — 2 ends 2/60's worsted.
1 end 2/50's cotton.
3 ends in repeat.
6,000^3=2,000
2,000X2=4,000 ends 2/60's worsted in warp.
2,000X1=2,000 ends 2/50's cotton in warp.
6,000, complete number of ends in warp.

4,000X50=200,000 yards. 2/60's worsted=l 6,800 yards. 200,000^16,800=1111.

2,000X50=100,000 2/50's cotton=21,000 yards. 100,000^21,000=41!
Answer. — The weights of the warp in present example are :
lliflbs. of 2/60's worsted.
4M " " 2/50's cotton.

16M lbs.=16| lbs. total weight of both kinds of yarn.

 30

Example. — Find weight of warp for each kind of yarn separately in the following example :
Lengths of warp 50 yards. Number of ends 4,800.
" black
Dressing. — 4 ends 4-run woolen yarn blue
4 a " brown
4 U " black
4 a i(
16 . 4 (( u " blue mix
4 " " olive
4 (C u " bla ck
4 " <f a "
4 bro wn
4 "
4 U li " black
t( ((
2 " 4
2 " 4 u u " olive mix
2 "
48 threads in repeat of pattern.
2 "
(Number of euds in warp.) (Threads
" in one 48
repeat of pattern. (Number of repeats of patterns in warp.)
8
4,800 ^ 100

f Ends of each kind ] / Number of repeats \

\ of yarn in one pattern. [ X \ of patterns in warp. J \ /kind Threads
of yarn inof full
eachwarp
100 = 600
6 ends blue X
100 = 600
6 " brown X
12 black 100 = 1,200
X
24 olive mix 100 = 2,400
X

48 threads in one repeat of pattern. 4,800 threads in warp.

^
4-run woolen yarn =6,400 yards per lb.
600X50= 30,000^6,400= 4ii
600X50= 30,000-^6,400= 4H
1,200X50= 60,000^6,400= 9A (or 9 I)
2,400 X50=120,000^6,400=18H (or 181)

Proof.— 4,800 X 50=240,000 ^6,400=37 A (or 37i)

Answer. — The different amounts of yarn required for given example are
4H
91
4H lbs. of 4-run blue woolen yarn.
181 4 " brown "
4 " black "
4 " olive mix "
This method of finding the weight for different warp yarns is no doubt the easiest to understand
by any student, and will solve the most complicated arrangements of dressings and variety of yarns
used.
The latter example can also be solved by —
Rule. — Find total weight of warp yarn required and divide in proportion to each kind of yarn
used.
4,800 X50=240,000^6,400=37A lbs. total weight.
6 blue =1 ^^
6 brown =1
12 black =2 37tV-^8=4H for each part.
24 olive =4

8
 31

Answer. — 1X4U= 4H lbs. of 4-run blue woolen yarn.

1X4H= 4H " 4 " brown "
2x4ii= 91 " " 4 " black " "
4x4H=18f " " 4 " olive mix" . "

37A (or 371) lbs. total weight.

If weight of warp is required to be found for one yard only, the answer may be required
expressed in ounces; if so, change fraction of pounds in ounces, or use rules given previously under
"Grading of the Various Yarns," after finding the number yards of yarn required.
When required to ascertain the weight of a warp dressed with yarns of various counts,
and answer required is for the total weight of warp only, we may solve question by finding the
average counts of the threads in question, and deal with this average count and the entire number of
ends dressed, the same as if all the yarns used are of one count.
The average counts of two or more threads we find by —
Rule A. — Multiply the compound size of the given counts of yarn by number of threads com-
pounded, or we may use
Rule B. — Divide any one of the given counts by itself and by the others given in rotation, multiply
each quotient by the numbers of threads of the kind used in one repeat of pattern ; next multiply pre-
viously used common dividend with the numbers of threads in one repeat of pattern, and divide the pro-
duct by the sum of the quotients obtained. Either of these two rules will find the average counts.
Eule A answers when using short repeats of patterns, and Rule B is adopted for large repeats.
Example. — Find average counts for the following dressing of a warp :
2 ends 30-cut woolen yarn.
■ 1 end 20-cut " "
3 ends in repeat of pattern.
Using Rule A, we get
30-4-30=1 30-^-3J=87 compound size.
30-^30=1
30^20=11 8f X3=25f average counts.

Answer. — The average counts are 257-cut.

Using Rule B, we get
Threads of each kind ]^
in pattern.
I Quotient, j-
30-^-30 = 1 X 2 = 2
30-^-20 = 11 X 1 = H

30X3=90^3i=25f
Answer. — The average counts by Rule B are also 257-cut.
Example.— -Find weight per yard for a warp of 3,600 ends.
Dressed. — 2 ends face 30-cut woolen yarn.
1 end back 20-cut woolen yarn.
3 ends in pattern.
2/30-cut and l/20-cut=257-cut average size.
25^X300= 7,714f yards per lb.
3,600 X 16=57,600-^7,714^=7.46
 32
Answer. — Weight of warp per yard is 7.46 oz.
Proof. —
' ends,
3,600 ' .dressed :|i 1? end
^""f 20-cut.
f'^'^'l' 3,600-^3=1,200
1,200X2=2,400 yards of 30-cut (9,000 yards per lb.) 2,400X16=38,400-^9,000=4.26 oz.
1,200X1=1,200 yards of 20-cut (6,000 yards per lb.) 1,200X16=19,200-^6,000=3.20 oz.
7.46 oz.

Example. — Find weight, per yard, for a warp of 4,800 threads, dressed as follows :
2 ends face 6-run. 6-^-6=1 X2=2
1 end back 4-run. 6-^-4=11 Xl=li

3 ends in pattern. 3|^

6 X 3=18 --3 J=5f-run X 1,600=8,228.57 yards.
4,800x16=76,800-^8,228.57=9.33.
Answer. — Weight of warp, per yard is 9.33 oz.
Proof. —
' ' [1 ^""f 4-run.
4,800 ends, dressed: | ? end ^r'''^''' 4,800^3=1,600
1,600X2=3,200 yards of 6-run (9,600 yards per lb.).
1^600X1=1,600 yards of 4 run (6,400 yards per lb.).
3,200X16=51,200^9,600=5.33 oz.
1,600 X16=25,600h-6,400=4.00 oz.
9.33 oz.

Example. — Find the average counts for the following dressing of a warp :
2 ends 60's 60-^-60=1 X 2= 2
lend 20's 60^20=3X1=3
1 end lO's 60^10=6X1= 6

4 ends in repeat of pattern. 11

60X4=240^11=21A

Answer. — The average counts are 21ti's.

Proof — (Using the same rule, but a dilferent count, for dividend.)
10^60= iX2= f
10^20= iXl= f
II
10--10=1 xi=i

10 X 4=40-^ll=¥^-V-=-*i^ X A=240 -f-1 1 =21tVs.

Proof. — (Using Rule A.)
60^60= 1

gol-10=
60-^ 20= 63 60^1 1=5AX 4=21 A's.

11
 33

:Example.-Fmd weight per yard for a warp of 2,850 ends,

dressed as follows.
20 ends 40's cotton
1 end 50's "
16 ends 30's "
1 end 50's "
38 ends in repeat of pattern.
40-f-40=l X 20=20 =20
40--30=U X16=2U=21A 40x38=l,520H-42if=35AVs average counts.
40-50= Ix 2= 11= ir\ 35TV1X 840=29,869.56 yards per lb.
38 2,850x16=45,600-^29,869.56=1.52 oz.
42H

Answer.— The weight of given warp in example

is 1.52 oz.
Proof.— 2,850-r-38=75 repeats of pattern in wai^p.
20X75=1,500 ends of 40's cotton. (33,600
yards per lb.)
16 X 75=1,200 ends of 30's cotton. (25,200 yards
per lb.)
2X75= 150 ends of 50's cotton. (42,000 yards
per lb.)
, 1,500x16=24,000-^33,600=0.71
1,200x16=19,200-^25,200=0.76
150X16= 2,400^-42,000=0.05

1.52 oz. (being the same answer.)

-c^r.. ^l given refer to finding the weight of a warp in its original length, technically known as
. F""''^^ T^^'""^ ^""^ P'^""'' the warp will shrink or " take
! I for weight of warp in a cloth from loom, or also when finished, we must calculate
back to the original number of yards required dressed, to produce
a certain number of yards of cloth
either woven or finished ; or in other words, take the percentage for
either or both " take ups," as the
case may require mto consideration. Rules governing the "takeu
ps" in a fabric cannot be given.
Ihey are guided by the cloth required, nature of material, twist, amount
of intersections in weave, pro-
cess ot finishing, etc., m fact, practical experience is necessary to
designate accurately these points.
_ A table^ ot relative lengths of inches dressed, and one yard woven, with reference
to a " take up"
^luring weaving, from 1 percent, to 50 percent., (which also can be used
for "take up" of warps during
€mshing) IS found in my " Technology of Textile Design,- on page 266,
ing the weight of oloth per yard from the loom. in the chapter on " Ascertain-

TO FIND THE COUNTS FOR WARP YARN IF NUMBER OF

ENDS
AND AMOUNT OF MATERIAL, LENGTH AND WEIG IN WARP,
HT
TO BE USED, ARE GIVEN.

Multiply the ends in warp by the length, multiply the basis of the yarn in
next divide the latter product in the one previously obtained. question bv the weight,

weighlTrfbs'~^°"°'' ^'""^ ^^"'^ required-2,800 ends in warp, 50 yards long,

2,800 x50=140,000--3,500 (4iX840) =40
^n*?^er.— 40's cotton yarn is retjuired.

Exam^le.-VJoo\^n Yarn (rmi system). Find counts of yarns

requir
40 yards long, weight 20 lbs. ed-3,600 ends in warp,^'
3,600X40=144,000^32,000 (1,600X20) =41
Answer,— The yarn required to be used in example given, is
4|-run,
 34
Example.— V/oolcn Yarn (out system). Find counts of yarn required— 4,800 ends in warp,
-45 yards long, weight 22J lbs.
4,800X45=216,000-^6,750 (300X22i)=32
Answer. — 32-cut yarn is required.

^-mmpfo.— Worsted Yarn. Find counts of yarn required— 6,000 ends in warp, 60 yards long,
weight of warp 21f lbs. ^^,,,^3,^3,^^000^ 12,000 (2UX560) =30

J.nswer.— Single 30's (or 2/60's) worsted yarn are required.

FIND NUMBER OF THREADS IN WARP TO USE, IF COUNTS OF YARN,

TO
LENGTHS AND WEIGHT OF WARP, ARE GIVEN.

of warp,
Multiply counts by basis of yarn and weight of warp, and divide product by length

^mmpk— Cotton Yarn. Find number of ends for warp, 40's cotton, 50 yards long to dress,
weight of yarn on hand 4i lbs.
40 X 840 X 4i=140,000-f-50=2,800
Answer. — ^Use 2,800 ends in warp.

woolen yarn, 40
Example.— Woolen Yarn (run system). Find number of ends for warp 4i-run
yards long to dress, weight of yarn to use 20 lbs.
41 X 1,600 X 20= 144,000--40=3,600
Answer. — Use 3,600 threads in warp.
yarn, 45 yards
Example.— Woolen Yarn (cut system). Find number of ends for warp, 32-cut
long to dress, 22^ lbs. weight of yarn on hand.
32 X 300 X 221=216,000^45=4,800
Answer.— JJse 4,800 threads in warp.

Example.— Worsted Yarn. Find number of ends for warp, 2/60's worsted, 60 yards length of
warp required, 21 f lbs. amount of yarn on hand.
2/60's worsted=l/30's; thus: 30X560X211=360,000^60=6,000.
Anm^er. — Use 6,000 threads in warp.

IN WARP,
TO FIND THE LENGTH FOR A WARP, IF NUMBER OF ENDS
COUNTS AND WEIGHT OF YARN, ARE GIVEN.

product by number of ends

Multiply counts by basis of yarn and weignt ois warp, and divide
in warp.

Exampl
of yarn e.— Cotton
on hand Yarn.
4i lbs. Find length of warp, 2,800^threadsr-r^ in width, 40's cotton yarn, weight
^ 40X840X4i=140,000-f-2,800=50.
Answer. — ^The length for the warp is 50 yards.

Example.— Woolen Yarn (run system). Find length of warp, 3,600 threads in width, 4i-run
woolen yarn, weight of yarn on hand 20 lbs.
41 X 1,600 X 20=144,000^3,600=40.
Anmer. — The length for the warp is 40 yards.
 35

yarn,
rarnlTnaa^ lbs. ^t^IhrT
weight of yarn on f'/y^te-)-
hand. Find length of warp, 4,800 th^s in width, 32-cnt
32x300x221=216,000-4,800=45.
^^^s^^er.— The length for the warp is 45 yards.

2in^;TS7o7y™ ^'^^^ " - width, 2/eO. worsted,

2/60's worsted=l/30's worsted ; thus : 30 X 560
^ -Iwswer.— The length for the warp is 60 yards. X 21 ?=360,000-6,000=60

^.ampk-Cotton Yarn (2-ply). Find length of warp (for extra super ingrain carpet) ]
2/14 s cotton yarn, weight of yarn on hand 50 lbs. ^ ^ ^^'P^'^ J '^72 en^ls,
072 ends
2/14's cotton=l/7's cotton. Thus: 7X84
^nsz.er.-The length for the warp is 274^ 0X60=294,000-^] 072=274U
(actual 274H) yards
Proo/.— 274HX1,072__„_,,
^ ^
hand. ^^^g^—-__274.IX 1,072=294,000-5,880=50, being the
amount of lbs. of yarn on

worstea yarn, weight ot yarn on hand 80 lbs.

^...^7tn'Z7ZT """"f "^'1 ^"'^ - «dth of fabric, 3/60's
answ 00=1861.
^n».fer.— Thrr
ihe length .ll' is 186f yard=s20X660X80=896,000^4,8
for the warp'!?
Proof— 1861X4,800 ^ ^
n;200T20X^) =186^X4,800=2,688,000^11,200=80, being the amount of pounds
of yarn on hand.

When two or more different materials are used

in the construction of a cloth, previously

we must transfer the

rmu7trir Z same
' ""^ by question,
to the respective after finding answer in such a compound thread,
minor thread s.
To give a clear understanding to the student, we give,
correspondingly to previously ^iven rules
one example in three different changes. Previously given rules,

Examph—Find counts of yarn required, 4,800 ends in warp.

Dressed.— 2 ends face. i .

k.
end inbacrepeat. | ^'^''^^^
31 ends

yards't™;rofTat b'riotr^ "^-^ ^ " - ^-^^^ »^ --p-

4,800-7-3=1,600 repeats of pattern, or 1,600 compo
und threads
1,600x50=80,000-^64,000 (1,600 X40)=li-run
compound size.
11X4=5 liX2=2i
r 2 ends face @ 5-run.
Answer.— The dressing in example given will be J 1 ^^^^ @ 2J-run.

Proof.— 5—5—21 ^ ^ ^"^^^ ^^1^**

5--5 =1
=15-7-4=li compound size.
5-^- 21 =2 ^
 36

of li-run.
4,800 ends in warp- ^3 ends in repeat of dressing=l,600 compound threads
1^600X5 0 yards long. ^ ^ 600=2,000.
80,000
the weight given in the example.
2,000:1 :: 80,000: x =80,000-^2,000=40 lbs.=
:
Example.— Find number of ends for the following warp
Dressing.— 2 ends face warp, 5-run. Length of warp 50 yards. Weight of same, 40 lbs.
1 end backing warp, 2|-run.
3 ends in repeat.

pattern.
5I5 =1 5--4=li compound size of the 3 threads in repeat of
5— 2-=2
^ _4 i^_run=2,000 yards per lb., hence

in the amount of weight required.

40X2,000=80,000 yards of the compound thread
8,000-T-50 (Length of warp.) =1,600
) =4,800
1,600X3 (Number of threads in compound count.
in exampl e.
Answer.— 4,800 threads are required for warp given
Proof. ^ ,
, dresse , 2 face 5-run.
4,800 threads, d : ^ ^^^^.^^ 2|.run.

3 threads in repeat.
4,800-^3=1,600
1^600X2=3,200 threads 5-run (8,000 yards per lb.)
l'^600X 1=1,600 threads 2i-run (4,000 yards per lb.)
lbs.
3,200X50 (length of warp) 160,000-^8,000=20
=20 lbs.
1,600X50 (length of warp) 80,000^4,000
40 lbs. weight given in example.

Example.— Find length of warp required— 4,800 threads in width of cloth.

Dressing. — 2 ends face 5-run woolen yarn I height of complete warp 40 lbs.
1 end back 2|-run woolen yarn 1
3 ends in repeat.
5-^5 =1 5 _i-4=l|^ compound size.
5-^5 =1 li-run=2,000 yards per lb. . • u^
-a
5^21=2 the amount of weight required.
2,000 X 40=80,000 yards of the compound thread in

(Number ofcompound threads in width.) — 50.

80,000-5-1,600
le.
Answer.— bO yards, length of warp required in given examp
. Proof. —
f 2 face, 5-run | _ ^^^^^^

4,800 threads Jt _1 back, 2J-run /

3 threads repeat.
f Length of warp re- ) f Number of yards in 1 _4o weight of complete warp,

1,600X50| £^Slm&r""H^^'^^^ p?und"count""'r as given in example.

 37
Filling Calculations.

TO FIND LENGTH OF FILLING YARN REQUIRED FOR PRODUCING ONE OR

A GIVEN NUMBER OF YARDS OF CLOTH, IF PICKS PER INCH
AND WIDTH OF CLOTH IN REED, (INCLUDING
SELVAGE) ARE KNOWN.

i^w^e.— Multiply picks per inch by width of fabric in reed, the product will be number of inches
of filling yarn required for one inch cloth, or, at the same time, number of yards of filling yarn
required for one yard of cloth. By simply multiplying yards of filling required for one yard of cloth,
with the yards of cloth given in example, we get in product number of yards of filling yarn required
for given yards of cloth.

Example.— Find yards of filling required for a, one yard b, 8 yards of cloth woven 72 inches
wide in reed, with 52 picks per inch.
52X72=3,744 | 3,744X8=29,952
Answer.— One yard cloth requires 3,744 yards filling. Eight yards cloth require 29,952 yards
filling.
TO FIND WEIGHT OF FILLING YARN REQUIRED, EXPRESSED IN OUNCES,
PRODUCING ONE YARD OF CLOTH, IF PICKS PER INCH,
WIDTH OF CLOTH IN REED, AND THE COUNTS
OF YARN ARE KNOWN.

i^wZe.— Multiply picks by width of warp in reed, and divide product by number of yards of the.
known count required to balance 1 oz.

Example.— Cotton Yarn. Find weight of filling required for one yard cloth of the following
description : 64 picks per inch, 68 inches reed space occupied, single 20's cotton yarn.

64X68=4,352 yards. 1/20's cotton=16,800 yards per lb. or 1,050 yards per oz.
4,352--l,050=4.14.
Answer. — The weight of filling required is 4.14 oz. per yard.

Example.— Woolen Yarn. Find weight of filling required for one yard cloth having 52 picks
per inch, 72 inches reed space, 4-run yarn.
4-run=(4 X 100)=400 yards per oz. 52 X 72=3,744-4-400=9.36
Ansioer. — 9.36 oz. is the weight of the filling required per yard.
Example. — Worsted Yarn. Find weight of filling necessary for one yard cloth having 68 picks
per inch, 61 inches reed space, 2/36's worsted yarn.
68 X 61=4,148. 2/36's worsted=10,080 yards per lb. or 630 yards per oz. 4,148--630=6.59 oz.
Answer. — The weight of filling required is 6.59 oz.

TO FIND WEIGHT OF FILLING YARN REQUIRED (expressed in pounds or frac-

tion thereof,) FOR ANY NUMBER OF GIVEN YARDS, IF PICKS PER
INCH, WIDTH OF CLOTH IN REED, AND THE
COUNTS OF YARN, ARE KNOWN.

Rule. — Multiply picks by width in reed and the number of given yards, next divide product thus
derived by the number of yards of the known count per pound.
 38

Example. — Cotton Yarn. Find weight of filling required for 40 yards of cloth woven with 68
picks per inch, 70 inches reed space and 30's cotton yarn.
68 X 70=4,760 X 40=1 90,400 30 X 840=25,200 1 90,400-^25,200=71.
Answer. — Weight of filling required in given example is 7f lbs.

Example. — Woolen Yarn. Find weight of filling required for 120 yards of cloth woven with
44 picks per inch, 71 inches reed space and 22-cut woolen yarn.
44 X 7 1=3,124 X 120=374,880 22 X 300=6,600 374,880^6,600=56.8.
Answer. — Weight of fiUing required in given example is 56.8 pounds.

Example. — Worsted Yarn. Find weight of filling required for 600 yards of cloth, woven with
64 picks per inch, 62 inches reed space, 2/32's worsted.
64X62=3,968X600=2,380,800. 16X560=8,960 2,380,800^8,960=265?.
Answer. — Weight of filling required in given example is 265flbs.

If two or more different kinds of filling yarn are used, and it is required to ascertain
weight of material for each kind, the solving of the example depends entirely on the arrangement
of colors used and their respective counts.

If the counts are equal, and lots differ only in color or twist, ascertain the weight for the
entire filling required by previously given rales, and find answer for each kind by proportion of picks
as used of each kind.

Example. — Find weight (in ounces) for filling required per yard in the following fabric:
Arrangement of filling. — 4 picks brown 6-run woolen yarn.
6 " black 6-run "
4 " blue 6-run " "
6 " black 6-run "
20 picks in repeat of pattern.
72 inches reed space of fabric. 84 picks per inch.

84X72=6,048 yards of filling per yard cloth.

6,048 --600 {^^fnf-rlnjFS.'''" \ =10-08 oz. complete weight of filling required per yard cloth.

Brown 4 picks=l
In one repeat we find : Blue 4 picks=l thus: 10.08^5=2.016
Black 12 picks=3

20 picks. 5
Answer. — 2.016x1 or 2.016 oz. brown filling
2.016X1 or 2.016 oz. blue > required per yard of cloth woven.
2.016X3 or 6.048 oz. black " J

Proof. — (+) 10.080 total weight of filling required for one yard cloth woven.
 39

Example.— Find weight in pounds of filling required for weaving 2,000 yards of cloth of the
following dimensions : Reed space 64 inches — picks per inch 66.
Arrangement.— 2 picks 2/32's worsted black.
2 « 2/32's brown.
2 " 2/32's " black.
2 " 2/32's " olive.
8 picks in repeat of pattern.

66 X 64=4,224 X 2,000=8,448,000 yards of filling required for 2,000 yards of cloth.

2/32's worsted=8,960 yards and 8,448,000--8,960=942f lbs. total weight of filling required for
the 2,000 yards cloth.
Black 4 picks in one repeat of color arrangement =2
Brown 2 " " " « « _2 .
Olive 2 " " " « « =1
8 picks. . 4 Thus :
942f--4=235f

Answer.— 235f Xl=235f lbs. 2/32's olive worsted ^ Amount of filling required
235fXl=235f « 2/32's brown " I for weaving 2,000 yards
235fx2=471f " 2/32's black " j cloth.

Proof.— (+) 942f lbs. total weight of all 3 kinds filling for 2,000 yards cloth.

If filling yarns of different counts or materials are used, find number of yards
of yarn of
each kind required for g^ven number of yards, and transfer the same to their respective weight
(in oz.
or lbs. as required) by means of rules given previously under the heading of " Grading Yarns."

Mcample.— Find weight in ounces for filling required per yard in the following fabric :
Arrangement. — 10 picks black 4 -run woolen yarn.
2 " blue 6 " " "

12 picks in repeat of pattern.

70 inches reed space of fabric. 64 picks per inch.
64X70=4,480 yards of filling required per yard of cloth.
10 picks black =5
2 picks blue =1

12 picks in repeat 6 Thus : 4,480-j-6=746f

746fXl= 746f yards blue 6-run l
746| X 5=3,7331 " black 4-run / ^^^'"^ required for one yard of cloth.
746f yards 6-run=( 746f --600)= 1.24 oz.
3,7331 « 4-run=(3,733i--400)=9.33 oz.
Answer. — 1.24 oz. 6-run blue filling and
9.33 " 4-run black filling, or

10.67 oz. complete weight of filling required for weaving one yard cloth.
 40

Sample.— Find weight in pounds of filHng required for weaving 3,500 yards of cloth of the
following details : Reed space 72 inches, 84 picks per inch.
Arrangement. — 2 picks 32-cut woolen yarn, brown.
1 pick 14 " " " black.
2 picks 32 " " " blue.
1 pick 14 " " " black.
6 picks in repeat.

84X72=6,048X3,500=21,168,000 complete yards of filling required.

2 picks 32-cut brown=l

2 " 32 " bkie =1
2 " 14 " black =1

. 6 picks in repeat. 3 Thus :

21,168,000-4-3=7,056,000 yards of filling required of each kind.
7,056,000^9,600 (standard of 32-cut)=735 lbs.
7,056,000=4,200 (standard of 14-cut)=l,680 lbs.
Answer. — In given example the following amounts of filling are required :
735 lbs. 32-cut brown woolen yarn.
735 " 32-cut blue " "
1,680 " 14-cut black " " or

3,150 lbs. complete weight of filling required for weaving the 3,500 yards of cloth.

TO FIND THE COUNTS FOR A FILLING YARN REQUIRED TO PRODUCE A

CERTAIN GIVEN WEIGHT PER YARD CLOTH (in which also
the picks per inch and width in reed are knownv

If such example refers to weight given in ounces for one yard, use—
i^t^Ze.— Multiply picks by width of fabric in reed, and divide product by number of oz. given,
and the quotient by the sixteenth part of the number of yards in the basis of the yarn in question.

Example.— Worsted Yarn. Find counts for filling yarn required of following cloth. 90 picks
per inch, 58J inches width of fabric in reed. 5 oz. weight for filling to be used.
90X58i=5,250^5=l,050^35(560^16=35)=30.
Answer.— The counts fi)r. filling yarn required are either single 30's or 2/60's worsted yarn,
p^oo/.— 90 X58i=5,250(yards wanted) ^l,050(yards per oz.)=5 oz. weight of filling per yard.
:
Example.— Woolen Yarn (cut basis). Find counts for filling yarn required of following cloth
45 picks per inch, 75 inches width of fabric in reed, 9 oz. weight for filling to'be used.
45X75=3,375^9=375^181=20.
Answer. — The counts for filling yarn required are 20-cut woolen yarn.

If example refers to a given number of yards and weight is expressed in pounds, use—
EwZe.— Multiply width of fabric (in loom or in reed) with the number of picks per inch, and the
result with the given yards of cloth to be woven ; the result thus obtained divide by the given weight,
and the quotient by the basis of the yarn.
 41

Example. — Woolen Yarn (run basis). Find counts for filling yarn required of following cloth :
Reed space occupied 66f inches, 72 picks per inch, 40 yards length of cloth to be woven, 30 lbs.
amount of filling to be used.
66f X 72=4,800 X40=192,000^30=6,400^1,600=4.
Answer. — Counts for yarn required are 4-run woolen yarn.

Example. — Cotton Yarn. Find counts for filling yarn required for following cloth. Reed space
occupied 30 inches, 80 picks per inch, 70 yards length of cloth to be woven, 10 lbs. amount of filling
to be used.
30 X 80=2,400 X 70=168,000-^10=16,800-^-840=20
Answer. — Counts for yarn required are 20's cotton yarn.
TO FIND THE PICKS PER INCH FOR A CERTAIN PIECE OF GOODS OF
WHICH THE COUNTS OF THE YARN, LENGTH OF CLOTH TO BE
WOVEN, ITS WIDTH IN REED, AND THE AMOUNT OF
MATERIAL TO BE USED, ARE GIVEN.
In such a case use —
Rule. — Multiply counts by basis of yarn and amount of material to be used, the product thus
obtained divide by the yards given and the quotient by width of fabric in reed.

Example. — Woolen Yarn (run basis). Find number of picks necessary to produce the follow-
ing fabric : 6-run woolen yarn, 80 inches width of cloth in reed, 40 yards length of cloth woven, 20
lbs. weight of filling to be used.
6 X 1,600=9,600 X 20=192,000-^-40=4,800^80=60
Answer. — 60 picks are required.
Proof.— m X 80=4,800 X 40= 1 92,000 yards required.
6 X 1,600=9,600. Thus : 192,000--9,600=20 lbs., weight of filling to be used.

Example. — Worsted Yarn. Find number of picks required to produce the following fabric :
Single 15's worsted filling, 60 inches width of cloth in reed, 40 yards length of cloth woven, 22 lbs.
weight of filling to be used.
15 X 560=8,400 X 22=184,800h-40=4.620^60=77
Answer. — 77 picks are required.
In some instances there may be two or more different counts of filling used. For example
in fabrics made with one system of warp and two or more fillings, or fabrics made on the regular
double cloth system, etc. If the arrangement as to counts of a filling is of a simple form, com-
pound the counts of the respective number of threads in one thread, and solve answer in compound
size by previously given rule. Next multiply compound number thus derived by number of picks
compounded, and the result will be the answer for picks wanted in fabric.

Example. — Woolen Yarn (cut basis). Find number of picks necessary to produce the following
fabric.
Arrangement of filling. — 2 picks 32-cut woolen yarn (face).
1 pick 18 " " " (back).
3 picks in repeat.
36 yards length of cloth woven, 26 A lbs. weight of filling to be used, 74 inches reed space to
be occupied.
 42

32-^-32=1 32-^3l=8TV-cLit compound size.

32--32=l 8tVx300=2,541tVX 26^=66,600
32^18=1^ 66,600-^-36=1,850^-74=25, compound number of picks required.
3^ 25 X 3 (number of minor picks compounded) =7 5

Answer. — 75 picks are required.

Proof. — 2 picks 32-cut. I 75 picks per inch.

1 pick 18-cut. \ 36 yards length of cloth.
3 picks in repeat. 74 inches reed space occupied. Find weight (26A).

75X74=5,550^3=1,850. 1,850— 18-cut— (18X300=5,400 yards per lb.)

3,700— 32-cut— (32 X 300=9,600 yards per lb.)

1,850X36= 66,600--5,400=12i=12A lbs.

3,700 X 36=133,200^9,600=13|=13fHbs.
26z? lbs., being the same weight as given in example.

If the arrangement of filling has a large number of picks in repeat proceed as follows :
Ascertain weight of filling for one repeat of number of yards required woven and find answer by pro-
portion, for picks in one repeat are to their weight in the same proportion, as picks required (or x) to
given weight.

Example. — Cotton Yarn. Find number of picks required for the following cloth:
Width of fabric in reed 30 inches.
Arrangement of filling. — 20 picks single 20's cotton.
Length of cloth woven 60 yards.
24 " 12's "
Weight of filling to be used 1 2 lbs
44 picks in repeat.
20X30=600X60=36,000 )
24 X 30=720 X 60=43,200
24 X 30=720 X 60=43,200 i ^""^ ^^^^^
44 picks.
20's cotton =16,800 yards per lb. and 36,000 yards are required.
12's " =10,080 " " " 43,200 " " "
36,000-f-16,800=2} lbs.
43,200^10,080=4! lbs.

6f lbs., weight required for one repeat (=44 picks) of given counts of cotton yarn.
44:6f::x:12 44Xl2=528^6f=82A

Answer. — 82 picks (actually 82tt picks) are required.

Proo/'.—82Ax30=2,464 X 60=147,840-^44=3,360.
3,360X20=67,200^16,800=4 lbs.
3,360 X 24=80,640^10,080=8 lbs.

12 lbs., weight of filling to be used in given example.

To ascertain the number of yards of cloth woven, a certain amount of yarn on hand
will give. Such examples will frequently arise in working up old lots on hand ; again every time at
weaving the last pieces cloth of large orders, where the superintendent wants a final review before the
 43

last or last few looms may have to wait for filling, or cut warps short. In such instances, width of
fabric in reed, counts of yarn, and picks per inch are known. Thus : find number of yards for which
material on hand by —
Rule. — Ascertain weight of filling required per yard, and divide the latter into the total weight of
yarn on hand.

Example.— 'Woolen Yarn (run system). Find number of yards of cloth we can weave
lbs. 4-run woolen yarn filling in a fabric, which is set 70 inches wide in reed and for which we with 92
use 60
picks per inch.

Picks J r Width of) ( Yds of filling ) C6,4oo-f-i6-)

per >• \ fabric V < wanted for [•i or yards >■
inch ) (. in reed. ) ( i yard cloth. ) ( per oz J
60 X 70 = 4,200 -H- 400 =]0J oz., weight of filling wanted per yard cloth woven.
j Lbs. of filling M Oz. in M Total amount ) j Oz of filling in |
( on hand. \ \ i lb ){ of oz. H i yard of cloth, j
92 X 16 = 1,472 10.5 =140.19 yards.
Answer. — Filling in hand will Weave 140 yards (140.19) of cloth.

Example. — Woolen Yarn (cut system). Find number of yards of cloth we can weave with 42
lbs. 32-cut woolen yarn filling in a fabric, which is set 72 inches in reed and for which we use 84 picks
per inch. ♦
f Picks) (Width of) ( Yds. of filling ] T 9,600-^16)
-j per >• < fabric >• \ wanted for I -j or yards [•
(inch.) ( in reed. ) ( i yard cloth. J ( per oz. )
84 X 72, = 6,048 ~- 600 =10.08 oz.,weight of filling wanted per yard cloth woven.
( Lbs. of filling M Oz. in M Total amount! ( Oz. of filling in )
\ on hand. f | i lb. H ofoz. J | i yard of cloth f
42 X 16 = 672 10.08 =66f yards.
Answer. — Filling on hand will weave 66 yards (66f) of cloth.

Example. — Worsted Yarn. Find number of yards of cloth we can weave with 52 lbs. of 2/36'8
worsted filling in a fabric, which is set 62 inches wide in reed and for which we use 70 picks per inch.
f Picks]
per N f Width
fabric of][ If Yds. of filling
wanted for ]\ \f 10,080^16
or yards "]\
(inch.) ( in reed. J ( i yd. of cloth. J [_ per oz. j
70 X 62 = 4,340 h- 630 =6.888 oz,,weight of filling wanted per yard cloth woven.
/ Lbs. of filling \ / Oz. in ) f Total amount 1 f Oz. of filling in )
1 on hand. / \ i lb. f \ ofoz j 1 1 yard of cloth f
52 X 16 = 832 -J- 6.888 =120.79 yards.
Answer. — Filling on hand will weave 120 yards (1201) of cloth.

Example. — Cotton Yarn. Find number of yards of cloth we can weave with 18 lbs. of single
40's cotton filling in a fabric, which is set 30 inches in reed and for which we use 60 picks per inch.
r Picks] f Width of] f Yds. of filling ] f 33,600-^-16
< per V fabric j- < wanted for M or yards
[ inch, } iin reed J [ i yard of cloth. J [ per oz.
60 X 30 = 1,800 H- 2,100 =7 oz., weight of filling wanted per yard cloth woven.
j\ Lbs.on ofhand.
filling /(
"I j Ozi lb.in f]
M Totalofoz.
amount fl
) j Oz. of filling
i yard of clothin [)
18 X 16 = 288 -f- f =336 yards.
Answer. — Filling on hand will weave 336 yards of cloth.
(Answers are given in these examples without reference to any waste of material during the weaving process.)
 44

Ascertaining the Amount and Cost of the Materials used in the

Construction of Fabrics.

A. FIND THE TOTAL COST OF MATERIALS USED, and

B. FIND THE COST OF THE SAME PER YARD, FINISHED CLOTH.

Fancy Cassimere.

Warp.— 3,600 ends 4-run brown mix. Price of yarn, 85 cents per lb. Length dressed, 50 yards.
Reed, 12|X4.

Selvage. — 40 ends, 2-ply 4-run. Reeded, 4 ends per dent. Price of yarn, 50 cents.
Filling. — 52 picks, 3|-run gray mix. Price of yarn, 65 cents per lb.
Length of fabric from loom, 43 yards. Length of fabric finished, 40 yards.

\ Bnds. [ {Va^ \j ^' [ \ \ { "S.^" [

Warp.— 3.600X50 go 000 ^ 6,400) 28| X 85/ = $23,905, price of warp.

^ f Total \ r Yards \ \ Price per 1

6,400 t yards. / \ per lb. j | lb. J
Selvage.— 40X2=80endsX50yds.=4,000 3,200=1 i lbs. X 50/ = 6 2i/, price of selvage.
Filling. — 3,600h-50=72 inches, width of warp in reed.
f II " width of selvage (80-^4=20-5-121=11).
73f inches, width of warp and selvage.
( ) ( ) ( Yards filling; ) ( Yards ) j Total yards ) j Yards per ) j Weight of )
] Width. [ ] Picks J j per yard cloth, f j Woven. ^ | filling. M lb. f] filling, f
73i X 52 = 3,8271 X 43 = 164,582.1 6,000 = 27.43 lbs. ^
X 65f , price per lb.
$17.8295, price of filling.
$23.90|, price of warp.
621 price of selvage. $42.36 --40=$1.059 or $1.06, price of material per yard finished.
17.83, price of filling.
$42.36, total cost of all.
Answer. — A. $42.36, total cost of all materials.
Answer.— B. $1.06, cost of materials per yard of finished cloth.
Worsted Suiting.

yards.
Warp.— 3,968 ends, 2/32's worsted. Price of yarn, $1.05 per lb. Length dressed, 45
Reed, 16X4.
per lb.
Selvage.— 30 double ends, 2/30's worsted, 3 doable ends per dent. Price of yarn, 75 cents
Filling.- 66 picks, 2/32's worsted. Price of yarn, 95 cents.
Length of fabric from loom, 40 yards. Length of fabric finished, 39^ yards.
Warp.— 3,968X45=178,560 yards of warp wanted.
2/32's worsted=l/16's=8,960 yards per lb. 178,560^-8,960=1911 lbs., weight of warp.

19HX1.05=^X 1.05=?^^^|^^=292.95^14=$20.921, cost of warp.

 45

Selvage. — 60X2=120X45=5,400 yards of selvage are wanted.

2/30's=l/15's=8,400 yards per lb.

KA Q (Price per lb.)

5,400^-8,400= ^or^ X 75^ = 675h-14=48tV, cost of selvage.

Filling.— 3,968^-64=62 inches width of warp.

10 dents each side for selvage=20 (both sides) -^16=1J inches, width of selvage.
62 inches, width of warp.
11 " " selvage. cI wanted
Yards per
filling
■I . yard. [)
total width of fabric in reed, and 631X66=4,174.5
X 40 length of cloth from loom.

166,980 yards of filling wanted.

166,980^8,960=18fff lbs. of filling wanted.
f Price I
tper lb. f
18111 X 95^ = 17.70HI-i-100=$17.70i, cost of filling.
Warp, $20,921
Selvage, 0.48t\ $39.1175-=-39.25=$0.996 or 991/, cost of material per yard.
Filling, 17.70i

$39. 11 A, total cost of materials.

Answer A. — $39,111, (practically $39.12) total cost of all materials.

Answer B.— $ 0.991, (practically $1.00) cost of materials per yard of finished cloth.
Cotton Dress Goods.

Warp. — 1,392 ends, single 18's cotton. Price of yarn, 22 cents per lb. Length dressed, 60
yards. Reed, 24X2.

Selvage. — 12 ends, 2/20's cotton, 3 ends per dent. Price, 20 cents per lb.
Filling. — 54 picks, single 26's cotton. Price, 24 cents per lb.
Length of cloth from loom, 56 yards. Length of cloth finished, 56J yards.
Warp.— 1,392 X 60=83,520^16,120(840 X18)=5t¥7 lbs.X22/=$1.20iH, price of warp.
Selvage.— 24 X 60=l,440-5-8,400=iM or ^% lbs.
^X20=(120-=-35)=3f/, price of selvage.
Filling.— 1,392^48=29 inches, width of fabric in reed.
^ inch " " both selvages.
29J inches, total width of fabric and selvages.
• 29^^X54=1,584 yards of filling wanted per yard.
X56 " length of cloth from loom.
88,704, total number of yards wanted.
5 Yards per lb. )
\ in 26's cotton, f (lbs.)
88,704 21,840 = 4.061 X 24/=.97AV, price of filling.
 46

1.21, price of warp

.031, " " selvage $2.22-^-561=3x73 or nearly 3^ price of material per yard finished.
.97i " filling
$2.22, total price of material used in the fabric.

Answer A. — $2.22, total cost of material used.

Answer B. — $ .03|, (practically 4 cents) cost of materials per yard finished cloth.
Woolen Tricot Suiting.

Warp. — 4,608 ends, 32-cut woolen yarn. Price of yarn, $1.15 per lb. Length dressed, 40
yards. Eeed, 16X4.
Selvage. — 40 ends, single 10-cut, 2 ends per dent. Price, 54 cents per lb.
Filling. — 76 picks, 36-cut woolen yarn. Price, $1.08 per lb.
Length of cloth from loom, 36 yards. Length of cloth finished, 32 yards.
Warp.— 4,608 X 40=1 84,320-f-9,600(300x32)=l 9.2 lbsX$1.15^$22.08, price of warp.
Selvage.— 40X2=80 X 40=3,200^-3,000(300 X10)=1tV lbs. X$0.54=$0.576, price of selvage.
Filling.— 4,608 ---64=72 inches, width of warp.
21 " « selvage. (40x2=80--2=40-^-16==2i)
74| inches, total width of fabric.
74|X 76=5,662 yards filling per yard.
X36 yards of cloth woven.

203,832, total yards filling wanted.

203,832--10,800=18,873 lbs., weight of filling.
18,873 lbs.X$1.08=$20.383, cost of filling.
Warp, $22.08
Selvage, .576 $43,039-4-32=11.345, or $1,341, cost of materials per
Filling, 20.383 yard finished.
$43,039, total cost.

Answer A. — $43,039, (practically $43.04) is the total cost of the materials used ; and,
Answer B. — $1.34|, is the cost of the same per yard finished.
Worsted Suiting.

Warp. — 3,960 ends. Length dressed, 45 yards. Reed, 16X4. Take up of warp during weaving,
12 per cent.
Dressed. — 4 ends black 2/32's. 1> 4^ j
times over=24 ends.
2 " slate 2/36'sj
4 " black 2/32's =4 "
1 " 30/2's lavender spun silk =1 "
1 " 30/2's red " " = 1 "
30 ends in pattern.
Price of black worsted, $1.05. Price of slate worsted, $1.12. Price of silk, $6.50.

Selvage. — 30 double ends, 2/30's worsted each side, 3 double ends per dent. Price of yarn, 75/ per lb.
 47

Filling. — 66 picks per inch, 2/32's worsted.

Arrangement of colors. — 28 picks black worsted 2/32's (price 95/ per lb.)
1 pick lavender spun silk 30/2's (price $6.50 per lb.)
1 pick red " " 30/2's (price 6.50 per lb.)
30 picks in repeat. Loss in length during finishing, IJ per cent.
20 ends black 2/32's worsted=10
8 " slate 2/36's " =4
2 " spun silk 30/2's « = 1
30 ends in pattern =15
3,960-f- 15=264 repeats (of half patterns.)
264X10= 2,640 ends of 2/32's black worsted X 45= 11 8,800 yards.
264 X 4= 1,056 " " 2/36's slate " X45= 47,520 "

264X 1=/ " " 30/2's lavender silk X45= 5,940 "
I 132 " " 30/'2s red silk X45= 5,940 "
3,960 ends of warp X 45=1 78,200 yards.
2/32's=l/16's=16X 560=8,960 yards per lb.

11Z
118,800-f-8,960=13i¥^ lbs. X$1.05=iii?^Xl.05=(l,485X 1.05=155,925^112=) $13,921.
Price of 118,800 yards 2/32's black worsted is $13.92.
2/36's=l/18's=18X 560=10,080 yards.
47,520--10,080=4f lbs. X $1.12=$5.28, price of 47,520 yards 2/36's slate worsted.
30/2's silk=25,200 yards per lb. 5,940 --25, 200= 0.23 5 lbs. X $6.50=$1 .52750.
Price of 5,940 yards 30/2's lavender silk=$1.527. Price of 5,940 yards 30/2's red silk=$1.527.
Black worsted, $13.92
Slate, " 5.28
Lavender silk, 1.527
Eed silk, 1.527

$22,254, total cost of warp.

Selvage.— 2/30's=l/5's=15 X 560=8,400 yards per lb.
54 9

120X45=5,400 yards. 5,400--8,400=g^=j^lbs'. x75/=48.2/, price of selvage

Filling.— 3,960^64=6 lit inches, width of cloth in reed.
60^3=20 dents^l6=lT?=lHnch, width of selvage.
61U, width of cloth.
Its, width of selvage.

62x1 inches=63i inches, Avidth of cloth and selvasre.

^
505
63iX66=-g-X66=(505X66=33,330--8=)4,166i yards filling wanted for 1 yard cloth from loom.
45 yards length dressed.
— 5.4 " 12 per cent, take up.
39.6 yards, length of cloth woven.
4,166.25X39.6=164,983.5 yards, total amount of filling wanted.
 48

164,983.5-^15=10,998.9 10,998.9X14=153,984.6 yards of 2/32's worsted wanted.

10,998.9 X 1= 10.998.9 " " 30/2's silk wanted.
164,983.5
153,984.6^8,960=17.185 lbs. X 95^=$16.326, price of the black worsted filling.
30/2's silk=25,200 yards per lb. 10,998.9^25,200=0.436 lbs. X $6.50=$2.834, total price of silk.
$2.834--2=$1.417, price for each kind silk.
$16,326 black worsted filling. Cost of warp, $22,254
1.417 lavender silk " " " selvage, .482
1.417 red " " " " filling, 19.160

$19,160, total cost of filling. $41,896, total cost of materials.

39.6 yards, length of cloth woven.
.594 " 1 J percent, loss in finishing. 41.896-J-39.006=1.074, cost of materials per
finished yard.
39.006 yards, finished length.

Answer. — A. Total cost of material, $41.90.

Armoer. — B. Cost of materials per yard finished cloth, \

Fancy Cassimere.

Warp. — 4,032 ends. Reed, 14X4. Length of warp dressed,

.071 50 yards. Take-up of warp
during weaving, 10 per cent.
Dressed. — 4 ends 5-run black 1 . , . or* j
- - - - =32 ends.
4, "„ 5^ "„ , brown J^ 4 times over
4 ends 5-run black - - - - - - - - - =4 ends.
3 " 5 " brown - .- .-----=3 =1 ends. end.
r 5-run black wool and 30's blue spun silk twisted together ^
1 end twist < take up of silk, 12 per cent. ^

2 ends 5-run I"

black " 1 r»" j.'wool, 3percent.|^"^^"g*^^'^^°^- =36 ends.
over _ _ _ _ >
^
2^ "„ 5^ "„ brown /y 9 times
2 ends 5-run black - - - - - - - - - =2 ends.
1 end 5 " brown - - - - - - - - - =1 end.
1 " twist (the same as above) - - - _ - - - = \ end.

In pattern 80 ends.
Price of the 5-run warp yarn, 96 cents per lb. Price of the 5-run woolen yarn (soft-twist) as used
in twist, 96 cents per lb. Price of the spun-silk as used in twist, $5.60 per lb.
Selvage. — 40 ends of 2-ply 4-run listing yarn for each side, 4 ends per dent. Price of yarn, 50 cents.
Filling. — The same arrangement as the warp, ouly using 5|-run yarn in place of the 5-run. For
twist use the same material for both minor threads as in warp. 60 picks per inch. Price of the 5|-run
filling yarn, 85 cents. Loss in length of fabric at finishing (fulling), 6 per cent.
Warp, ,032 5-run
T If ^8
r. ends. ^ ^^.^^ 4,032--80=50 repeats plus 32 ends.

80 ends in repeat.
50X78^3,900-1-32=3,932 ends of 5-run 50X2=100 ends twist.
 49

(Ends in warp.) (Yards long.) (Yards wanted.) (5X1,600)

3,932 X 50 = 196,600 - 8,000 =24,575 lbs.@96/=$23.592,priceof5-run warp.
100 ends of twistX50 yards (dressed)=5,000 yards, total length of twist yarn wanted.
Take-up of silk (during twisting) 12 per cent. Thus : (100 : 88 : : x : 5,00O)=5,681.81 yards of 30's
spun silk are wanted.
Take-up of wool (during twisting) 3 per cent. Thus : (100 : 97 : : x : 5,000)= 5,154.64 yards of 5-run
woolen yarn are wanted.
(30X840) (Weight wanted.) (Price per lb.)
5,681.81 ^ 25,200 = 0.2254 lbs. X $5.60 = $1,262, price of silk yarn used in twist for warp.
(5X1,600) (Weight wanted.) (Price per lb.)
5,154 64 - 8,000 = 0.6443 lbs. X 96/ =$0,618, price of the 5-run minor yarn for twist.
$23,592 cost of 5-run warp yarn.
1.262 " " 30's spun silk \. ,
0.618 " " 5-run soft twist /

$25,472, total cost of warp.

Selvage.— 80 ends X 50 yards dressed=4,000 yards of yarn--8,200 (2 X 1,600) =1^ lbs.
1| lbs @ 50/ = 621/, price of selvage yarn u.^ed,
(Ends in warp.) (14X4)
Filling.— 4,032 56 = 72 inches, width of cloth in reed.
80 (ends selvage) --4 (ends per dent) =20 dents-^14=lf inches,, width of selvage.
72 inches, width of cloth,
H " . " " selvage,

f Width of 1 j Picks )
\ cloth. / j per inch. )
514 30 840 ) '^^ I
73f X 60 =-y-x60=-^^ — X45 |—^=1^ per cent, take up V = 198,257|, total
number of yards of filling wanted.
198,2571^40=4,956.43 X 1= 4,956.43 yards of twist. l
and 4,956.43X39=193,300.77 " " 5i-run. /^^''"^ wanted.
5|-ruu=8,800 yards per lb. Thus :
193,300^8,800=2111 lbs. @ 85/=$18.671, price of the 5i-run filling.

Twist yarn. / ^^^^ take-up 12 per cent., thus : (100:88 :: x:4,956.43)=5,632H yards are wanted.
IWool " 3 " " " (100:97 ::x:4,956.43)=5,109i? "
30's spun silk=25,200 yards per lb. Hence :
5,632-25,200=0.2235 lbs., weight of silk wanted @ $5.60=$1.251, price of silk.
5-run woolen yarn=8,000 yards per lb. Hence :
5,109^-8,000=0.6386 lbs., weight of woolen yarn @ 96/=61.3/, price of the woolen
yarn.
$18,671 cost of 5J-run filling.
1.251 " " 30's spun silk. \. , .
0.613 " " 5-run soft twist, j

$20,535, total cost of filling.

 60

$25,472, cost of warp. 45 yards, woven length of cloth.

0.625, " " selvage. 2.7 " (6 per cent, shrinkage in ful ing).
20.535, " " filling.
42.3 yards, length of cloth when finished.
$46,632, total cost.
46.632-4-42.3=1.124

Answer.— A. The total cost of materials used are $46,632 ($46.64) and
Answer. — B. The cost of the same per finished yard is $1,124 ($1.13.)

Fancy Cotton Dress Goods.

(27 inches finished width.)

2,204 ends in warp. Reed, 38X2. Length of cloth from loom, 80 yards.
Dressing :
Dressing :— continued.
1 end dark blue 1 end dark blue (ground)
(ground) X4= 8 ends
1 end white X4= 8 ends 1/20's
= 1 end " 1 end
1 end light blue 11 end white
end maroon
= 2 ends
= 1 end 2 ends
2 ends " " 1/20's
(pile) 1 end
d " "
ends ((
(ground) = 8 ends
81 en tan 2/30's
endsdstan"
82 en 8 ends
a — 1 end (ground)
(pile)
1 end flesh
= 2 ends 2/24's end white
11 end " 1 end 2/30's
= 1 end 2/30's 2 ends 2 ends
2 ends " (pile) 2/24's
" = 1 end 1/20's 1 end
end white
11 end (ground) 1 end
= 2 ends 2/30's (ground) 2/30's
(pile)
"
= 1 end 2/24's 211 ends " " blue
end light
end " (pile) 2 ends 1/20's
2 ends " 2/30's
(pile) 2/30's 1 end " " (ground) 1 end
enddark" blue (ground)
11 end = 8 ends 2/24's
1 end white 2/30's 1 end dark blue "
a = 1 end 2/24's : 1 end 2/30's
8 ends l/20'8
1 end maroon 2/30's 1 end white "
= 2 ends : 2 ends 2/30's
= 1 end 21 ends
end "" "
(pile) : 1 end 2/24's
12 cuds " .
end 1/20's
(pile) = 8 ends 1 end " (ground) : 8 ends
8 ends tan (ground) : 1 end 2/30's
(( = 1 end 2/30's
1 end white 4=
=}2xends 2/24's 8 ends tan " : 2 ends
" = 1 end
= 1 end 2/30's 21 end fl
ends "esh (pile) 2/30's
2 ends " (pile) =24 ends 1/20's 1 end " (ground) =24 ends 2/24's
end tan"
241 ends (ground)
2/30's = 2/30's
2/24's 24 ends tan " }x4
1/20's
2/30's Repeat of pattern, 152 ends. 2/30's
1/20's
2/24't
Take-up of ground-warps during weaving, 8 per cent.
2/30's
Take-up of pile-warp during weaving, 70 per cent. 1/20's
Price of warp yarns (including coloring or bleaching) as to their respective counts, are :
1/20's ground, 30 cents.
2/30's ground, 38 cents.
2/24's pile, 36 cents.

Selvage.— 10 two-ply ends of 2/20's white cotton for each side. 2 double ends per dent. 8 per cent,
take up during weaving. Price of yarn, 22 cents.
 51

Filling. — 78 picks per inch. Arrangement of colors. — 4 picks white

8 " tan
4 maroon
tan
8
Counts for all the filling 1/20's cotton. 6 white
Price of all the filling yarn, inclusive of coloring and bleaching, 28 cents. 8 tan
Length of cloth from loom to equal length finished. 284
light blue
tan
70 picks in repeat.

Warp.— 1/20's ground=112 ends in one pattern

2/30's " = 20 " " " "
2/24's pile = 20 " " " «

152 ends in one repeat of pattern.

2,204 (ends in warp) h-152 (repeat of ipattern)

ng =14i repeats of pattern in width of fabric.
Pattern, with reference as to counts, repeats twice in one repeat of pattern. Thus :

Yards of y ar n |
in
fTake-updur-l fYards of yarn ^ fLength of
I • g. ^ ! I wanted per ! | ^cloth " > wanted for the >
yard cloth
woven. woven. entire piece.
1 1 2 X 141=1,624 ends of 1 /20's cotton- 1,765.2174 X 80 = 141,217.392 yds.
? per cent. — 315.2174 X 80
20X14J= 290 " " 2/30's « -
966.6666 X 80 = 25,217.392 "
20X141= 290 " " 2/24's " - -70 " " —
30/ = 77,333.328 "
Yards per
(Yards of yam wanted ) lb. wan ted the |-
force. Value of yarn
for the entire piece. [ enti
fiv bs.re of
pie yarn J] 1^ Price
the yarnof
141,217.392 yards. 16,800 8.4058 X
2.0013 per38lb.
" J 2,600 X 0.76
25,217.392 2.76
10,080 7.6719 X 36 $2.52
77,333.328 "
6.04, price of warp yarn.
Filling. — 29 inches, width of fabric in reed.
" " " selvage in reed.
29i^? inches, total width of cloth in reed.
556
29AX 78= ( —x 78) =2,282.5263 yards of filling per yard cloth woven.

20X840
I o^f^cfoth !.\ T«tal yards of filling )f
wanted. Us.wanted.
of yarn { \ Price of yarn | j^ajue ^of
I woven. H J {_ ing J.04
yarn.
per lb.
2,282.5263 X 80 = 182,602.1040 yds. -f-' 16,800 = 10.8691 X 28/
Selvage. — 10 ends, 8 per cent, take-up (100: 92 :: x:40) required 43.478 yards yarn per yard
cloth woven. r Price 1

Length ) f Yards of selvage T f Total

of cloth )■ \ wanted for the \ 10X140 \ weight of
woven. ) [ entire piece. J (, selvage.
43.478 yards X 80 =^ 3,478,24 yards ^ 8,400 0,414 lbs. X 1 22/=9/, total price of selvage.
r
 ^6.04 cost of warp, 52
3.04 " " filling,
0.91 " " selvage, 9.99^80=12.487.

$9.99, total cost.

Answer. — A. The total cost of materials used in fabric is $9.99, and
Answer. — B. The value of this stock, per finished yard, is 12.487 cents, practically 12^ cents.
Worsted Suiting.

3,968 ends 2/32's worsted. Length of warp dressed, 45 yards. Reed, 16X4.
Arrangement of dressing. — 4 ends black,
4 ends brown,
4 ends black,
4 ends indigo blue.

16 ends in repeat.
Price of yarn in the white, (scoured) $1.05 per lb.
Allowance for waste during spooling, dressing and weaving, 5 per cent.

Selvage. 30 double ends of 2/30's white worsted for each side, 4 double ends per dent. Price,
per lb., 75 cents.
Filling. — 66 picks, 2/32's worsted. Same arrangement of colors as in warp. Price of yarn in the
white, (scoured) 95 cents.
Allowance for waste during spooling and weaving, 6 per cent.
Length of fabric from loom, 40 yards. Length of fabric finished, 39^ yards.
Cost of coloring yarn, black, 6 cents per lb. ; brown, 6 cents per lb. ; indigo blue, 15 cents per lb.
(Weight of yarn before coloring to equal its weight when colored.)
Cost of weaving, 16 cents per yard, from loom. Cost of finishing, 12 cents per yard, finished.
General mill expenses, 10 cents per yard, finished cloth.

Warp. — f Yards 1 ( Total 1 3 Price )

(Ends) Idressed.l j yards. | (16X560) (Lbs.) ] per lb. f (Cost.)
3^968 X 45 = 178,560 8,960 = 19.928 X $1.05 = $20.9244
19.928 -f- 4 = 4.982 X 1 = 4.982 lbs. @ 15^ (indigo blue) = .7473
4.982 X 3 = 14.946 " " 6/ (black and brown) = .8967

$22.5684
6 per cent, allowance for waste, 1.1284
Total cost of warp yarn, $23.6968

Selvage.— 60 double ends 2/30's worsted = 20 single ends 2/30's.

120x45=6,400-^8,400=11= A lb. @ 75/=48.214/
5 per cent, allowance for waste, 2.410
Cost of selvage, $0,562
Filling. — Reed, 16X4=64 warp threads per inch.
(Ends in full warp. (Ends per inch.)
3^968 -f- 64 =62 15inches,
(( width of cloth in reed.
width of selvage (60h-4=15 dents, reed 16=if inch).
62H inches, total width of fabric (including selvage) in reed.
 53

{( inWidth
reed. )\ j( perPicks
inch, )j j| per
Yards
yardof offilling
cloth wanted
woven, "IJ j| fromYards
loom. ))
62tI X 66 = 4,153| X 40 =166,155 yards of filling wanted in cloth.
-|- 9,969 yards, 6 per cent, allowance for
[waste.
176,124 yards, total amount of filling wanted.
(Total length.) (15 X 560 )
(Total weight.)
176,124 8,960 = 19.6567 lbs. @ 95^ =$18.6739, cost of filling yarn.
19.6567-^4=4 .9141X1= 4.9141 lbs. @ 15 = 0.7371, " " indigo blue color.
4.9141X3=14.74 26 lbs. 6 = 0.8845, " " black and brown colors.
$20.2955, total cost of filling yam.
40 X 1 6/=$6.40, cost of weaving.
391x12 =$4.71, " " finishing.
39 J X 10 =$3.93, general mill expenses (ofiice insurance, watchmen, mechanics, per cent, on capital, etc.)
$23.70 cost of warp.
0.51 " " selvage.
20.30 " " filling.
$59.55-v-39i=$1.517.
6.40 " " weaving.
4.71 " " finishing.
3.93 general mill expenses.

$59.55
Ansioer, — A. $59.55, total cost of the fabric.
Answer. — B. $1.52, cost of fabric per finished yard.

Beaver Overcoating. {Piece-dyed.)

4,800 ends in warp. Reed, 10X6. 42 yards long, dressed.

Arrangement of dressing. — 2 ends face, 5J-run. Price of yarn per lb., $1.25.
1 end back, 5-run " " " " " .84.
3 ends in repeat.
Filling. — 2 picks face, 5|^-run. Price of yarn per lb., $1.18.
1 pick back, l|-run. " " " " " .40.
3 picks in repeat.
16 cents for weaving.

80 picks per inch. 4 " general weave room expenses.

20 cents per yard from loom for weaving.

Selvage. — 40 ends of 2-run listing yarn (each side). Price, 50 cents per lb. 3 ends per dent
(outside dent 4).
Take-up of warp during weaving, 11 per cent. Take-up of cloth during finishing (fulling), 10
per cent. Flocks used during fulling process, 20 lbs. at 8 cents per lb. Cost of finishing and dy ing,
25 cents per yard, finished. General mill expenses, 10 cents per yard, finished.
Warp.— 4,800^3=1,600.
(Yards wanted.)
1,600X2=3,200 ends 5i-runX42= 134,400 --8,800=15A lbs. @ $1.25=$19.09.
1,600X1=1,600 ends 5-run X42= 67,200 ^8,000= 8 f lbs. @ .84= 7.06.

Cost of warp, $26.15.

 54

(Yards wanted.)
Selvage.— 80 ends 2-run X 42= 3,360 --3,200=1.05 lbs. @ 50/=52i^ (53/), cost of selvage.
Filling. — Reed, 10X6=60 ends per inch and
4,800^60=80 inches, width of cloth in reed.
2.6 " " " selvage (80^3=26 dents=2.6 inches).
82.6 inches, total width.
82.6X 80=6,608 yards (total amount of filling per yard woven).
6,608 ^3=2,202f and 2,202f X 2=4,405 J yards face filling.
2,202|Xl=2,202f " backing.
1 1 per cent, take-up of warp during weaving.
100:89 :: 42 :x=89X 42=3,738^100=37.38 yards, woven length.
Hence: 4,4051X37.38=164,671.35 yards 5i-run=18.712 lbs. @ $1.18=$22.10
2,202f X37.38= 82,335.67 " If " =29.456 " @ .40= 11.78
Cost of filling, $33.88
37.38 X20/=$7.47, cost of weaving.
10 per cent, shrinkage of cloth during finishing. Hence :
100:90 :: 37.38 :x=(90X37.38=)3,360.20^100=33.64 yards, finished length
126.15 cost of warp.
33.64 X25/=$8.41 cost of finishing.
.53 " " selvage.
33.64X10 = 3.37 general mill expenses.
33.88 " " filling. 20 X 8 = 1.60 cost of flocks.
7.47 " " weaving.
8.41 " " finishing.
3.37 " " general expenses. 81.41^33.64=2.42.
1.60 " " flocks.

.41
Answer, — A. $81.41, total cost of the fabric.
Answer. — B. $ 2.42, cost of fabric per yard, finished.

Ingrain Carpet. [Extra fine ; Cotton Chain, Worsted Filling)

832 ends in warp, 2/14's cotton, 5 per cent, take-up by weaving and shrinkage in finishing, etc.
Finished length of fabric, 60 yards.
Cost of yarn, 17 / per lb.
Cost of color, 5 " (average price).
Winding and beaming, 2| "

24|j^, price of warp yarn per lb. on beam.

Selvage. — Four ends of 4/10's cotton on each side. Price, 20 cents per lb. (same amount o^ take-
up as warp).
Filling. — 10 pair, (in finished fabric) 36 inches, width of fabric in loom.
Yarn used : One-half the amount 5/8's single, light colors (50 yards per oz. in the grease). Price,
16 J cents per lb. in the grease, or 26 J cents per lb. scoured and colored. One-half the amount 5/8's
single, dark colors (48 yards per oz. in the grease). Price, 12 cents per lb. in the grease, or 20 cents
per lb. scoured and colored.
Loss (average) of weight for filling in scouring and dyeing, 15 per cent. Waste of filling (average)
in winding and weaving, 15 per cent.
 55
Length of tlie yarn to remain uniform from the grease to colored. Weaving and weave-room
expenses, 10 cents per yard finished fabric. General mill expenses, 5 cents per yard finished fabric.

^arp. — 832 ends 2/l4's cotton, 5 per cent, take-up, 60 yards finished length, 24^ cents per lb.
100:95 :: x:832=83,200-^-95=875tIx60=52,547.37 yards, total amount of yarn wanted.
2/14's=5,880 yards per lb. Hence : 52,547.37^5,880=8.9536 lbs., total weight of yarn wanted.
8.9536 lbs. @ 24i/=|2.1936 (=$2.20) cost of warp-yarn.
Selvage.— 4 X 2=8 X 60=480.
100: 95 : X :: 480=48,000-^-95=505.26 yards, total length of selvage yarn wanted.
4/10's=2,100 yards per lb. Hence : 505.26-=-2,100=0.24 lbs., total weight.
0.24 lbs. @ 20^=4.tV (=5/) cost of selvage.
Filling. — 20 picks per inch in finished fabric. 36 inches, width of fabric.
36X60=2,160X20=43,200 yards, total amount wanted in fabric.
21,600 yards light colored yarn, at 50 yards per oz. in the grease.
21,600 yards dark colored yarn, at 48 yards per oz. in the grease.
50X16=800 yards per lb. for light colors. 48 X 16=768 yards per lb. for dark colors.
21,600^800=27 lbs., weight in the grease.
85X27
100:85 :: 27: x = =22.95 lbs., weight of yarn scoured and colored.

22.95 lbs.@26i^=$6.082, cost of light colored filling used in fabric.

21,600^768=28.12 lbs., weight in the grease. '
85 X 28 12
100:85 :: 28.12:x= ' =23.90 lbs., weight of yarn scoured and colored.
23.9 lbs. @ 20/=$4.78, cost of dark colored filling used in fabric.
$ 6.082 light colored.
4.780 dark "
$10,862, total value of filling used in fabric, subjected to 15 percent, waste of material in winding
and weaving. Hence :

100:85 :: x: 10.86="*^^'^^'^
85 ^^^=12.776, cost of filling, including of waste made in windingand weaving.
Cost of warp, $ 2.194
Cost of selvage, 0.048
Cost of filling, 12.776 24.01 H-60=0.40
Weaving and weaveroom expenses, 6.000 (60 yards X 10 cents)
General mill expenses, 3.000 (60 yards X 5 cents)

$24,018
. Answer. — A. $24.02, total cost of the fabric.
Answer. — B. 40 cents, cost of fabric per yard finished.

Ingrain Carpet. (Extra Super ; Worsted Chain.)

1,072 ends in warp, 2/1 4's worsted, 5 per cent, take up by weaving and shrinkage in finishing, etc
Price of yarn, including coloring (average) and winding and beaming, 52J cents per lb.
Selvage, — Four ends of 4/1 0's cotton on each side.
Price, 20 cents per lb. (same amount of take up as warp).
Filling. — 13 pair (in finished fabric) 36 inches, width of fabric in loom.
 56
Arrangement. — 1 pick, double reel yarn (60 yards per oz. in the grease.) Price, 22 cents
per lb. in the grease, or 33 cents per lb. scoured and dyed.
1 pick, 6/8's single, light color (50 yards per oz. in the grease). Price 16J
cents per lb. in the grease, or 26 J cents per lb. scoured and dyed.
1 pick, double reel (as before).
1 pick 5/8's, single dark color (48 yards per oz. in the grease). Price, 12
cents per lb. in the grease, or 20 cents per lb. scoured and dyed.
Loss of weight (average) for filling. in scouring and dyeing, 121 per cent. Waste (average) of
filling in, winding and weaving, 12^ per cent. No shrinkage for yarn during scouring and coloring.
Weaving and weaveroom expenses, 12 cents per finished yard. General mill expenses, 6 cents per
finished yard.

Warp.— 1,072 ends, 2/14's worsted, 5 per cent, shrinkage. Price, 52| cents per lb.
100:95 :: x : 1,072=107,200^95=1,128.421 X 60=67,705.26 yards, total amount of warp yarn wanted.
2/14's=3,920 yards per lb. Hence: 67,705.26^3,920=17.27 lbs., total weight.
17.27 lbs.@52i/=$9.066, value of warp yarn.
Selvage. — (The same as in previously given Example) 5 cents.
Filling. — 26 picks, 36 inches, 60 yards. Hence :
26X36X60=56,160 yards, total amount of filling wanted in fabric.
56,160-^-4=14,040. Hence :
1 4,040 X 2=28,080 yards of double reel yarn@33/ per lb.
14,040X1=14,040 " " 5/8's single light color@26i^ per lb.
14,040 X1=14,040 " " 5/8's single dark color@20 per lb.
60 X 16=960 yards per lb. and 28,080^-960=29^ lbs. @ 33 /=$9.652, vahie of double reel.
50X16=800 yards per lb. and 14.040--800=17.55 lbs. @ 26i =$4.65, value of 5/8's light color.
48X16=768 yards per lb. and 14,040-^-768=18.28 lbs. @ 20 =$3,656, value of 5/8's dark color.
$9,652 value of double reel.
4.650 " 5/8's light color.
3.656 " 5/8's dark color.

$17,958, total value of filling used in carpet (subject to 12| per cent, waste in winding and weaving).
100:87.5 :: x : 17.958=l,795.8-^87.5=$20.523, cost of all the filling in fabric and waste.
Memo— The same answer as to the cost of filling, may be obtained by calculating the 13^ per cent, loss of ma-
terial during winding and weaving to the amount of filling wanted in the fabric, as follows :
56,160 yards total amount of filling wanted. Thus :
100:87.5:: x : 56,160=5,616,000^87.5=64,182.856^4=16,045.714.
16,045.714X2=32,091.428 --960=33.428X33 =$11,031
16,045.714--800=20.057X26.5= 5.315
16,045.714^768=20.891X20 = 4.178

$20,523, being the same answer as before.

Cost of warp, $ 9.066
Cost of selvage, 0.048
Cost of filling, 20.523 40.437^60=0.67.
Weaving and weave-) 7.20O (60 yards @ 12f)
room expenses, j
General mill expenses, 3.600 (60 yards @ 6/.)

$40,437
Answer. — A. $40,44, total cost of fabric.
Answer. — B. 67/, cost of fabric per yard, finished.
 STRUCTURE OF TEXTILE FABRICS

To produce a perfect fabric the following points must be taken Into consideration : The purpose
of wear that the fabric will be subject to, the nature of the raw material to be used in its construc-
tion, the size <.r counts of the yarns and their amount of twist, the texture (number of ends of warp
and filling pt-r inch) to be used, the weave and ''take up" of the cloth during weaving, the process of
finishing an I the sliriukage of the cloth during this operation.

THE PURPOSE OF WEAR THAT THE FABRIC WILL BE SUBJECT TO.

This point must be taken into consideration when calculating for the construction of a fabric for
the following reasons : The more wear a fabric is subject to, the closer in construction the same
must be; also the stronger the fibres of the raw material as well as the amount of twist of the yarn.
For this reason upholstery fabrics, such as lounge covers, must be made with a closer texture and of a
stronger yarn than curtains. Woolen fabrics, for men's wear, are in an average more subject to wear than
dress goods made out of the same material; hence the former require a stronger structure. Again,
let us consider woolen cloth for men's wear by itself, such as trouserings or chinchilla overcoatings. No
doubt the student will readily understand that such of the cloth as is made for trouserings must be made
of a stronger construction, to resist the greater amount of wear, compared to such cloth as made for the
use of overcoatings which actually are subject to little wear, and for which only care must be taken to
produce a cloth permitting air to enter and remain in its pores, assisting in this manner in producing a
cloth with the greatest chances for retaining the heat to the human body.

THE NATURE OF RAW MATERIALS.

The selection of the proper quality of the material to use in the construction of a fabric is a point
which can only be mastered by practical experience. No doubt a thorough study of the nature of raw
materials, as well as the different processes they undergo before the thread as used by the weaver,
(either for warp or filling) is produced, will greatly assist the novice to master this subject. For this
reason the different raw materials, as used in the construction of textile fabrics and the different pro-
cesses necessary for converting the same into yarn, have been previously explained.
As known to the student every woven fabric is constructed by raising or lowering one system of
threads (technically known as warp) over threads from another system (technically known as filling).
This will readily illustrate that the warp threads of any woven cloth are subjected to more or less
chafing against each other during the process of weaving.
There will be more chafing the higher the warp texture, and the rougher the surface of the yarn.
In some instances the manufacturer tries to reduce this roughness by means of sizing or starching the
yarn during the process preceding weaving and known as " dressing ;" but sizing will correspondingly
stiffen the warp yarns, and reduce their chances for bending easily around the filling, and the warp will
take up the filling harder than if the yarn was not sized. If, by means of sizing, the chafing is not
dispensed with, we must reduce the warp texture to the proper point where perfect weaving is possible.
No doubt the using of proper warp texture is so greatly neglected, that many a poor weaver's family is
suffering by its cause.
To illustrate the roughness of the different yarns as used in the manufacture of textile fabrics the
five illustrations. Figs. 1 to 5 are given : Fig. 1 represents a woolen thread ; Fig. 2 represents worsted
yarn ; Fig. 3 represents mohair ; Fig. 4 represents (57) cotton yarn ; Fig. 5 represents silk yarn.
 58

An examination of these five illustrations shows flie silk yarn to be the smoothest, followed in
rotation, getting gradually rougher by cotton, mohair and worsted, until reaching the woolen thread which
represents the roughest surface. These illustrations will also show that (in an average) a woolen fabric
requires a lower texture than a worsted cloth, or a cotton cloth, and a silk fabric a higher texture

Fig. 1 Fig. 3 Fig. 3 Fig. 4 Fig. 5

compared to fabrics made out of other materials. In addition to the roughness of the surface of a thread,
we must also take into consideration the pliability of the fibres, for the softer the pile of the yarn the
less the chafing will influence the strength of the yarn, whereas a coarse and stiflP fibre will produce the
reverse result.

COUNTS OF YARN REQUIRED TO PRODUCE A PERFECT STRUCTURE

OF CLOTH.

In speaking of the size or counts of a thread we mean the weight of solidity, or the bulkiness
of a thread, or in other words the diameter of the same. These diameters in threads do not vary in the
direct ratio to the respective counts, but do vary as to the square roots of their counts. Thus, if we find
the diameter of a thread it will be easy for us to ascertain how many of those threads can rest side by
side in one inch.

Rule for finding the number of ends which in Cotton, Woolen, Worsted, Lfinen and Silk
Yarns can lie side by side in one inch.

Find number of yards per pound for the yarn in question and extract the square root of this
number. From this square root deduct four per cent, for raw-silk yarns, seven per cent, for cotton, spun
silk and linen yarris, ten per cent, for worsted yarns, and sixteen per cent, fur woolen yarns. The
answer in each case indicates the number of threads that will lie side by side in one inch (without being
interlaced at right angles by another system).

JiJxample.~¥ind number of threads of I's cotton yarn which will lie side by side in one inch.
840 yards per lb. Thus: t/840=28.9 28.9
— 2.0 (7 per cent.)
26.9

Answer. — threads (practically 27) of single I's cotton yarn will rest side by side in one inch.
Example. — Find number of threads of 2's cotton yarn which will lie side by side in one inch.
840X2=1680 yards per lb. Thus: l/ 1^680=40.9 40.9
— 2.8 (7 per cent.)

38.1
Answer.— 38jo threads (practically 38) of single 2's cotton yarn will rest side by side in one inch.
 69
Example. — Find number of ends of 2/50's cotton yarn which will lie side by side in one inch.
2/50'scotton=l/25's=849X 25=21,000 yards per lb. Thus: T/2i^000=:144.9 144.9
— 10.1 (7 per cent.)

134.8

Answer. — 134f threads (practically 135) of 2/50's cotton yarn will rest side by side in one inch.
Example. — Find nnmber of threads of 6-run woolen yarn which will lie side by side in one inch.
6-run=9,600 yards per lb. Thus : t/9,600=97.97 97.97
— 15.67 (16 per cent.)
82.30

Answer. — 82t(t threads (practically 82) of 6-run woolen yarn will rest side by side in one inch.
Example. — Find, number of threads of 22-cut woolen yarn which will lie side by side in one inch.
22-cut^6,600 yards per lb. Thus: t/6^600 =81.24 81.24
— 12.99 (16 per cent.)

68.25
Answer. — 68^ threads (practically 68) of 22-cut woolen yarn will lie side by side in one inch.

Example. — Find number of ends of 2/32's worsted that will lie side by side in one inch.
2/32's=single 16's=560 X 16=8,960 yards per lb. Thus : V 8^=94.6 — 94.6 9.4 (10 per cent.)

85.2
Answer. — SSA threads (practically 85) will lie side by side in one inch.
Example. — Find number of threads of 40/3-ply spun silk which will lie side by side in one inch.
40/3-ply=33,600 yards per lb. Thus: t/ 33,600=183.3 183.3
— 12.8 (7 per cent.)
170.5

Answer. — 170| threads (practically 170) of 40/3-ply spun silk will rest side by side in one inch.

Example. — Find number of threads of 4-dram raw silk which lie side by side in one inch.
4-dram raw silk=64,000 yards per lb. Thus : t/64,000=252.9 252.9
— 10.1 (4 per cent.)
242.8

Answer. — 2421 threads (practically 243) of 4-dram silk will rest side by side in one inch.
To illustrate clearly to the student that the diameter of a thread {i. e., respectively the number of
threads which will lie side by side in one inch) does not vary in the direct ratio to its counts, but in the
ratio of the square root of its counts, we give three examples, using for the first example a single yarn ;
for the next the same number in 2-ply ; and for the third the same number in 3-ply.
Examples. — Find number of threads that will lie side by side for the following yams : Single
30's cotton, 2/30's cotton, and 3/30's cotton yarn.
30's cotton=25,200 yards per lb.
Thus: 1/25,200=158.7 158.7
— 11.1 (7 per cent.)

147.6 threads (practically 1 48) of 30's cotton yarn will lie side by side in one inch.
 60

2/30's cotton=12,600 yards per lb.

Thus: t/ 12,600= 11 2. 2 112.2
— 7.9 (7 per cent.)

104.3 threads (practically 104) of 2/30's cotton yarn will lie side by side in
one inch.

1.6 3/30's cotton=8,400 yards per lb.

Thus: 1/8,400=91.6
— 6.4 (7 per cent.)

85.2 threads (practically 85) of 3/30's cotton yarn will lie side by side in
one inch.

Avunoer. — Single 30's cotton=148 threads per inch.

2/30's " =104 " " "
24
3/30's " = 85 " " "
Table Showing the Number of Ends of Cotton Yarn from Single 5's to 2/160's that Will Lie
Side by Side in One Inch. 10.3
Diameter, Diameter,
Counts. 60 .3 Counts. 2/44 Yards per 10.7 126.4
Yards per or 6
Ends 5 9
Pound. Root. Per Cent. Pound. Root. Per II-5
Cent. or Ends
Single. Double
Square Single. Double. 135-9
131-9
6.46.7 per inch . Square
153 3
81.9 4.5 147-7 per137-4
inch.
5 18,480
6 - 2/10 2/14 64.8
70.9 22 21,840 168.9 12.5
9-9
7 89.4 26 2/64 20, 160 ^52.3
2/12 5,4,04200 0 5-4 2/48 158.7 9-5I
II.
8 5-7 2/52 141. 8
10 13 2/16 6,5,72880 0 100.3 8.3 28 2/56 183-3
14 104.4 163.8 14- 3 142.6
II 15 2/202/24 8,400 76.6 85.2 23,520 204.9
11.8 147.6
2/22 10 ,0 80 108.4 104.3
71.2 2/60 26,880
25,200 12.2 208.7
170.5
12 20 0 7-3 28,560 15- 7 161 .6
17 2/26 10 ,9 24
9, 60 II5-9 100.8 76 .2 2/68 225.4
11,7 91.6 7-9 5-0 93-3 2/72 224.4
194.4 12.8 I57-I
166.
19 2/28
2/34
2/30 12,600
112. 2
1 19.496.1 II4-3 34 2/76 30, 240 173-8 180.81
40 122.9 107.8
II7-5
16 2/32 13 ,4 8.1 III. I 178.6
126.3 45
60 2/90 31,920 242.4
14,280 8.6 2/80
18 2/36 20 8 . 8 13.6
2/38 15,1 60 7.0 97.1
15,9 129.6 120.6 2/100
2/140 18.1 190.6
20 2/40 i6,8 oo 7.6 2/120 42,000
80 33,600
50,400 17.0
37,800 259.2
2/160 67,200
58,800 241. 1
For Spun Silks use also above table, but only refer to single count column for reference for any number of ply
of spun silk. 3 0
32
3 6
Table Showing the Number of Ends of Woolen Yarn5X,''Run Basis," from i-run to lo-run,
that Will Lie 9.0 Side by Side in One 40 Inch. 143
6X0 38
6.4 Diameter, 5 Diameter,
6^Yards per 16 80
Run. Yards per 16 or Ends Run. Per 14.7
Cent. 82.5
.3
Pound. Per Cent. 8.4 Per Inch. 6U 70 Pound. Root. or Ends
89.4 Per Inch.
Square 15-3
4^ 16.3 873889
5 16 .9
1,600 sH 87.2
2 2. X 2,000 . 7 14.0 76.9
73-3
44 -7 8.0 4 1
2,400 49 -7
40 .0 8,000 103.9
2^ 2,800 66.3
56.5 37-5 8,400 17-5
60.0 II-5
11.9 62.9
44-4 6 100.0 I5-0
10 . 1 50.4 -6
47-5 7,600
8,800 109-5
3,200 52 -8 112.3
0.6 3 3 10,000 101.9 . 16.0
63.2 II.O 7.2 10,400 97.9 15-6 84.0
3,600 51%'a
hx 4,000 55-7
60.6 10,800
11,200 105 8 16.6 85.6
4,400 69.2
82.4 69-3
4,800 8 12,000 0 126.4
113.1 91 . 6
5,200 12.8 12,8009,20 18.
18.61 78.8
6,000 80.0
77-4 13-5 9.96.0 53-1 9,600 116.6 75-1
44X- 5,600
6,400 72.1 65.1
58.2 120.0 93-8 100.8
13-I 67.2 10 106.2
6,800 74-8 71-3 14,400
13,600
16,000 95-8 20.2
19.2
7,200

92.0

9.0 9985.-00
 23
61
24
Table Showing the Number of Ends of Woolen Yarn 2"5 Cut Basis," from 6-cut to 50-cut
that Will Lie Side by Side in One Inch.
Diameter, 27 29 Diameter,
Yards per . Yards per 16
^o-o
Cut. Pound. Root. Per 16Cent.
Square or Ends Cut. Pound. Root. Per Cent. Per or Ends
8.3 Per Inch. Inch.
- Square 13-5
88.3
6 6.8 22 81.2 6q.7
0Q 1,800 42.4 80 8^ 0 14.7
14.9 68.2
49-7 14.4
9 51-9 AT '7 26 6,600
10 2,700 84.8 13.0 71-386.9
II13 54-7 8.8 6j 900 86.6
3, 00 0 62.4 10.4 45-9
12 60.0
57-4 50.435-6 15-7
13-8
16.51 72.8 .
14 3.300 10.7
10. 0 28 100.9 14.
15 3, 60 0 52.4 43-6 8,100
11.4 7,200 103.4 17-5 78.3
900
3.20 64.8 61.7
56.348 .2 8,400 5000 109.5
1
167 4, 0 67.0 II. 0 54-4 8,7007,80
7, 82.2
4.500 69.2
71.4 12 .3 9 . 2 63-4
60.0 10, 200 16
15-2 I
1819 4,800 97-9
122.4
5,100 11.8 9.6
12.7 10,800 84.8
5,400 73-5 12.0 12,000
20 75-4 .2 34
45 90.0
5,700
6,000 58 116. 191.6 18.6
21 77-4 66.6
65.1 9,9,600000 102.8 7754-.62
6,300 79-3 13,500
15,000 77 -o
9 4
9 .3-82 19.6 97-5
24 79.6
Table Showing the Number of Ends of "Worsted Yarn," from Single 5's to 2/160 that
Will Lie Side by Side in One Inch.
30 12 5 Diameter,
104923.0
Counts. Diameter, Counts. 32
Yards per
Yards per 10 no. 9 10
Pound. Root. Per Cent.
Square 6.3 or Ends 2/44 6Pound. II5-9 Per Cent. or Ends
single. Double. Single. Double. 40 3 Root.
6.7 per Inch. 50 Square 134 108.5
112. 7
52.9 12,320 II. I per inch
11.6
5 2/10 2,800 5-3 12. 1
6 57-9 67-3 22 13.440 120.4
7 2/12
2/U 62.6 8 . 5 56.3 2/48
2/64 120.6
8 3,360 60 I 28 2/52 14,560 125.2
2/16 66.8
81.9 26
10 9200
3,48 7-5 2/56 16,800
15,680
137-9
129.6 15-9
16.7 116.6
II1 2/20 4, 52.147.6 18.3
3 2/22
2/24 5,60
6,160 0 85.3
88
78.4.5 8.2 5-8 82.4 2/60 13.0
121 6,720 17,920
19,040 167.3 124. 1
4 748 20, 160 133-8
183.3 127.6
15 2/26 73-7 34 2/72 21, 280 142.7
2/28 7,280 8.8 70.6 2/68
^/76 22,400 141.8 14.2
13-8
2/30 7,840 79-7 1458
1617 2/32 8,400 10.3 78 76.8 45 14.6
2/34 8,960 100.3 9-4 85 2 2/90 149.6
197.9 15-0
2/80 28, 000 131.
134.62 99.8
1819 10,080 91.6 lO.O
9-7 87 8
90.3 60 25, 200 158.6 165.0
2/36 10,640
9. 52 0 97-5 190.4
150.6
2/38 103.941.6 2/100 211. 6
20 2/40 11,200 105.8 10.6 80 2/140
2/120
9.2 21.2 1 78. 1
2/160 230 33. 600 19.8
92 8 3 39, 200
Table Showing the Number of Ends of Raw Silk Yarn, 36 from 443,80020 Drams to i Dram, that
^
will Lie Side by 95-2 Side in One3§ Inch.
40 Diameter,
Diameter, Yards per
Yards per 4 Dram. 5 0 II
Dram. Root.
Square or Ends Pound or Ends
Pound Root. Per Cent.
per Cent. per inch. 70
114.4 Square per217.2
inch.
20 113.1 108.6
121. 4 5 2^ 60,235 2454 10.4
12,800 4-56 . 4 269 4
221.8
18 126.4
119. 2 4X 2X
. 1614 14,222
16,000 56,889 226 2
238.5 229.0
6 .67.9 252-9
21 .3
18,28633 129.8 51,200
68,267 11.7
12 135.2 5-4 44/2 280.4
292 9
146.0
160.0 161
157.59 2/2 53,368 231.0 10.9 51
10 26 ,947
25,600 4 8 140.2 3^ 85.333 235 -6
9% 164. 1 6.6
5-0 1536 64,000 270.4
261.2 10.8 242.8
28,444 168.6 73,143
78,769 16.52
14-3
II.
9 173-5 3X 4%' ^ 250.8
184.7 166.6
171.7
^77-3 3 113,777 13-5 259 6
8 30,118 178.8 5-8 280.6
32,000 102,400 12.2
12.8
7/2 34,133 7-4
7
e/z 36,571 198.4 7-9 183.6 292.1 9.0 323-7
206.5
191 .2 198.3
190.5 2 128,000
6 39.385 215.7 93,091
42,667 8.2 I
5/2 46,545 8.6 7^1 207.1 170,666 305-1 485-7
20.2 -2
9343-4
307.2
7.6 256,600 505-9
357-7
320.0 9.8
413-1
337-2
396.6
 62
Table Showing the Number of Ends of Linen Yarns from lo's to loo's that Will 8Lie Side
by Side in One Inch. 4
65 Diameter,
104 4
101.9
Diameter,
Y arcls per Yards per 109.5
Counts. Pound. IVOOL. i cr 7v_ciiL or Ends
bcjuare Counts.
Pound.
■ocjuare
ivOOt. 7 or Ends
Per Inch.
Per Inch.
60.3
14 85 119 4
117.4
lO 64.4
50-9
68.4 105
12,000 112. 2
114.8 106 8
12 60.0
54.7 12,600 128.4
122 4
0 45 8.0 109.2
16 3, 00 8.2 III. 6
18 24 3,600 64.8 64 44 120.0 8.6
4,200 88.3
69.2 60 13,200
13,800 II3-85
139
20
22 4,800
6,000 73-5 5-9
5-4 789
14,400 144.9 II.5
5,400 81.2
77-4 56.0 55 16,500 134 I 134-9
124 8
6,600 5 7 .
43 0- 8 75-5 15,000 93 129 8
26 84.8 82.2 18,000 164.3
154.9 lO.O
28 0 6.1 .8
7, 20
8,400 100.9 4
6.6 51 72.0
85.2
88.2 21,000
19- 500 139 6 148.4
7,800 103.9 75 22,500
80 10 8
97.9 68 II. 2 76
34 10,200
9,000 106.7
91.6 0
424,000 150.0
10,800 93-9 100 1596
30 9,600
11,400 8 96.7 25,500 12. 1 144 1I
7.8 161.
94. 74 152 8
32 99-3 4627,000
42
91 . 1 173.2
3 6 4 8
50
TO FIND 38 THE DIAMETER OF7.0A THREAD BY MEANS 30,000 OF A GIVEN DIAMETER
72
OF ANOTHER COUNT OF YARN. 9.0
9.8
70 by side (i. e., its diameter) in one
If the- number of threads of a given count which will lie side
inch (without riding) are known, the required number of threads (which will also lie side by side)
for another count of the same system can be found by — 90
Rule. — The given counts of which we know the diameter are to the counts for which we have to
find the diameter in the same ratio as the given diameter squared is to the required diameter squared.

Example. — As shown in a previous example, 148 threads of single 30's cotton yarn will lie side by
side in one inch (or the diameter of a thread of 30's cotton yarn is the rh part of one inch) ; required
to find by rule given the number of threads that will lie side by side in one inch for 2/30's cotton yarn.
2/30's=singlel5's.
\\Given counts, )i : ]
( counts, of )) j( Diameter
the givensquared
Required counts. )\ \( Diameter squared
the required of ))
counts,
30 : 15 :: 148^ : x
1/15X148 X 148
30 Thus: 15X148X148=328,560^30=10,952, and i/10,952=104
Answer. — 104 threads of 2/30's, or 1/1 5's cotton yarn, will lie side by side in one inch.
Proo/.— 2/30 cotton yarn= 12,600 yards per lb.
Thus: i/T2;600=112.2 112.2
— 7.9 (7 per cent.)

104.3 (practically 104) being the same answer as previously received.

Example. — 85 threads of 2/32's worsted yarn will lie side by side in one inch, required to find
the number of threads which will lie side by side in one inch with 2/40's worsted yarn.
2/30's=l/16's 2/40's=l/20's.
16
16:20::85^x, or ^"20X85 X85 85X85X20=144,500^16=9,031 1/9^031^95

Answer, — 95 threads of 2/40's worsted yarn will lie side by side in one inch.
 63

Proo/.— 2/40's worsted=560X 20=1 1,200 yards per lb.

Thus: p/ll,200=105 105
— 10 (10 per cent.)

96, being the same answer as received by the previous process.

Example. — 84 threads of 6^-run woolen yarn lie side by side in one inch, required to find the
number of threads which will lie side by side in 4-run woolen yarn.

6i:4::84^ x or ^l><|i^ and 84x84=7,056 X4=:28,224-f-6i=4,515 and VI^=%1.2

Answer. — 67 threads (actually 67.2) of 4-run woolen yarn will lie side by side in one inch.
Proo/.— 4-run =4 X 1,600=6,400 yards per lb.
—12.8
Thus: 1/6,400=80.0 80.0

67.2, being the same answer as previously received.

Example. — threads per inch is the average number of threads which will lie side by side for
22-cut woolen yarn, required to find the number of-threads
^-22^ for 30-cut woolen yarn.
•
22:30:: 68i': X or 68iX68iX30

68.25X68.25X30=139,741.875^22=6,351. VQ^=1^
Answer. — 79 threads of 30-cut woolen yarn will lie side by side in one inch.
Proof. — 30-cut woolen yarn=9,000 yards per lb.
Thus: v/ 9,000=94 94
— 15 (16 per cent.)

79, being the same answer as received by previously given process.

TO FIND THE COUNTS OF YARN REQUIRED FOR A GIVEN WARP

TEXTURE BY MEANS OF A KNOWN WARP TEXTURE WITH THE
RESPECTIVE COUNTS OF THE YARN GIVEN.

A. Dealing with One Material.

If we know the number of ends of a given count of yarn that will lie side by side in one inch
(technically their diameter), and we want to ascertain the counts of yarn required for a certain number
of threads to lie side by side (diameter), we must use —

Rule. — As the given diameter squared is to the required diameter squared, so is the given count
to the required count.

Example. — 85 threads of 2/32's worsted lie side by side in one inch, required to find the counts of
yarn for 95 threads per inch.
85' : 95* :: 16: x
(85X85):(95X95):: 16: x
7,225 : 9,025 ::16: x
9,025 X 16=144,400^7,225=20

Answer. — 1/20's or 2/40's worsted yarn is the number of yarn wanted.

 64
Proof. — 2/40's or 1/20's worsted yarn =11, 200 yards per lb.
Thus: ya 1,200=105 105
— 10 (10 per cent.)

95 threads of 1/20's worsted will lie side by side; being

the same answer as texture given in example.

Example. — 84 threads of 6^-run woolen yarn, lie side by side in one inch, required to find the
counts of yarn for 68 threads per inch.
84' : 68' ::6i :x
(84x84):(68X68)::6i :x
7,056 : 4,624 ::6.25:x
4,624 X 6.25=28,900-f- 7,056=4.09
Answer. — 4-run (actual counts 4.1 -run)
—13 yarn must be used.
Proof. — 4.1-ran=6,560 yards per lb.
Thus: 1/6,560=81 81

68 threads of 4-run (4.1) woolen yarn will lie side by side in

one inch, being the same number as given in example.

B. Dealing with Two or More Materials.

Frequently it happens that we have to reproduce a cloth from a given sample or texture, etc., in
another material. For example, a worsted cloth may be required to be duplicated in woolen yarn. If
such is the case, transfer counts of yarn given, or as ascertained from- sample given, into its equivalent
counts of the required grading, and take care of the difference of 6 per cent, between the diameters of
threads that will lie side by side in one inch of a woolen yarn compared to worsted yarn. In a similar
manner proceed if dealing with other yarns.
P. S. — The allowance for worsted yarn in all the samples given is based (as also previously men-
tioned) on 10 per cent.; for cotton yarn and spun silk on 7 per cent.; for raw silk on 4 per cent, and
for woolen yarn on 16 per cent. These allowances refer to a perfect and smooth yarn ; but if such
should not be the case, we are required to make, according to the yarn, a proportional allowance of one,
two, or three per cent. more.

INFLUENCE OF THE (AMOUNT AND DIRECTION) TWIST OF YARNS UPON

THE TEXTURE OF A CLOTH.

The influence of the twist of a yarn upon the number of warp threads to use per inch depends
upon the amount of the twist, as well as the direction of the latter. It will easily be understood by
the student that the more twist we put in a yarn the less space the same will occupy ; i. e., the smaller
its diameter, and the less chances for a chafing; hence, we can use a "heavier" texture (more ends
per inch) with a hard-twisted yarn compared to a soft-twisted yarn. But it must be remembered that
the amount of twist to use is again regulated by the character of the fabric the yarn is used for, since
the yarn will lose on softness the harder we twist it, and that a hard-twisted yarn will reduce the fulling
properties of the cloth during the process of finishing. Again, hard-twisted yarn will not bend as easily
around the filling during weaving as a soft yarn, which no doubt might injure the general appearance of-
the face of the cloth. This will also illustrate another point; i. e., the width of the cloth to use in loom.
As previously mentioned, the harder we twist a yarn the less chances there are for fulling ; hence,
fabrics made with hard-twisted yarn must be set narrower in loom than fabrics made with a softer
twisted yarn. Thus we will set a fancy worsted suiting (in an average) only from 60 to 62
 66

inches wide in loom, and a fancy cassimere or fancy woolen suiting (in an average) from 70 to 72
inches wide, and yet the finished width for both will be 64 inches.
To explain the influence of the direction of the twist of the yarn upon the texture of a cloth.
Figs. 6 and 7 are given. Fig. 6 illustrates the interlacing with yarns spun with its twist in the same
direction ; i. e., from left to right (technically known as right hand twist.) Fig. 7 illustrates the inter-
lacing ofa similar cloth with right hand twist yarn for the warp, but left hand twist yarn (the direc-
tion of the twist being from the right to the left) for the filling. It will readily be seen by the student
that if, using in both examples the same counts of yarn for warp and filling, the combination, as
shown in Fig. 7, will allow a readier compressing of the filling for forming the cloth, compared to the

Fig. 6 Fig 7

using of warp and filling, as illustrated in diagram. Fig. 6 ; i. e., if using the same direction of twist
for warp and filling yarn, larger perforations will appear in the cloth than if using opposite twist for
both systems, since in the first instance, the twist of both yarns will cross each other, thus resisting
compression ; whereas, if using opposite twist in the spinning of the two systems of yarns, the twist of
both yarns will be in the same direction when interlacing, and thus a falling of the twist in each other
be produced.
Rule. — We may use a heavier texture for warp and filling, if using opposite twist in the spinning
of the yarns, than if using the same direction of twist for both systems.
The finer in quality and the longer in its staple the material is, as used in the manufacture of a
yarn, the less twist is necessary to impart to the thread for giving it the requisite strength ; whereas, the
shorter and coarser the material the more twist we must use. The actual amount of twist to use
depends entirely upon the material and counts of yarn, as well as weave and process of finishing
required. For a fabric requiring a smooth, clear face, we must use more twist in the yarn than for
such as used in the manufacture of cloth requiring a nap ; i. e., much giging, or " velvet finish."

TO FIND THE AMOUNT OF TWIST REQUIRED FOR A YARN, IF THE

COUNTS AND TWIST OF A YARN OF THE SAME SYSTEM, (AND
FOR THE SAME KIND OF FABRIC) BUT OF DIFFERENT
COUNTS ARE KNOWN.

The points as to amount of twist to use for the different counts of yarn manufactured are based
between each other upon the fact that the diameters of threads vary in the same ratio as the square
roots of their counts.

Example. — Find twist required for a 40's yarn, if a 32's yarn of the same material requires 17
turns per inch (twist wanted in proportion the same).
'32
32:40:: 17': x, ^40X17X17, y^6i:2~5=19.
Answer. — 19 turns per inch are required.
or, i/32 : i/40 :: 17: x l/32 =5.65 l/40=6.32.
Hence: 5.65:6.32:: 17: x 6.32X17=107.44^5.65=19.

Answer, — 19 turns per inch are required (being the same answer as previously received.
 66

INFLUENCE OF THE WEAVE UPON THE TEXTURE OF A FABRIC.

In the previous chapter we have given a clear understanding as to the number of threads of any
counts of yarn, and of any kind of material, that will properly lie side by side in one inch. We now
take this same item into consideration, but in addition, with reference to the different weaves as used in
the manufacture of textile fabrics ; i. e., give rules for constructing with a given weave and given count
of yarn, a cloth which has a proper texture.
Rule. — The less floats of warp and filling (i. e., the greater the number of interlacings between
both systems) in a given number of threads of each system, the lower the texture of the cloth (the less
number ends and picks per inch) must be ; and consequently the less interlacings of warp and filling
in a given number of threads of each system, the higher a texture in the cloth we can use. For example,
examining the 8-harness twill shown in Fig. 8, we find each thread to interlace twice in one repeat of
the weave, thus actually 8 + 2—10 threads will lie side by side for each repeat (since by means of the
interlacing of the filling with the warp the former takes, at the places of interlacing, the place, with
regard to its diameter, of one thread of the latter system). Suppose we used 64 warp threads to one
inch, we find the threads that will lie side by side in one inch as follows :

■■DDDO
mcaaar ■{f Warp threads ofin |
one repeat >- : ^f threads
Warp and filling
m one re- |
^ :: J< ^ r^S:„r.u
^^^^^^^ ^
r ■ •<i side
inreads lying
by side in
□□nr!□■■■■ [ the weave. j (. peat of the weave. J [ per men. j ^ one inch.
□DMBiSa
□□□□r- 8 : 10 :: 64 : x

W. 8. 1^8 = 80

Answer. — 8-harness - — ? twill, 64 warp threads per inch, equals 80 diameters of threads per inch.
Sample. — Find the number of diameter of threads per inch, using the same number of warp
threads as before (64) per inch, and for weave the plain weave shown in Fig. 9.
The repeat of the latter weave is 2 threads, = 2 interlacings in repeat ; thus, with reference to the
64 warp threads per inch used, we find 64 interlacings of the filling.
fgg Hence: 2:4::64:x and 4X64
1^ — - — . = 128
Fig. 9. 2

Answer. — Plain weave, 64 warp threads per inch, equals 128 diameters of threads per inch.
No doubt these two examples will readily demonstrate to the designer the value of examining the
number of interlacings of any new weave. If, in given examples, the first mentioned " make up" - — ?
8-harness twill, 64 warp threads per inch, using the required material and counts of yarn is producing
a perfect fabric, and we want to change to plain weaving, using the same yarn, we must deduct I of
the number of warp threads (and correspondingly also of the filling) to produce the same number of
diameters of threads side by side as in previously given example ; i. e., we must only use 40 warp
threads per inch, since those 40 diameters of the warp yarn, plus 40 diameters of the filling, by means
of the principle of the interlacing of the plain weave, produce the (equal number as before) 80 diameters
of threads side by side in one inch. Hence we may put down for —
Rule. — The weave of a cloth has an equal influence on the number of ends per inch to use
as the counts of the yarn we are using. We mentioned previously that by the diameters of
threads per one inch we mean the number of ends that could lie side by side per inch, providing
there were no interlacings of both systems of threads ; but since such interlacing or intertwining
of the warp and filling must take place in order to produce cloth, we must deduct the number,
or average number, of interlacings per inch from the originally obtained diameters of threads that will lie
side by side per inch, to obtain the correct number of warp ends and picks we can use per inch. Thus
far given explanations will readily assist the student to ascertain the number of threads of any material
that will lie side by side (without riding) in one inch of the fabric (single cloth). Hence »
 67

TO FIND THE TEXTURE OF A CLOTH USE—

We.— Multiply the number of threads of a given count of yarn that will lie side by side in one
inch by the threads in one repeat of the pattern, and divide the product by the number of threads in
repeat, plus the corresponding number of interlacings of both systems of threads found in one repeat of
the weave.

By the number of interlacings of a weave we understand the number of changes from riser to
sinkers, and vice versa, for each individual thread in each system.

Examples.— Fig. 10 represents one pick of the common twill known as ^ i ' i ' ^ and shown
imd^i^S&^dq" oiie full repeat in Fig. 11. Diagram Fig. 12 illustrates
the correspondmg section to pick 1 shown in Fig. 10. BaggSgBaS?
The full black spots represent one repeat, whereas the "agSaSgsS
commencement of the second repeat is shown in dotted 'aKBag'gg
lines. A careful examination of both diagrams. Figs. 10
and 12, will readily illustrate to the student the number of
interlacings in one repeat (6), as indicated by corresponding numbers below diagram Fig. 12. Thus,
in order to find the number of warp threads of a given count per inch for a cloth made with this
weave, we must multiply the number of diameters of threads that will lie side by side with 10 (being one
complete repeat of the weave) and divide the product thus derived by 16 (10 plus 6, or repeat plus
number of interlacings). The result will be the required number of warp threads per inch. If given
iM5in«nBnn illustrations would refer to a 32-cut woolen yarn, we
Fig. 13 fin^ answer as follows : agagagBBM
32-cut yarn =9,600 yards per lb. gSSSgaga
32-cut yarn=82.2 threads A\^ill He side by side. 'aSgSgBgag

V. Thus: 82.2Xl0-822-f-16=51i or '''rT'""

t^l warp threads per inch (or actually 51| per inch, or ^ • •
103 threads for every two inches; of 32-cut woolen yarn will be the proper number to use. In
diagram Fig. 13 we illustrate a pick of another 10- harness twill weave. Fig. 14 represents the corre-
sponding section, and Fig. 15 one complete repeat of the weave.
All three diagrams show 8 points of interlacings for each thread in one repeat; hence, if applying
counts of yarn from previously given example for this case we find :
32-cut yarn=82.2 threads will lie side by side. Thus: 82.2x 10=822^18=45|, or 46 warp
threads per inch (actually 45f) of 32-cut woolen yarn are the proper number of threads if using the
2-^1 — ^ -J O-harness twill.
Answers. — For both given examples are as follows :
Warp yarn used 32-cut woolen yarn.
-2 10-harness twill=6 interla(;ings=5U warp threads per inch.
^T-^-^i-^ 10- " =8 " =451 " " "
A careful examination and recalculation of these two examples will readily illustrate to any
student the entire modus operandi.

Example.— Find number of threads for warp for a fancy worsted suiting, to be interlaced
with the 6-harness ^ — t twill (see Fig. 16) and made of 2/32's worsted yarn. (Fig. 17 illustrates
number 1 pick separated and Fig. 18 its corresponding section.)

ggi: 2/32=1/16=16x560=8,960 yards per lb.

a3:Sg'§ 1^8,960 less 10 per cent.=85 threads of 2/32's worsted yarn will lie
Fig. 16 side by side in one inch. And
1 2 3 4 5 6 \ Diameters ) ^ j Repeat of ) j E<.epeat of ) , j Interlacings )
iBBB^QD ] per inch, f ^ ] weave, f ] weave. [ + j in repeat. \
Fig. 17. 85 X 6 =510^8 (6 -f 2) =64.
 68
Answer. — 64 ends per inch is the proper warp texture for fabric given in example.

Example.— Find proper number of threads to use for a woolen dress good, to be interlaced with the
9-harness -^-r~^-"-^^ twill (see Fig. 19), and for which we
have to use 6J-run woolen yarn.
gSsSSSSB section.)
□■■nanaai. (Fiff. 20 represents pick 1 separated, and Fig. 21 its corresponding

Fig. 19. 6-run=10,000 yards per lb.

'■■i¥pA¥p8 t/10,000, less 16 per cent. =84 threads of G^-run woolen yarn,
will lie side by side in one inch.

84X9=756^17(9+8)=44A
1. 2. 3. H. I k. ri.
mS^mfiUfi^gfS^I^^ Answer.— U threads per inch (actually 44iV) is the proper warp
texture for cloth given in example.

^a-amp^e.=Find the proper number of warp threads to use for a cotton dress good, using the plain
weave (see Fig. 22), with single 40's cotton yarn for warp.
'T9 40's cotton=40 X 840=33,600 yards per lb.

in one inch. i/33;60()=183— 13 (7 per cent.)=170 threads of 40's cotton yarn will lie side by side

^|2^=170-2=85
Answer.—Sb threads of 40's cotton yarn, and interlaced with the plain, will produce a perfect texture.

It will be proper to mention here another point which must also be more or less taken into con-
sideration. During the process of weaving both systems of threads press more or less against each
other, thus each thread is pushed to a certain degree out of position, consequently we may add to each
system a slight advance, according to counts, texture and quality of material in question, without
influencing the process of weaving or the handling of the fabric; but in all cases such an advance in
threads (and picks) will be very small and is readily ascertained after finding, by rules given, number
of ends and picks per inch, that could be used if no pressure from one system upon the other was exercised.
If using a soft-twisted yarn for filling, the latter will have less influence for pressing the warp
reduce
threads (harder-twisted yarn) out of position ; i. e., the filling will stretch and thus in proportion
the counts of the yarn, consequently a higher texture for such filling may be used. We may thus also
mention this fact in the shape of a —

Eule.— The softer the filling yarn is twisted, the more readily the same will interweave and the
the filling
higher a warp texture we can use. Warp yarns are in most all cases harder twisted than
are subject to more strain
yarn as used in the same fabric, for the simple reason that the warp threads
The softer a yarn is twisted, the
and wear during the process of weaving compared to the filling.
softer the finished cloth will handle; and, if we refer, regarding this soft twist specially to the filling, the
easier the same can be introduced in the warp during the process of weaving. This will explain
per inch
the general method of using a few more picks per inch compared to the warp threads as used
a limit we also must be careful not to use too many of these additional
in reed. But as everything has
result
picks, for if " piling-in " even a soft filling too hard in a cloth during weaving, it will ultimately
produce fabrics which require too
in an imperfect fabric when finished. Frequently we would thus
to its required finished width.
much fulling, or which with all the fulling possible, could not be brought
The same trouble will also refer to the setting of a fabric too wide in reed, for the sake of producing
or both
heavier weight of cloth. Again, if setting a cloth too loose, either in warp or filling,
care must
systems, it will produce a finished fabric handling too soft, flimsy or spongy ; consequently great
cloth " in order to produce good results, and rules given for foundation
be exercised in the " setting of
what might
weaves (with reference to an average fair and most often used counts of yarn, producing
 69

be termed staple textures and correspondingly staple fabrics) will form a solid basis to build upon for
other fabrics as may be required to be made. Special fabrics, such as Union Cassimeres, Chinchillas,
Whitneys, Montagnacs and other pile fabrics, are left out of question.

Example. — Fancy Cassimere: Weave - — ^ twill (see Fig. 23). Yarn to use, 22-cut.
□■■n Question. — Find the proper number of threads for one inch to use.
FiG. 23. 22-cut=22 X 300=6,600 yards per lb. And
l/ 6,600, less 16 per ceut.=68^ threads of 22-cut woolen yarn will lie side by side in one inch.
68iX4
-^-^=68iX4=273^6=45i
Answer. — 45 threads per inch (actually 91 threads for two inches) are the proper number of
threads to use for the cloth given in example. In this weave (? ^ twill) warp and filling interlace
after every two threads. In previously given example (the plain weave) warp and filling interlaced
alternately; hence, if comparing the plain weave and the 4-harness even-sided twill we find:
Plain weave=4 points of interlacings in 4 threads.
2 twill=2 points of interlacings in 4 threads.
Previously we also mentioned that the space between the warp threads where the intersection takes
place must be (or must be nearly as large) equal to the diameter of the filling yarn (also vice versa) ;
thus, if comparing both weaves, using the sanle yarn for warp and filling in each example, we find in
the plain weave : '
4 points of interlacings of the filling in
4 warp threads, giving us

8 diameters of threads in four threads, or two repeats of the plain weave, and in the 4-harness
even-sided twill we only find :
2 points of interlacings of the filling in
. 4 warp threads, giving us
twill weave.
6 diameters of threads in four threads, or one repeat of the —
Again in the plain weave we find :
4 intersections of each warp thread in
4 picks, giving

8 diameters of threads in four threads, or two repeats of the plain weave, and in the 4-harness
even-sided twill we find :
2 intersections of each warp thread in
4 picks, giving

6 diameters of threads in four threads, or one repeat of the ? ^ twill weave.

Hence, the proportion of the texture between a cloth woven with the plain weave and the 4-har-
ness twill will be as 6:8 or 3:4.
Consequently if 60 ends per inch (in each system), woven with the plain weave, produce a well-
balanced cloth, and we want to use the same yarn for producing a similar perfect cloth, woven with the
? - twill, we find the number of threads required readily by the following proportion :
\ Ratio of the plain weave com- \ . . j Texture used with the plain )
weave. . \ Texture 4-harness
to be used
twill.with the
( pared
pared to
to the
the 4-harness
4-harness twill.
twill. J ' " \
3 : 4 60 X
4X60
=4X20=80 threads must be used in proportion with the 4-harness even-sided twill to
produce a well-balanced cloth structure.
 70

This example will also explain that the less points of intersecticms we find in a given number of
threads interlaced with one weave, compared to the same number of threads interlaced with another
weave, the higher a texture we must employ, producing at the same time a proportional heavier cloth.

TO CHANGE THE TEXTURE FOR GIVEN COUNTS OF YARN FROM ONE

WEAVE TO ANOTHER.

Jlule^ — The repeat of the given weave multiplied by repeat plus points of intersections of the
required weave is to repeat of the required weave, multiplied by the repeat, plus points of intersections
of the given weave, the same as the ends per inch of the given cloth are to the ends per inch for the
required cloth. Thus we will find answer to previously given example by this rule, as follows •
(2X(4+2)
(4X(2 + 2)) :: 60: x and
(2X12) 60: xx ;and
12 (4X4)
16 :::: 60: hence.

— 11^=16X5=80
2 threads must be used, being the same answer as previously received.
Example. — Fancy Worsted Suiting. Weave ^ 6-harness twill (see Fig. 24). Warp and .filling
*S5anS! 2/32's worsted. Texture, 64X64. Question : Find texture required for producing a well
jcSKm balanced cloth using the same counts of yarn with the — 3 9-harness twill (see ± ig. 25)
Fig. 24. ^eave. (6X(9+4)) (9X(6+2)) 64: X
64: X
(9X8)
64: X
■□S-BH 72X64 _ 12x64 72
i2x64=.768-^13==59xV
Fig. 25. 78 13

Answer.— The number of ends to be used with 2/32's worsted, and the ^ ^ ^ ^ twill are 59 ends
per inch.
TO CHANGE THE WEIGHT OF A FABRIC WITHOUT INFLUENCING ITS
GENERAL APPEARANCE;.

Previously we mentioned "the less points of interlaoings we find in a given number of threads
the higher a texture (more threads per inch) we can use in the construction of a cloth." This will
also apply to the use of a heavier count of yarn, or both items (higher texture and heavier yarn) at
the same time. In the construction of a new fabric we are frequently required to produce a fabric of a
given weight per yard ; hence, after we find by rules given that the yarn we intend to use will, with its
corresponding texture and weave, produce a cloth either too heavy or too light, we must carefully con-
sider how to remedy this. In some instances the diiference could be balanced by either laying the
cloth wider or narrower in the reed, or shorter or longer at the dressing, and regulate the weight during
the finishing process ; i. e., full the flannel to the required weight. By some fabrics (of an inferior
grade) we might also regulate the weight to some extent during the fulling process (by adding more or
less flocks, the latter of which will felt during the fulling to the back, and partly between both sys-
tems of threads the fabric is composed of But in most fabrics a too heavy or too little fulling or addi-
tional flocking (according to the class of cloth) would reduce or destroy the beauty of its face, and
thus decrease its value ; hence we must regulate texture, weave, and counts of yarn to be used, to a cer-
tain extent, to suit the weight per yard of the finished fabric required. Most always the heavier
a weight is M^anted, the heavier a yarn we must use, and in turn suit texture to the latter. Again, the
lighter in weight a cloth is required, the finer counts of yarn we must use, also with a proportional
regulation of the texture. If the weight per yard in a given fabric is required to be changed (either
 71

increased or reduced) without altering the weave, or the width in reed, or length dressed {i. e., want
the new cloth to be fulled about the same amount as the given), we must alter the counts of the yarn in
the process of spinning, producing a heavier yarn if a heavier cloth is wanted, and a lighter yarn if a
lighter cloth is wanted.
Rule. — The ratio between the required weight per yard squared and the given weight per yard
squared, is in the same ratio as the counts of yarn in the given cloth are to the counts of yarn required
for use in the new cloth.

Example. — Suppose we are making the following cloth :

'ggjg Fancy Cassiraere : 3,240 ends in warp. 10 per cent, take-up during weaving. Weave
1 * given in Fig. 26. 72 inches width in loom. Warp and filling, 22-cut woolen yarn.
wea!!l^ twill. Weight of flannel from loom, 17.2 oz.
Question. — Find the proper counts of yarn to use if given weight, 17.2 oz., is to be changed to
19.1 oz.; i. e., a flannel of 19.1 oz. is required (from loom).
Memo. — 111 this, as well as the following example, no reference to any selvage is taken.
5 Required weight ) / Given weight ) j Counts of yarn in |
( squared. \ \ \J Required
the new counts for )\
cloth.
squared. \ ( given cloth. \
19.r 22 X
(19.1X19.1) (17.2X17.2) X
364.81 295.84 22 X
17.2^ 22
295.84x22 = 17.9
364.81
Atrnjoer. — 18-cut yarn is required.
Example. — Prove previously given example for each texture ; a, as to weiglit, and 6, as to the
proper construction according to rules given.
I. Given Cloth.

a. Ascertain given weight (17.2 oz.).

Fancy Cassimere : 3,240 ends in warp. 10 per cent, take-up during weaving. Weave, ^— 4-har-
ness twill. 72 inches width in loom. 48 picks per inch. Warp and filling, 22-cut woolen yarn. 3,240
ends in warp. 10 per cent, take-up. How many yards dressed ?
100: 90=x : 3,240 and 324,000-^90=3,600 yards of warp required dressed per yard of cloth woven.
22-cut=300X 22=6,600 yards per lb. -^16 =4121 yards per oz.; hence—
3,600--412."5=8.8 oz. weight of warp.
72X48=3,456 yards of filling required per yard.
3,456^-412.5=8.4 oz., weight of filling.
Warp, 8.8 oz.
Filling, 8.4 oz.

Answer. — 17.2 oz., total weight per yard from loom.

b. Proof of Proper Structure of Given Cloth.

22-cut =6,600 yards per lb. and less 16 per cent. =68^ threads of 22-cut yarn will lie
side by side in one inch.
5 twill =2 points of interlacings in one repeat of the weave.

Thus: ^i^=68iX 4=273^6=451, or practically—

Answer. — 45 warp threads per inch should be used, and this is the number of ends used, since.—
 n

(Threads in full warp.) ~- (Width of cloth.) = (Ends per inch.)

3,240 72 45

2. Required Cloth.
h. Find Proper Texture for Warp.

18-ciit woolen yarn to be used =18X300=5,400 yards per lb., / 5,400=73.49, less 16 percent.
(11.74)=61f threads of 18-cut woolen yarn will lie side by side in one inch.
4-harness twill contains 2 points of intersections in one repeat.

?li^=247^6=41i, or practically—
Ansioer. — 41 threads per inch must be used.
a. Ascertain Weight for Required Cloth.

Using the same width in reed as in the given cloth (72 inches).
41 X 72=2,952 ends must be used (10 per cent, take-up).
100:90 :: x: 2,952 and 295,200^90=3,280 yards warp required for one yard cloth from loom.
18-cut yarn =5,400 yards per lb. ^16=337| yards, per oz.
3,280-^337.5=9.7 oz. warp yarn required.
44X72=3,168 yards filling required, and 3,168-^337.5=9.4 oz., filling required.
Warp, 9.7 oz.
Filling, 9.4 oz.

Anmer. 19.1 oz., total weight per yard from loom, being exactly the weight wanted.
Memo.— In calculating weight for both fabrics we used three additional picks compared to the warp
threads, which is done to illustrate practically the softer twist of the filling compared to the warp yarn
(and which item has already previously been referred to). In the calculations we only used approxi-
mately the decimal fraction of tenth, since example refers only to illustrate the procedure. In examples
we exclude any reference to selvage.
Example.— The following cloth we are making : Worsted Suiting. 3,840 ends in warp, 8 per cent.
6 take-up, 60 inches width in loom, warp and filling 2/32's worsted, weight of flannel from
I'SSK loom, 14.6 oz. For weave, see Fig. 27. (No reference taken of selvage.)
iSSSsS Question.— Find the proper yarn to use if given weight, 14.6 oz., must be changed to
Fig. 27. |g 3 (from loom); e., a flannel of 16.3 oz. is wanted (exclusive of selvage).
Weaye
6 -harness 3
twill. __ 16.3^ 16: X
16: X
(16.3X16.3):(14.6X14.6) 16: X
265.69 : 213.16
213.16 X 16=3,410.56-^-265.69=12.9
14.6^
An^er. — 1/1 3's or 2/26's worsted yarn is required.
Example.— Frowe previously given example for each structure; a, as to weight; b, as to the
proper construction according to rules given.
I, Given Cloth.

a. Ascertain Given Weight (14.6 oz.).

ends, 2/32's worsted, 8 per cent, take-up, weave ^ 6-harness twill. 60 inches
of cloth3,840
widthWarp.— on reed.

Filling. — 66 picks per inch, 2/32's worsted.

3,840 ends in warp, 8 per cent, take-up, how many yards dressed ?
 73

100: 92 :: x : 3,840 384,000--92=4,173ll yards (practically 4,174) of warp required dressed

per yard of cloth woven.
2/32's worsted=-16X 560=8,960 yards per lb.-f-16=560 yards per oz.
Hence: 4,174-^-560=7.5 oz., weight of warp.
66 X 60=3,960 yards of filling required per yard. 3,960-4-560=7.1 oz., weight of filling.
Warp, 7.5 oz.
Filling, 7.1 "
Answer. — 14.6 oz., total weight per yard from loom.

b. Proof for Proper Structure of Given Cloth.

2/32's worsted =8,960 yards per lb., and l/8,960— 10 per cent. =85 threads of 2/32's worsted
will lie side by side in one inch.

3twill=2 points of interlacings in one repeat of the weave. Thus : -^^32^=510-7-8=64.

Answer. — 64 threads per inch must be used, and since 3,840^60=64, this is the number of ends
used per inch in given cloth, the structure of the given cloth is perfectly balanced.

2. Required Cloth.
b. Find the Proper Texture for Warp.

2/26's worsted =13X560=7,280 yards per lb. '

l/7,280=85.3 less 10 per cent. (8.5)=76.8 diameters of threads of 2/26's worsted will lie side by
side in one inch.
76.8 X 6
3 twill=2 points of interlacings in one repeat. Thus: —g;j;2^ =460.8-^-8=57.6, or
practically —
Answer. — 58 threads per inch must be used.
a. Ascertain Weight for Required Cloth.
Using the same width in reed as in the given cloth (60 inches).
58X60=3,480 ends must be used (8 per cent, take-up).
100 : 92 : : X : 3,480. 348,000 --92=3,782 yards required for one yard cloth from loom.
2/26's worsted=7,280 yardsperlb. -^-16=455 yards per oz.; thus : 3,782-=-455=8.3oz. warp yarn required.
Using 61 picks we find —
61 X 60=3,660 yards filling (2/32'8 worsted) wanted. 3,660^455=8 oz., weight of filling yarn wanted.
Warp, 8.3 oz.
Filling, 8.0 oz.

Answer. — 16.3 oz., total weight of cloth (exclusive of selvage) from loom, being exactly the
weight wanted.
To Find the Number of Ends per Inch in the Required Cloth.

The two examples previously given will also assist us to illustrate the next rule ; i. e., " Finding
number of ends per inch in the required cloth."
Rule. — The weight per yard of the required cloth is to the weight per yard of the given cloth in
the corresponding ratio of the warp ends per inch in the given cloth to the warp ends per inch in the
required cloth.
Example. — Prove rule by previously given example of a fancy cassimere.
Given Cloth. — Weight per yard=17.2 oz. Ends per inch=45J (for 45).
 74

Required Cloth. — Weight wanted, 19.1 oz. Find ends per inch required, or x.
17.2X45.5
19.1:17.2 :: 4o.5:x. ^ =17.2X45.5=782. 60-^-19.1=40^1, or practically-.
Answer. — 41 warp threads must be used, and this is exactly the answer previously derived in the
same example (see page 72).
Example. — Prove rule by previously given example of a worsted suiting.
Given structure. — Weight per yard, 14.6 oz. Ends per inch, 64.
Required structure. — Weight wanted, 16.3 oz. Find ends per inch required, or x.
14.6X64
16.3:14.6 :: 64:x 16.3 :14.6 X 64=9,344--16.3=57i¥3 (See answer on page 73, being 57.6.)
Answer. — 58 warp threads (practically) per inch must be used ; this being the same number as
derived previously in the same example. (See page 73.)

WEAVES WHICH WILL WORK WITH THE SAME TEXTURE AS THE

? ^ 4-HARNESS TWILL.
The following few weaves (given for examples) have the same number of interlacings as the
4-harness even-sided twill :
1
1 1 ^ Memo. — Weaves indicated by u. are uneven-sided twills. Weaves indicated
6 1 by e. are even-sided twills.
1 2
5 1 4-harness twills.
1 3 Proceeding in this manner, the student can
4 1 1 1 readily find the different (common) twills which
4
4 1 will work on the same basis of texture as the 4-har-
6 2 1 2
1 ness even-sided twill.
3 1 8 -harness
5 3 1 3 Amongst "derivative weaves," working on the
1 ^ twills.
4 2 same basis of texture as the ^ twill, we find —
4 4 1 1
1 J4-harness broken twill and the following
5 2 3 1
2 2 weaves given in my " Technology of Teu tile Design"
2 1 Figs. 398, 409, 411, 412, 416, 417, 420, 421, 445,
4 2 3 2
2 2 2 1 448,449, 470 (476 q==d), 479, 482, 492, 497, 499,
4 etc., etc.
3
2 1
3 3 ^ 12-harness twills.
3 1
4 2
3 1
3 2 WEAVES WHICH WILL WORK WITH
TWILL,THE
2 2
SAME TEXTURE AS THE ^
3 3 2
1 2 TWILL, Etc.
2 2 5
1 1 In the same manner as we previously found some of the
2 2 4
1 2 different weaves to work on an equal basis with the ^
2 2 3 twill, it will be advisable for the student to use different other
1 3 " standard foundation weaves " on the same basis. For exam-
2 2 3
2 2 1 ple :the -g twill, the ^ . twill, etc.
2 2 1
3 3 1
2 2 1
 75

SELECTION OF THE PROPER TEXTURE FOR FABRICS INTERLACED WITH

SATIN WEAVES.

As mentioned in my " Technology of Textile Design" fabrics made with satin weaves or ''Satins"
are characterized by a smooth face. The principles for the construction of satins are to arrange as much
as possible distributed stitching, for the more scattered we arrange the interlacing of warp and filling the
less these points of intersection will be visible in the fabric. Thus, the method of construction of this
third class of foundation weaves is quite different from the other two classes (the plain and twill weaves) ;
hence, the setting of the warp for fabrics interlaced with satins requires a careful studying and possibly
a slight modification towards one, two, or three threads more per inch ; but such an increase is regulated
by the material. If we have an extra good and very smooth yarn we may do this, but if dealing with
a rough or poorly carded yarn we must use ends per inch as found by rule.
As previously mentioned, in cloth interlaced with satin weaves we want a smooth face ; hence, the
warp yarn must cover the filling. Thus, as always one or the other of the threads in the repeat of the
weave is withdrawn on every pick the remaining warp threads must cover this spot where the one warp
thread works on the back of the cloth and the filling tries to take its place on its face ; and, as according
to rules given, the interlacing of the filling is dealt with similar to warp threads, the remaining warp
threads in this instance would have to be spread so as to cover the filling, which, no doubt, is more readily
accomplished by using a heavier texture of the warp ; i. e., putting two or three more threads per inch
than actually will lie properly side by side, less the customary deduction on account of the nap of the
yarn. If we resort to this plan, it will be readily understood by the student that this will produce a
closer working of the threads than they properly should ; hence, chafing or riding of threads (to a slight
extent) will be the result. If, as previously mentioned, we are dealing with an extra good and smooth
yarn and the warp yarn is properly sized and dressed, we may make use of those few ends, but otherwise
in most every common fabric, threads as found by rule to lie side by side in one iueh will do, since
the nature of the weave (hence, cloth with it produced) will by itself hide the filling to a great extent by
means of the warp being nearly ail on the face, the filling forming the back and the one end warp r.s
coming in the lower shed, having little power to pull the filling up, which for the main part forms the
back of the structure.
Example. — Find threads of warp to use for weaving a " Kersey," with the 7-leaf satin (see Fig.
28), using 6-run woolen yarn. Width of cloth in reed (setting) to be 84 inches (exclusive rmHoa
selvage). 6-run woolen yarn =84 ends per inch, side by side. 84x7=588-^9=65^, or sSsSsS
say 66 threads per inch. 66X84=5,544. , iSSbSsS
1 7
Anmer. — 5,544 threads texture for. warp to use, but which may be increased to 5,700 Fig. 28.
ends if dealing with a good smooth yarn. 5,700 ends in warp equals nearly 68 threads per inch.
(68X84=5,712) which is about 2 threads per inch in excess of proper number ascertained by the reg-
ular procedure.

SELECTION OF THE PROPER TEXTURE FOR FABRICS INTERLACED

WITH RIB WEAVES.

As mentioned in my " Technology of Textile Design" fabrics interlaced with rib weaves require,
for either one system of threads (warp or filling), a high texture.
Rib weaves classified as " warp effects," must have a high texture for warp, and
Rib weaves classified as " filling effects," must have a high texture for filling.
Warp Effects.

In the manufacture of fabrics interlaced with warp effect rib weaves, the warp forms the face
and back of the fabric, whereas the filling rests imbedded, not visible on either side. This being the
case there is no necessity for calculating (in the setting of the warp) for a space for the filling to inter-
lace; thus, the texture is ascertained by the number of threads that will lie side by side per inch.
 76

Example. — Find the warp texture for a fabric interlaced with the rib weave (warp effect) as shown
in Fig, 29, using for warp 6-run woolen yarn. *BSBS
6-run=9,600 yards per lb., and i/^9,600, less 16 per cent.=82.3.
Answer. — 82 warp threads per inch must be used. Fig. 39.

Example. — Find texture for a fabric interlaced with the rib weave, shown in Fig. 30, u.sing for
warp 2/40's worsted yarn. egjoj
2/40's worsted=l 1,200 yards per lb., and 1^11,200, less 10 per cent.=95. ■§■□
12
Answer. — 95 warp threads per inch must be used. Fig. 30.

Filling Effects.

As previously mentioned, for filling effects we require a high number of picks, since the latter
system has to form face and back of the cloth, and the warp the interior. In most instances the filling
yarn as used for these fabrics is softer spun than the warp, for allowing a freer introducing of the
former ; thus, we may use even a few more picks per inch compared to the texture previously found fi)r
rib weaves warp effects.
□■□■□■□■■■■□□□■■■□□□□■□a Fierured Rib ^A/^eaves.
■'"^■□■■■■■□□•■■□□□gBBbBSB
■□■□■□□□■■■□ □I „If dealmg" with..figured rib weaves, their texture for warp and hlluig is
. , r^ i 1 MI T
□■■■■□□■■■■■□■□■□■□■□SB!
□■□□□■■■□□□■■■□■□■□■□■□B found
. , , by. ., ascertaining
. . I the number oi threads lor both systems that will lie
■■□□□■■■□□□□■□■□■□■□■DM »i<^i<^ uj
□□■■■□□□■■■□■□■□■□■□■□■□ 1" <^'"'= liK^n.
■■□□□■■■□■□■□■□■□■□■^□□g
□□■■■□ShSSSgySSnSnRSSSS"
■■□□□□■□■□■□■□■□■■■■□□□■ ., Example.1— Find • texturern for• a cloth to be interlaced
1 with thei. figured
o;o/^j j
□□□■□■□■□■□■□■■■■□□□■
■■■■■■□■■■■■■■□□■■■■□ □□■■■aweave,. shown m Fig., / and ,filling 2/36's worsted yarn,
31, using for, w^arp
1 r3gggSSS5ggBrggSS5g5SSS5
■□■□■!□■□■□■■■■□,'}□■■2/36's=10,080
■□■□■□■□■□■□□□■■■□□□■■■□ ■□□□□ 7 yards ./ per A lb.,/ i cent.=90.
and l/l0,080, less 10 per

Fig. 31. ' Answer. — 90 warp threads and 90 picks per inch must be used.

SELECTION OF THE PROPER TEXTURE FOR FABRICS INTERLACED

WITH CORKSCREW-WEAVES.

On page 68 of my " Technology of Textile Design" I mentioned, amongst other points, referring
to the method of construction of corkscrew weaves, "this sub-division of the regular 45° twills is
derived from the latter weaves by means of double draws, which will reduce the texture of the warp
for the face in the fabric ; hence, a greater number of those threads per inch (compared to fabrics inter-
laced with the foundation weaves) are required."
A careful examination of the different corkscrew weaves (see Figs. 345 to 383 in " Teehnology
of Textile Design,") with regard to their setting in loom, will readily illustrate their near relation to
the warp effect rib weaves as explained in the previous chapter. In both systems of weaves (speaking
in a general way) the warp forms the face and back of the cloth and the filling rests imbedded between
the former; the only difference between both being that the break-line, as formed by the exchanging of
the warp threads from face to back, is in the rib-cloth in a horizontal direction compared to the running
of the warp threads, whereas in the corkscrews this break-line is produced in a oblique direction. But
as this is of no consequence regarding structure (in fact only in preference of the forming of a t»ettcr
shed with the corkscrew weave, since not all the threads break — exchange positions — at the same time)
we may readily use the setting of the number of warp threads per inch in corkscrews the same as done
in rib weaves warp effects ; i. e., use the number of warp threads that will lie side by side in one inch for
the texture of warp and again increase this texture one, two, three, or four ends, if dealing with an
extra good yarn.
 77

^□■□■□■■□■□■□■□■■□5 Example. — Find warp texture required for a fabric made with weave Fig. 32,
■□■□■□■■□■□■□■□■■a
SfSS:Bi§S35:"s§SR: Yam to be . used is 2/40's wors-ted. 2/40's worsted =11,200 yards per lb.,
:B5SaSSS8:Sg:§SS:B
□■□■□■□■■□■□■□■□■a ^^^^ 1/11,200, less 10 per cent. =95.

^"■BSBSsSSSySSHSSS Answer. — 95 warp threads per inch must be used, and in case of extra good
■□■□■□■■□■□■°!BS£P yarn we may increase this warp texture to 98 ends per inch.

' Fig 3.'^^ Example.

example — Find
is made number
61 inches wide ofin threads
loom. in warp if fabric in previously given
95x61=5,795.
Answer. — 5,800 threads in warp must be used to produce a perfect cloth ; i. e., perfect fabric, and
5,950 to 5,980 ends can be used with an extra good yarn (9;iX 61 =5,978).

Example. — Find a, texture of warp per inch ; b, threads in warp to use if 61 inches wide in loom,
for fabric interlaced with fancy corkscrew weave Fie;. 33, using 2/60's worsted
/• „ warp.
tor „,„^.^ dBBDBaBnBaBnBBnBLiBDBDB
□BnBBQBnBDBaBiI'BBnBDBDB
^ □BaBaBBaBDBaBQBPBBDBQB
'worsted=16,800
2/60's J J yards I
per lb.,' ' '
and l/l 6,800, less 10 i
per cent.=117. BDBDBDBaBBOBaBnBaBGBBD
SsSsSSaSSSPSSSSSSgg:
■nBGJDBBDBnBOBDBaBBPBD
Answer.— a, 117 warp threads per inch must be used; and 117x61 iBBhnSS!§SBSSSSB!§SBS|
=7,137; thus b, 7,140 threads must be used in full warp. Fig 33
Memo. — In such fine yarn, and correspondingly high texture, it will be hardly necessary to use
those two to four additional threads as made use of if dealing with a lower count of yarn.

SELECTION OF THE PROPER TEXTURE FOR FABRICS BACKED WITH

FILLING; i. e., CONSTRUCTED WITH TWO SYSTEMS OF
FILLING AND ONE SYSTEM OF WARP.

A thorough explanation of the construction of weaves for these fabrics has been given in my
" Technology of Textile Design/' on pages 105, 106, 107 and 108. Thus, we will now consider these
isHHHHHHna points with reference to the setting of cloth in the loom, since, no doubt, the additional back
SBhSShhS filling will have more or less influence upon the setting of the face cloth. Weave Fig. 34
□|bdBbbB (corresponding to weave Fig. 558 and section Fig. 557 in Technology) illustrates the com-
gg§ggg§| mon 4-harness twill ^ for the face structure, backed with the 8-leaf satin.
□□■"□BBH
DBBDDBBD In•this weave,
i ias well ....
as any similar combinations, the texture. « of the face warp can
ibbBBbbBd remam nearly the same as if dealing with single cloth, a deduction of 5 per cent, from the
Fig. 34. number ends per inch found for the single cloth is all that is required to be deducted for the
same cloth made with a backing.
^ If we exchange the 8-leaf satin, as used for backing, with a twill, ~ j as shown in
Sngg weave Fig. 35, we must deduct 10 per cent, from the warp texture, as found for 'the face of
hSSd the cloth, to produce the proper chances for weaving. If we back the 4-harness ^ twill
Fig 35 ^^^^^^ arrangement of 2 picks face to alternate with 1 pick back, and use for the interlacing
of the latter filling (and warp) the ^ j 4-harness twill, (using every alternate warp thread
only for interlacing) see weave Fig. 36, no deduction of the warp texture compared to single cloth is
required ; or, in other words, if using a weave 2 picks face to alternate with 1 pick back, and zhhhhhhdh
in which the backing^ is floating^
from ■ Ito ~ 1r (or
^ a similar average),
° ^ no reference must DBBDOBBn
BaSSaHSS
be taken of the back filling in calculating the setting of the warp ; or, in other words, the HgagGSyg
fabric is simply to be treated as pure single cloth. The most frequently used proportions of gggg§gi§
backing to face are : 1 pick face to alternate with 1 pick back, and 2 picks face to alternate ^?"°°""°p
with 1 pick back. Seldom we find other arrangements, as 3 picks face to alternate with 1
pick back; or irregular combinations, as 2 picks face 1 pick back, 1 pick face 1 pick back,=5 picks
 78

in repeat, etc. If using the arrangement " 1 pick face to alternate with 1 pick back," be careful to use
a backing yarn not heavier in its counts than the face filling; fur a backing heavier in its counts than
the face filling will influence the closeness of the latter, and in turn produce an " open face " appear-
ance in the fabric.

■■□□□■■■□□□a Weave Fig. 37 shows the ? ^ 6-harness twill for the face structure, backed
■□□□■■■□□□■a
□□□□□□□□□□□□ with the 12-leaf satin. Arrangement: 1 pick face to alternate with 1 pick back.
OjaaaBDDGHa
□HEJHHHacaElGHC:
□□aaaanaaaaa It will readily be seen by the student that this combination of weaves (also any
aaaaaarjaKaaa similar ones) will be very easy on the warp threads; thus, the setting of the
aaanGaaaaDan
aajoaaaaaaQa latter per inch in the reed is (about) designated by the counts of yarn used
a□□GHHtaHHHQHH
□□aaaoDGaa with reference to the single cloth weave {- ^ twill), being the same as if dealing
□□□aaaoQGaaa
□□aacaaDHaQHEa with no backing, for the most allowance we would have to make for fabrics inter-
□□aaacDDGaaaa
BaaaHHBaHBaa
□aaaauuaaaDn
aaaaaaaaaaaa laced with this weave would be a deduction of 2 to 2| per cent, from the single cloth
laaaDQaaaaaDD 12 'saaanaaBHaBGH
Fig. 37. warp texture. aancoaaaanna
arjn'^'aaanDi'aB
BnBBBaBaBaBB
□nnaaaGDaaaa
□naaaoGDaaaa
BBBBBBBHBBBD
□aaaGGaaaana
Weave Fig. 38 shows the same face weave (^ ^ twill), arranged with 2 picks aaaaaaaaaaan
face to alternate with 1 pick back. There will be no difference experienced in the BBBBBaBBBGBB
aang-iaaacja IB
BGdGaBBaGGaa
number of threads (warp) to use per inch between this weave and the single face BaaaaaaDBBBB
t-ini '•aauDGBBB
nLlHBrjGDBHG
weave (i. e., the face weave if treated as single cloth) ; hence, the setting of the warp BBBBBaanaBBB
GBBBaGGBBBGO
IBBBGaDBBBGGG
for both will be the same. 12
Fig. 38.

^'aBBQBaaBBBGBaaBBaa Example. — Find the proper number of warp threads to use for a worsted
GGBBBGGBGGGBGGBBBD
BaaBBBBBaaBBBBBBBG suiting, to be interlaced with the granite weave shown in Fig. 39. For warp
BGGBBBGGGBBBaGBGGG
BBaBBaGaBBBBaBBBBB
BGI 3BGCJGBGGBBBGGUBB
HaaBBBBBBBBBBGBaHB yarn use 2/50's worsted.
BBGGGBaBGGBGGGBGGB
aaGBBBaBBBBBBBBBBB
GGGBGOBaBGGaaBBGGB
BBaBBBBBBGaaBBBBBB 2/50's worsted=l 4,000 yards per lb. and /i 4^000 less 10 per cent.=106.5
GBBBGGBGGGBGGBBBGG
aBBBaaaBBBBBBaaaGB Points of interlacing in face weave=8
GGBBBGGGBBBGGBGGGB
BBaaaGBaBBBBBBBBBB Warp threads in repeat of weave=18
GGBGGGBGGBBBGGGBBB
BBBBBBBBBaBBGaBBBB
BGaCIBBBGUBGQGBGGBB
aGBaaaaaaBaBBBaaaB 106.5X18=19,170^26 (8 + 18)=73.7
GGBGGBBBGL GBBBGGBG
BBaBBBBQGBBBBBGQBB — 3.7 (5 per cent.)
BBBGOBGCG BGGBBBQGG
□BBaBBBBBBBBaBBGBa
GBmaGGBBBCUBLlGGBG
BaaaGaaaHBaHBaBEBB 70.0
gbgggbggbbbggl:bbbg
aaBBBaBGBBaGBaaaGB
GGGBBBGGBGi iGBLJI.^BBB
aaaBBBaaBBBGaaaaBB
QBGOBBBGtJGBBB: ILJBGG
BaaaaBBaBBBBBaBaaa Answer. — 70 warp threads per inch of 2/50's worsted are required.
^BBaBaBBBBaBaBBLDaaB
BBGGBGGCBGaBBBuGCB
BBBGGGBBBGCBGIjCBGG
aBaGaBaaaaaBBBBaaa Example. — Ascertain for the previously given fabric the proper filling
JBGGGBGGBBBGGGBBBGG
T 18 texture, if using the same counts of yarn as used for warp, and find weight of
Fig. 39.
cloth per yard from loom (exclusive of selvage).

filling, 74
[I Backing,
Required picks per inch (2/50's worsted).
74 " " " (single 24's worsted).
Width in loom, 60 inches (exclusive of selvage). Tak*e-up of warp during weaving, 12 per cent.
70 X 60=4,200 warp threads in cloth. 100 : 88 : : x : 4,200.
4,200x100=420,000-^88=4,772 yards of warp are wanted dressed for 1 yard cloth from loom.
14,000 yards per lb, in 2/50's worsted=875 yards per oz.
4,772-=-875=5.45 oz., weight of warp, Warp, 5.45 oz.
74 X 60=4,440 yards face filling wanted,
Face filling, 5.07 "
4,440-^875=5.07 oz., face filling,
Backing, 6.28 "
24'sworsted=13,440 yards per lb.=840 yards per oz.
4,440-5-840=5.28 oz., weight of backing. 15.80 oz.

Answer. — Weight of cloth per yard from loom (exclusive of selvage) is 15,8 oz.
 79

Example. — Find the proper texture for warp and filling, and also ascertain the weight of flannel
KHHHHHHQH pcr jard from loom (exclusive of selvage). Cloaking : Warp 5-run, filling 5-run, backing
□□■■qhSS 24-run. Weave,
□■■□□■HQ TTT. 1see1 Fie;.1 401 (8
• warp1 threads
frr. • 1 and/ 121 picks in repeat). Take-up of warp,
• 1 \
"■□hhShh 10 per cent. Width or cloth in reed, 72 inches (exclusive oi selvage).
■□□■■□["•■
gggSBggg 5-run=8,000 yards per lb.
^^■□□■■uci 1/ 8,000, less 16 per cent.=75 ends of 5-run yarn will lie side by side in one inch.
Fig. 40. 300-^6=50 ends of warp must be used per inch, and
50X72=3,600 ends must be used in full warp.
100:90 ::x: 3,600
3,600X100=360,000-^-90=4,000 yards of warp yarn are required per yard cloth woven.
5-run yarn=500 yards per oz. 4,000-5-600=8 oz. of warp yarn are wanted.
52 picks (50-1-2 extra) of face filling, 1 , i . ,
/
. , (correspond T n '^ I n ^ r^ii- f wautcd pcr luch
26 picks mg to face picks) of back filling, J
52X72=3,744 yards of face filling are wanted.
3,744--500=7.5 oz., weight of face filling.
26X72=1,872 yards of backing are required.
l,872-f-250 (yards of 2J-run filling per oz.)=7.5 oz., weight of backing.
Warp, 8.00 oz.
Face filling, 7.50 "
Backing, 7.50 "
23.00 oz.

Ansioer. — Total weight of cloth per yard from loom (exclusive of selvage), 23 oz.
SELECTION OF THE PROPER TEXTURE FOR FABRICS BACKED WITH
WARP; i. e., CONSTRUCTED WITH TWO SYSTEMS OF
WARP AND ONE SYSTEM OF FILLING.

To ascertain the texture of the warp in these fabrics we must first consider the counts of the yarn
as used for the face structure, and secondly the weave.
After ascertaining this texture (for the single cloth) we must consider the weave for the back
warp ; i. e., the stitching of the same to the face cloth. If dealing with a weave of short repeat for
the back warp (for example a ^ ^ twill) we must allow a correspondingly heavy deduction from the
threads as ascertained for the face cloth (about 20 per cent, for the g twill) ; whereas, if dealing
with a far-floating weave for the back (for example the 8-leaf satin) we will have to deduct less (about
10 per cent, for the 8-leaf satin) from the previously ascertained texture of the face cloth. Since the
8-leaf satin is about the most far-floating weave, as used for the backing, thus, 10 per cent, will be
about the lowest deduction, and as the — — ^ twill is the most frequently interlacing weave, in use in
the manufacture of these fabrics, thus, 20 per cent, deduction from the respectively found texture of
the face cloth is the maximum deduction. To illustrate the subject more clearly to the student we will
give both weaves as previously referred to with a practical example.
Example. — Find warp texture for the following fabric : Fancy worsted trousering.
4anDnBE;«n Weave, see Fig. 41. Face warp, 2/36's worsted. Back warp, single 20's worsted.
i555SBBSy 2/36's worsted =90 threads (side by side per inch).
Fig. 41. Face weave ^ twill =4 threads in repeat and 2 points of interlacing.
90X4=360^6=60 threads, proper warp texture for the single structure.
60

— 12 (20 per cent, deduction caused by the back warp (^ ^) stitching in the face structure).
48
 80

Face warp per inch, 48 threads 2/36's worsted.

Back warp " 48 " single 20's worsted.
96
Answer. — 96 warp threads must be used per inch.
Picks per inch must be 52 (4 extra over the texture of the face warp). Use 2/36's filling and
find weight of cloth per yard from loom (exclusive of selvage), allowing 10 per cent, take-up for face
warp, and 12 per cent, for back warp, using 62 inches as the width of cloth in loom.
48X62=2,976 ends of face warp, and
2,976 " " back warp.
5,952, total number of ends in the entire warp.
100 : 90 : : X : 2,976 297,600-^-90=3,306f yards or face warp are wanted per yard of cloth woven.
2/36's worsteds 1 0,080 yards per lb. --16=630 yards per oz. 3,306. 66 630=5. 25 oz.,weight efface warp.
100 : 88 : : X : 2,976 297,600-^88=3,381 tt yards of back warp yarn are wanted per yard of cloth woven.
1/20's worsted=l 1,200 yards. 11,200 yards per lb. -=-16=700 yards per oz.
3,381.81^700=4.83 oz., weight of the back warp. ^' I Back, 4.83 "
52 picks per inch X 62=3,224 yards of filling wanted.
3,224-7-630=5.12 oz., weight of filling per yard of cloth woven. Filling, 5.12 «
^-25 oz.
Warp, I ^^^f' 15.20 oz.
Answer. — 15.2 oz. is the weight of the cloth per yard (from loom exclusive of selvage).
To illustrate the difference regarding the weave as selected for interlacing the back warp, we will
^□□□■□■□□□□□■□■a next calculate the previously given example with the same counts of yarn but with
aanoDmauaaanu
^□□□■□■□□□□□■3
-laaaaamamaaaaama
aaaumaucnaaamnua
az the weave as given m riff. 4^.
■E
.^-uj;5BnSSBSa5Dn3 This weave contains the same face weave {- ^ twill) as previously used, the
Fig 42 " difference being the interlacing of the back warp, for which we use the 8-leaf
satin in place of the ^~ ^ twill as used in the former example.
Face warp and filling, 2/36's worsted. Back warp, single 20's worsted.
2/36's worsted=90 threads will lie side by side per inch.
Face weave ^ g twill. 90X4=360-=-6=60 threads is the proper texture for face structure, and
60
— 6 (10 per cent, deduction by means of the back warp stitching with the 8-leaf satin in the face structure)-

54 Warp threads per inch 54 threads 2/36's worsted, for face.

54 " 1/20's « " back.
108 Thus : 108 warp threads per inch must be used.
Picks per inch, 58 (the same 4 extra pick as in previous given example).
Filling, 2/36's worsted. Take-up of face warp 10 per cent. Take-up of back warp 8 per cent.
62|^ inches for width of cloth in loom, since the 8-leaf satin will permit a readier milling (during
the process of scouring) than the ^— ^ twill.
Question :— Find weight of cloth per yard and compare it with previously given example.
54X62.5=3,375 threads each of face and back warp are wanted.
100:90 :: X : 3,375. 337,500-^90=3,750 yards of face warp are wanted per yard of cloth woven.
2/36's worsted=630 yards per oz. 3,750-^630=5.95 oz., weight of face warp.
100: 92 :: X : 3,375. 337,500-^-92=3,6681 yards of back warp are wanted per yard of cloth woven.
1/20's worsted=700 yards per oz.
3,668.5-^700=5.24 oz., weight of back warp per yard of cloth woven.
58 picks per inch X 62. 5 inches width of cloth in reed=3,625 yards of filling wanted, and
3,625-1-630=5.75 oz., weight of filling per yard of cloth woven.
 Face warp,81 5.95 oz.
Bac k g,
Fillin warp,

5.24 "
16.94 oz.
5.75 "
Thus : 16.94 oz. (or practically 17 oz.) is the weight of cloth per yard from loom.
A comparison between both cloths results as follows :
(Using weave Fig. 41.) (Using weave Fig. 42.) (Difference.)
Face warp, 5.25 oz. 5.95 oz. 0.70 oz.
Back warp, 4.83 " 5.24 "
Filling, 5.12 " 5.75 «
Weight per yard, 15.20 oz. 16.94 oz. 1.74 oz.
0.41 "
Or, the difference between using the 8-leaf satin or i- 3 twill for the weave for the back 0.63
warp " is 1 .74 oz.
Given two examples will readily illustrate to the student that he must select the weave for the
backing with the same care as the face weave, for, as shown in examples given, we produced a differ-
ence of If oz. simply by changing the weave for the back warp, using the same counts of yarn for
warp and filling, leaving the face weave undisturbed.
The most often used proportion of the arrangement between face and back warp is the one
previously explained ; *. e., 1 end face to alternate with 1 end back, but sometimes we also use —
2 ends face warp 1 end face warp.
1 end back warp or 1 end back warp.
— 2 ends face warp.
3 ends in repeat. 1 end back warp.

5 ends in repeat, or any similar arrangement.

If using the arrangement " 1 end face warp to alternate with 1 end back warp," never use a
heavier size of warp yarn for the back warp than for the face warp. (See previously given example
and you find face yarn2/36's worsted, (= single 18's) and for back warp, single 20's worsted yarn used.)
If using " 2 ends face warp to alternate with 1 end back warp " a proportional heavier yarn
can be used for the back warp. (See the previous example where 2 ends face warp, 2/36's worsted,
alternate with one end back warp, 3|-run woolen yarn).
Great care must be exercised in selecting the stock for the face warp and back warp for such fabrics
as require any fulling during the finishing process. The material in the back warp, which can be of
a cheaper grade, must have about, or as near as possible, the same tendency for fulling as the " stock "
which is used in the face warp. The student will also readily see that there will be a smaller deduction (after
finding the face texture) necessary if using the arrangement of 2 ends face to alternate with 1 end back than
if using the simple alternate exchanging of face and back warp explained at the beginning of the chapter.
For example, take weave Fig. 43, illustrating an 8-harness Granite weave, backed 2 ends face warp,
■□□□□□■□■□□■■□□□□□■□■anB 1 end back warp. The back warp interlaces 1 pick up and 7 picks down
□□■■□□■□■□□□□□■■□□■□■□ha
□□□■□■□□■■□□□□□■□■□□Saba
■□□■□■□□□□□■■□□■□■□□□□□B = 8 picks in the repeat. Examining rules as given for the arrangement 1
,■□■□□■■□□□□□■□■□□■■□mn^
■□■□□□□□■■□□■□■□□□□□!■□□ and 1, we find a call for a deduction for the face texture of 10 per cent, (see
Fig. 43. weave Fig. 42), but which, if using the present arrangement, must be reduced
to 5 per cent. ; tliis being one-half less reduction to make for 2 face 1 back
compared to 1 face 1 back
The
Weave Fig. 44 illustrates the - 2 twill, backed 2 ends face warp and 1 end back warp,
back warp interlaces 1 pick up, 3 picks down=4 picks in the repeat. Examining rules as ^□□□■■D
□■□■□□
given for the arrangement of 1 and 1, we find a call for a deduction from the face texture of !■□□□■□ ■■□□□□
1 6
20 per cent, (see weave Fig 41), but which, if using arrangement to suit weave Fig. 44, Fig. 44.
must be reduced one-half ; i. e., deduct only 10 per cent.
 82
Example. — Find warp threads per inch for the following cloth : Worsted suiting, Face warp,
2/36's worsted yarn. Back warp, 3|-run woolen yarn. Use a, weave shown in Fig. 43 ; b, weave
given in Fig. 44.
, . , , . 1 T , ry (8 threads in repeat,
2/36'8 worsted=^ inch diameter. Face weave, < ^ . • . i •
' (.4 points 01 interlacing.

— 603 (5 per cent.)

5^^=60 threads, proper warp texture for face.
57
Answer. — If using weave Fig. 43, use 57 warp threads per inch for face.
Thus : 58 ends 2/36's worsted for face, and
-|-29 *' 3|-run woolen yarn for back, giving us

87 ends of warp to be used per inch.

, . -, f 4 threads in repeat,
2/36's worsted inch diameter. ace weave, < ^ . ^ - • ^ •
' 12 points 01 interlacing.
60
90X4 , , , 4^ 4- — 6 (10 per cent.)
— g— =60 threads, proper warp texture tor lace.
54
Answer. — If using weave Fig. 44, use 54 warp threads per inch for face.
Thus : 54 ends 2/36's worsted for face,
+27 " 3|-run woolen yarn for back, gives us

81 ends of warp as total number of ends to be used per inch.

SELECTION OF PROPER TEXTURE FOR FABRICS CONSTRUCTED ON THE
DOUBLE CLOTH SYSTEMS; i.e., CONSTRUCTED WITH TWO SYSTEMS
OF WARP AND TWO SYSTEMS OF FILLING.

Under double cloth we comprehend the combining of two single cloths into one fabric. Each
one of these single cloths is constructed with its own system of warp and filling, while the combination
of both fabrics is effected by interlacing some of the warp threads of the one cloth at certain intervals
into the other cloth ; hence, in ascertaining the warp texture of these fabrics we have to deal with a
back warp and back filling, both exercising their influence upon the texture of the fabric at the same time.
As mentioned and explained in my " Technology of Textile Design," double cloth may be con -
structed with :
1 end face to alternate with 1 end back, in warp and filling.
2 ends face to alternate with 1 end back, in warp and filling.
2 ends face to alternate with 2 ends back, in warp and filling.
3 ends face to alternate with 1 end back, in warp and filling, etc.
The two first mentioned arrangements are those most oflen used ; hence, we will use the same for
illustrating the selection of the proper warp texture for the present system of fabrics.
I End Face to Alternate with i End Back in Warp and Filling.

For face warp use 4-run woolen yarn. For back warp use 4|^-run woolen yarn.
■□□□□□■fflBDannnBD
Question. — Find texture for warp yarn : a, if using weave Fig. BDHBHQElBQDHaEaDHB
□□□□■□■□□□□□■BBD
■□□□□□■ffl □■□nBBHOHBHaHBHD
□□■fflBDDDaQBDBOOa
□DDDBfflBn 45 ; 6, if using weave Fig. 46. □□CaBHDHBHDHBHDHB
■□■□□□□□■fflBoonna
First we have to ascertain the warp texture for the face cloth, □■□□□BQDHBHQHHHn
■□□□□□■□■□□□□□■ffl
□□annanBQDHBcaDHB
dealing with the same as with pure single cloth. □BQaEJBBDQBSaQBQa
Fig. 45.
Face weave for both weaves is the - — ^ 4-harness twill, and the Fig. 46.
yarn to use is 4-run woolen yarn.
 83

4-run=6,400 yards per lb.

1/6,400=80
—12.8 (16 per cent.)
jj If points
repeat of
of interlacing
weave, 4 threads,
in one repeat, 2.
67.2
67 2x4
- \ =268.8--6=44.8 threads (or practically 45) required to be used if dealing with a single cloth.
The next to be taken into consideration is the stitching of both cloths. In both weaves the back
warp interlaces into the face cloth. In weave Fig. 45, we find the I . twill used for
stitching, the
proper allowance for the same is a deduction of 24 per cent, from the face structure;
hence, in
example : 45 threads, proper warp texture for face cloth, treated as single cloth.
— 11 " (24 per cent, deducted for I stitching).
34 threads per inch must be used for each system if using weave given in Fig. 45.
In weave Fig. 46, we find the 8-leaf satin used for stitching the same face cloth as previousl
y
used, the proper allowance for the same is a deduction of 16 per cent, from the face structure;
In example given, we find —
45 threads, proper warp texture for face cloth, treated as single cloth.
— 7 threads (16 per cent, deducted for the I stitching).
38 warp threads per inch must be used for each system if using weave given in Fig. 46.
Answer.— Double cloth fabrics given in question require the following warp texture
:
a. If using weave Fig. 45, we must use— b. If using weave Fig. 46, we must use—
34 warp threads 4 -run woolen yarn for face, 38 warp threads 4 -run woolen yarn for face,
+34 warp threads 4i-run woolen yarn for back. f 38 warp threads 4i-run woolen yarn for back;
or 68 warp threads per inch. or 76 warp threads per inch.
2 Ends Face to Alternate with i End Back in Warp and Filling.
For face warp use 4-run woolen yarn (same counts as used in previously given example).
For back warp use 2|-run woolen yarn.

Question.— Find texture for warp yarn : a, if using weave Fig. 47 ; 6, if using weave
The face weave in both weaves is the same as given in previous weaves, Fig. 48.
Fiffs. 45 and
4b, or the . twill, the counts of yarn bemg also the same ; thus, we can use texture for SyBKS
face cloth required from previous example, being 45 threads per inch in loom. i^SaSBB
In weave Fig. 47, we used the plain weave for stitching, the proper allowance for the ^7.
same is a deduction of 8 per cent, from the face structure ; hence,
45 threads, proper warp texture for face cloth (single cloth),
— 3 " 8 per cent. (3.6 actual) deducted for the stitching I
42 threads per inch to be used for the face system if using weave given in Fig. 47.
In weave Fig. 48, we find the 8-leaf satin used for stitching the same face cloth as previously
used. The manner in which the stitching is done in this example will be of very little, if any,
conse-
quence tothe face cloth ; hence, the full number of ends (or as near as posible) as ascertained for the
face cloth, treated as if single cloth, must be used. In the present example this would be 44 or 45
threads per inch to be used for face system if using weave shown in Fig. 48.
Answer.— Bouhh cloth fabrics given in question require the following warp texture
: a. If using
weave Fig. 47, we must use— 42 warp threads 4-run woolen yarn for face.
+21 warp threads 2J-run woolen yarn for back; or

63 warp threads per inch.

 84
e>. it usinff weave r ig. lo, we mubi) u&e □□□■□■□□□■□■□□□■□■□□□■sb
44 warp threads 4-run woolen yarn for face. gBSBBBSBSgBSgiggaggBSSBB
4-22 warp threads 2i-run woolen yarn for back; or BBBglgBHBgBggBBgBgBBSgSg
Afi warr» fVlrpf^^^ ripr men must be useci. ■□□□□■■□□□□■■□□□□■■□□□;Jb
□□□■□■□□□■^■□□□■□■□□□■□B
i/mmpfo.— Ascertain texture of warp required for a worsted suiting, to g|gSB§g§gS§ggBgg§gBgg^
be made with 2/40's worsted for face warp, and 2/28's cotton for back warp. gB§§Sg§§SB|S8§|^^^^
Arrangement of warp and filling to be 2 ends face to alternate with 1 end |i|§§§BSg§§g|§^^^
back. Weave to be used, Fig. 48. Next, ascertain the proper counts of filling ^
and the number of picks per inch, take-up of warp, width of cloth in reed, and
ascertain total amount of each kind of material required per yard from loom (exclusive of selvage).
side by
2/40's worsted=ll,200 yards per lb. l/ll,200, less 10 per cent.=95 threads will lie
side in one inch.

Face weave (in Fig. 48) is the ^ ^ twill=4 threads in one repeat, with 2 points of interlacings ;
6
hence, ^^^^^380-f -6— 6-3£ warp texture to be used for the face cloth, the same being treated as if
single cloth. i - r, r i • '
In weave Fig. 48, the arrangement between face and back is 2 : 1 ; the weave used tor the back is the
for setting double cloth fabrics
8-leaf satin, and, as we mentioned when laying down rules and examples,
in the loom', that the ^ requires no deduction on account of the stitching of the back warp in the
example must be 64 face warp threads (2/40's worsted), and
face cloth, texture to use in this
4-32 back warp threads (2/28's cotton) ; hence,

96 warp threads per inch must be used.

back. The width of
Take-up of warp during weaving 12 per cent, for face and 10 per cent for
cloth to use in reed will be 62 inches.
woolen yarn.
For face filling use the same counts as for face warp, and for back filling use 3-run
Picks, 66 face.
4-33 back.

99, total picks to be used per inch.

64 X 62=3,968 threads in face warp— 12 per cent, take-up. Thus :
for 1 yard cloth woven
3,968X100=396,800^88=4,509 yards of face wlarp yarn are necessary
2/40's worsted=.l 1,200 yards per lb.^l6=700 yards per oz.
4,509-7-700=6.44 oz., weight of face warp.
32X62=1,984 threads in back warp— 10 per cent, take-up. Thu^ :
198,400-^-90=2,204 yards of back warp yarn necessary for 1 yard cloth woven.
2/28's cotton=ll,760 yards per lb.^l6=735 yards per oz.
2^204^-735=3 oz., weight of back warp.
66X62=4,092 yards of face filling are wanted.
are wanted.
4,092^700=5.85 oz., weight of face filling. 33X62=2,046 yards of back filling
3-run woolen yarn=30 0 yards per oz. 2,046^3 00=6.82 oz., weight of back filling.
Hence : 6.44 oz., weight of face warp (2/40'8 worsted).
3.00 " " " back " (2/28's cotton).
6.85 " " " face filling (2/40's worsted).
6.82 " " " back " (3-run wool).
22.11 oz.

-Answer.— Fabric given in example will weigh 22.11 oz. per yard from loom.
 ANALYSIS.

How to Ascertain the Raw Materials Used in the Construction

of Textile Fabrics.

In many instances an examination of the threads (liberated during picking-out) with the
naked eye, will be sufficient to distinguish the material used in the construction of the fabric,
yet sometimes it is found necessary to use either the microscope, or a chemical test for their
detection.
As a means for merely distinguishing between the fibres the simplest and most generally
applicable test is to make a microscopical examination of the fabric ; and for this reason it is
necessary for the analyst to be acquainted with the appearance of the individual fibres. By
means of the microscope the fibre used in the construction of a fabric is at once ascertained on
account of the different surface structures of the various fibres used in the manufacture of
textiles. This characteristic surface structure cannot be distinguished with the naked eye ; a
common magnifying glass will not do either, but an enlargement of about 200 times will in
most instances suffice. In order to prepare a fabric for examination with the microscope
liberate (pick out), the threads forming the fabric ; next untwist a few threads so as to liberate
the individual fibres composing the same. Place these fibres upon a slide of the microscope,
carefully wet them with a drop of distilled or rain water, and cover them with a cover glass ;
or smear the surface of a slide with glycerine or gum water, upon which the fibres, adhering
slightly, may readily be arranged for examination.

MICROSCOPICAL, APPEARANCE OF FIBRES.

Cotton.

Examining cotton fibres under the microscope shows them to be spirally twisted
bands, containing thickened borders and irregular markings on the surface. The fibre is as a
rule thicker at the edges than in the centre, and has, therefore, a grooved or channeled
appearance. The spiral character is much more highly developed in some varieties than in
others.
Care must be taken not to mistake wild silk for cotton, since wild silk frequently has a
similar spiral band like appearance. If any time in doubt remember
that these two kinds of fibres can readily be distinguished by other tests.
The accompanying illustration. Fig. 49, shows cotton fibres magni-
fied.
In fully ripe cotton the twisted form is regular and uniform, com-
pared to unripe, half ripe or structureless cotton, which are now and
then found amongst a lot of cotton,
yarns or fabrics.
For illustrating this subject the
accompanying illustration. Fig. 50,
is given. A represents an unripe
cotton fibre ; a half ripe fibre,
A. B. C.
having a thin cell wall ; and C rep-
Fig. 49. resents resents
the the ripe fibre having a full
full Fig. 50.
twist and a properly defined cell-wall. Fig. 51 shows a structureless fibre as found occa-
sionally. Half ripe, unripe, and structureless (85) fibres, if found in a lot of cotton, yarn, or
 86

fabric, will greatly depreciate its value on account of their poor dyeing and spinning qualities,
producing poor yarns and fabrics.
Silk.

In its natural state silk is a double fibre (see the accompanying illustration, Fig. 52)
being two threads which are glued together. In the preparatory process of scouring
or boiling off these two threads are separated and when examined by the microscope
appear as structureless, transparent, cylindrical little glass rods, without whatever

Fig. 52.
Fig. 51.

a spiral character, some rather straight and of uniform thickness whereas others are slightly
bent and irregular as to their diameter. Specimens of silk fibres as appearing under the
microscope are given in the accompanying
illustration. Fig. 53.

Wild Silk. — The most important of these

is Tussah. Its natural color is a silver drab,
which requires bleaching of the fibres for
bright colors. The accompanying illustration,
Fig, 54, shows its microscopic appearance.

Fig. 54.
Weighted Silk is readily distinguished by
means of the microscope, the accompanying
illustration, Fig. weighted silk waste as
55, representing
appearing when viewed with the
microscope.

Wool

is readily distinguished from other

fibres by means of the micro-
scope, being built up of an im-
mense number of epithelial cells,
scales or serrations as shown
in the accompanying illustration
Fig. 56, representing a typical
Fig. 55. wool fibre viewed under the mi- Fig. 56.
croscope. The amount of scales
found per square inch varies with reference to quality— the finer grades having more,
and the coarser less. If these scales can not be readily seen treat the fibres in question
with ammoniac copper^ and the scales will become distinctly visible to the eye during
the swelling up of the fibres. Another prominent feature characteristic to wool is its
wave of the crimp ' V-/ ^ ^ v-^ v which again varies with reference
to the diflferent grades of wool found in the market. The more scales per
inch, and the more wavy in construction the fibre, the more its felting
capacity. '
Untrue Fibres (caused either by neglected or sick sheep,) now and then
found in wool are readily ascertained by means of the microscope as seen by
the accompanying illustration. Fig. 57, representing two such fibres as termed
untrue, and which readily show that where these abnormal forms occur,
there are changes in the form and size of the epithelial scales of the outer
layer as well as in the diameter of the fibre, consequently the internal
structure of the fibre must be equally aflfected, thus reducing the strength and
elasticity of such fibres, and consequently decreasing the value and strength
of such lots of wool, as well as fabrics, in which these fibres are more or less
frequently found.

Kemp or Kempy Wool Fibres are another kind of imperfect fibres found
in wool. Kemp fibre is a hair of dead silvery white, thicker and shorter than
the regular wool. They do not seem to differ in their chemical composition
from the good or true wool fibres, but they present such different mechanical
arrangement, and possess no absorbent power, thus resisting either entirely
or partly, the entrance of dye-stuffs, and in the latter case even producing a
different shade from the good fibres of the same lot, hence they will be
readily detected in lots of wool, yarns, or fabrics. The accompanying Figs.
58 and 59, are given to illustrate the various degrees of these kempy fibres.
Fig. 58, A, is a fibre where the kempy structure continues throughout the
entire fibre which looks like a glass rod, yet has short and faint transverse lines Fig.
which indicate the margins of the scales. When the change is a complete
one, even the application of caustic alkali fails to bring out the lamination of the scales with
any degree of distinctness and they seem to be
completely attached to the body of the fibre up J|? j, rf
to the top of the scale. In some instances even
the margins of the scales are quite obliterated,
and the entire surface of the fibre has a silvery
appearance resembling frosted silver. In Fig. /.^^ 57-
58, B, a fibre is shown where the change from
true wool to kemp is only partial. The lower
part of the illustration shows wool structure
(the scales being distinctly visible,) whereas the
upper portion of the fibre shows the kemp struct-
ure (having the scales closely attached to the
surface, giving the fibre the usual ivory-like
appearance). Both illustrations. Figs. 58, A, and
B, are representations of fibres seen by reflected
light. In Figs. 59, A, and B, illustrations
are given of kemps seen by transmitted light.
In Fig. 59, A, a kempy fibre is seen with
transmitted light and where we see a gradual FiG. 59.
passage of the kemp into wool. In this case
 88

with transmitted light the kempy part retains almost the same transparency as the wool, but
exhibits none of the interior arrangement of cells. Frequently fibres are noticed which have
a tendency to kemp and which possess an unusual distinctness in medullary cells. Indeed, it
frequently happens that the kempy structure tails oflf in the same fibre, not so much as we
should have supposed so much on the outer surface, but down the interior of the fibre, as
though the change commenced in the central cells and was gradually extended to the outer
surface as the fibre grew. At the extremity, where the kempy structure first appears, the
central cells are often not contiguous, as though the change commenced in a few cells first
and then became more numerous both in the longitudinal as well as a diametrical direction.
These kempy fibres often have a considerable degree of transparency when viewed with
transmitted light, and in this respect they vary very much, but they are very seldom as
transparent as the adjacent wool fibres.
Sometimes, however, they are very opaque, as will be seen in the fibre shown in Fig. 59, B,
where the light seems hardly to penetrate the centre of the fibre although it is refracted at
the thinner edges, while the true wool, both above and below, is quite transparent to the
same light. In this case, the same fibre, when viewed with reflected instead of transmitted
light, exhibited no more signs of a dark color in the kempy than the true wool part, so that
the want of transparency was not due to coloring matter.
Kempy fibres are not always white, they are frequently found in coarse, dark colored,
foreign wools, and even in colored fibres of more cultivated sheep.

Shoddy are wool fibres re-manufactured out of soft woolen rags which have yet felting
properties. Shoddy consists of long fibres of various diameter ; fibres are now and then found
spoiled by scales being gone or the ends broken. If examining the shoddy- wool more closely
its color will betray the inferior article compared to wool. The rags had previously to the
redyeing. difierent colors and which will influence the second color accordingly. Of the

Fig. 60. Fig. 61. Fig. 62.

accompanying illustrations Fig. 60, shows Cheviot shoddy. Fig. 61, Thibet shoddy as visible
under the microscope when magnified.

Mungo is the name for wool fibres re-manufacture 01 t of hard woolen rags, i. e. a cheaper
grade of shoddy, made out of rags from fulled cloth. During the process of re-manufacturing
said rags into wool by means of picking, carding or garnetting a great many fibres get hurt,
broken. Besides, on account of the rags coming from fulled cloth, this mungo wool has no
more fulling properties left. The point regarding color previously mentioned at shoddy wool
will also distinguish mungo wool from wool. Frequently cotton fibres will be found amongst
said Mungo, in some cases also silk fibres. Fig. 62, gives us a typical illustration of Mungo
when seen under the microscope.

Wool Extract also called Extract is such artificial wool produced from mixed rags from
which the vegetable fibres were extracted by means of carbonizing. An examination of a
sample of extract by means of the microscope will show traces of the process of carbonizing,
by means of the carbonized vegetable refuse found.
All three divisions of artificial wool are by some manufacturers simply collectively graded
as shoddy, and in this manner will mostly be taken into consideration when dissecting woven
or knitted fabrics with reference to materials used in their construction.

Foreign Wools.

Amongst these we find Mohair, Cashmere, Alpaca, Vicugna and Llama wool.

Mohair is obtained from the Angora goat. The epidermal scales are extremely delicate
and can only be
noticed by giving
the greatest of care
to the experiment.
The fibre gets
smaller in diameter
towards the top end,
although not form-
ing a point, and is
of bright metallic
Fig. 63. lustre. Character- Fig. 64.
istic to it are the
fine spots found all over the surface as shown in the accompanying specimen. Fig. 63.

Cashmere is the product of the Cashmere goat. The fur of this animal is of two sorts,
\)iz. , a soft wooley under coat of grayish hair, and a covering of long silken hair, that seems to
defend the interior coat
from the effects of winter.
The under coat, i. <?. ,
the fine fibres, are read-
ily distinguished by
means of the structure
of their epidermal scales,
besides there is no cen-
tral or medullary portion
found. Fig. 64, gives us
a specimen of these fibres.
They are used only in the
manufacture of the finest
textiles on account of their Fig. 66.
high value.
The outer coat, which is of a coarser nature, is used in the manufacture of cheaper yarns,
and shows under the microscope fibres containing the central or medullary portion as seen
by the accompanying illustration Fig. 65.
 Alpaca Wool possesses less lustre than Mohair and only shows its fine scales by strong
magnifying. In white fibres, grayish colored medullary cells are seen. Fig. 66, gives us a
specimen of this fibre.

Vicugna Wool looks at a first glance like alpaca wool ; it is a delicate soft structure.
The scales are fine, closely resembling those of wool.
The medullary cells are visible. Fig. 67 is a specimen
of this fibre.
90
Llama Wool is
coarser in structure
compared to vicugna
wool and of less value,
being only used in the
' manufacture of cheap

Fig. 67.
yarns.
Camel's Hair is fre- Fig. 68.
quently used in the manufacture of lower grades of yarns
for backing purposes. The accompanying illustration, Fig. 68, shows camel's hair fibres
magnified. ,
Sometimes we find what
is claimed to be finer grades
of Camel's hair in the mar-
ket ;this material, how-
ever, refers to fibres of the
outer cover of the Angora,
the fur of the vicugna
and alpaca; whereas the
fur of the llama joins more
toward the camel's hair.
Now and then the case may
come up where, in low back-
ing yarns, Fig. 70.

Cow's Hair is used. For this purpose we give in the accompanying illustration. Fig. 69,
specimens of this fibre, which in their natural state are of a white, red or black color, and
possess slight lustres. They clearly show their central or medullary portion. P, indicates the
point of a hair.
The fibres mentioned thus far will cover all materials a manufacturer will come in dis-
pute with. However, in order to make this paper as complete as possible, we thus reproduce
microscopical views of

Flax Fibre, in Fig. 70, of

Hemp Fibre, in Fig. 71, of

Jute Fibre, in Fig. 72, of

China Grass, in Fig. 73 ; besides a representation of these fibres we also show their sections.
 The microscopical examination of fibres, yarns and fabrics is in the absence of experience,
sometimes misleading, hence it is well in all doubtful cases to apply some corroborative test

91

Fig. 71. Fig. 72. Fig. 73.

of a more definite character. They are supplied by making" use of certain chemical reactions
of the fibres.
In chemical constitution, cotton is the simplest, and wool the most complex of the textile
fibres.

Cotton consists of but three elements, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, in the proportion
represented by the formula CgHioOs. In the

Silk substance another element, nitrogen, is present, and the molecule is at the same
time much more complex, as is shown by the formula for fibroin, C15H23N5O6.

Wool contains still another constituent, sulphur, and the simplest formula which will
conform to the percentage composition contains 39 atoms of carbon.

TESTS FOR ASCERTAINING THE RAW MATERIALS USED IN THE CON-

STRUCTION OF YARNS OR FABRICS.

Cotton, Linen, Jute, China Grass, Silk and Wool.

1. By burning the threads, given for testing, in a flame the cotton (or any vegetable)
fibre will change in carbonic acid and water, and this without smell, while those of animal
origin (wool and silk) change in combinations containing nitrogen, which element readily
makes itself known by its disagreeable odor, similar to burnt feathers.
2. Another point which it is well to note, is the rapidity (flash like) with which cotton
yarn burns compared to the poor burning of a thread having animal substances for its basis.
Such a thread will shrivel up, forming a bead of porous carbon at the end submitted to the
flame.
In some instances a more exact analysis may be required ; if so proceed after one or the
other of the following formulas :
3. Boil the sample to be tested in a concentrated solution of caustic soda or potash, and
the wool or silk fibre will rapidly dissolve, producing a soapy liquid. The cotton or other
vegetable fibre therein will remain undisturbed, even though boiling in weak caustic alkalies
for several hours, care being taken to keep the samples below the surface of the solution
during the operation, since if exposed to the air, the cotton fibre becomes rotten, especially
when the exposed portions are at the same time also brought under the influence of steam.
(Any cotton fibres remaining from testing, if colored, may be bleached in chlorine water, and
afterwards dissolved with cupro-ammonia. )
4. To determine whether woolen cloth contains flax or cotton, immerse the sample in a
bath containing a solution of concentrated sulphide of sodium. This has the effect of dis-
solving the wool, and the sample can then be entirely freed from it by merely washing in hot
water ; the residuum will be cotton or linen fibre. 92
5. To determine whether a woolen or a linen fabric contains cotton, place the
sample of the fabric to be tested into a mixture of two parts sulphuric acid, and one part salt-
peter for eight or ten minutes. After removing it, wash thoroughly and dry, then immerse it
in a bath of ether containing alcohol, which has the effect of dissolving the cotton (if there is
any present), while the woolen or linen fibres remain uninjured.
6. Schweitzer's reagent (ammoniacal solution of oxide of copper) dissolves cotton and
silk but not wool. Cellulose is reprecipitated by gum, sugar or acids, but the silk substances
by acids alone.
7. Concentrated zinc chloride, 138° Tw. (Sp. Gr. 1.69) made neutral or basic by boiling
with excess of zinc oxide, dissolves silk slowly if cold, but very rapidly if heated, to a thick,
gummy liquid. This reagent may serve to separate or distinguish silk from wool and cotton,
since these latter fibres are not affected by it. If water be added to the zinc chloride solution
of silk, the latter is thrown down as a floccu-precipitate. Dried at 230° to 235° F., the pre-
cipitate acquires a vitreous aspect, and is no longer soluble in ammonia.
8. A solution of cotton in concentrated sulphuric acid gives a purple coloration with an
alcoholic solution of alpha naphthol. This reaction really indicates the presence of sugar,
and is therefore not given by silk or wool.
9. Millon's reagent (mercurous-mercuric nitrate) gives a red color with silk or wool but
not with cotton.
10. Wool (also hair and fur) is blackened by heating with a dilute solution of plumbite
of soda, which is prepared by dissolving litharge in caustic soda. Silk and cotton, not con-
taining sulphur, are unaffected in color.
11. To distinguish wool and silk fibres from cotton and flax, treat a sample of the material
with picric acid, which will have the effect of dyeing the former almost a fast yellow, while
the latter will remain unaltered in color.
12. An acid solution of indigo extract dyes wool and silk, but not cotton.
13. To decide whether a linen fabric contains cotton, immerse a sample of the fabric in a
light alcoholic solution of aniline red for a short time, after which wash thoroughly, and then
soak it in caustic ammonia for two hours. The treatment will dye the linen fibres a rose red,
while the cotton fibres will show no trace of color.
14. In linen and cotton mixed fabric, a strong potash solution will only impart a very
slight yellowish tinge to the cotton fibre, while the other will be dyed a deep yellow. A
mixed cloth, after being removed from this solution, would present a striped or spotted
appearance.
15. Another easy method to distinguish between linen and cotton is to soak a sample of
the material in olive or rapeseed oil. Under this process the flax fibre, which in its natural
condition, is opaque, becomes transparent ; while the cotton, which in its natural condition is
transparent, becomes under this operation opaque.
16. Silk fibres become dissolved when treated with concentrated muriatic acid.

Flax, being cellulose, the action of various chemical agents on it are much the
same as on cotton, but generally speaking, linen is more susceptible to disintegration
 93
especially under the influence of caustic alkalies, calcium hydrate, and strong oxidizing
agents as chlorine, hydrochlorides, etc. Treated with sulphuric acid and iodine solution, the
thick cell wall is colored blue, while the secondary deposits, immediately enclosing the
central canal, acquire a yellow color.

Jute may be considered as consisting of cellulose, a portion of which has become more or
less modified throughout its mass, into a tannin-like substance. Alkalies actually resolve jute
into insoluble cellulose and soluble bodies allied to the tannin matters. It is distinguished
from flax by being colored yellow, under the influence of sulphuric acid and iodine solution.
Under the influence of chlorine, a chlorinated compound is produced, which, when submitted
to the action of sodium sulphite, develops a brilliant magenta color.

China Grass is colored blue by sulphuric acid and iodine solution, hence it seems to
consist essentially of cellulose.

HOW TO ASCERTAIN THE PERCENTAGE OF EACH MATERIAL

CONSTITUTING THE FABRIC.

Test for Wool and Cotton or Silk and Cotton.

Cut sample for testing to a known size with a sharp pair of scissors, or stamp out the
desired quantity with a die of which you know the exact size. Next weigh the sample upon
a sensitive scale, and make a memorandum of its weight ; then dry at a temperature of from
212° to 230° F., till no further loss of weight is possible, and weigh sample again. This
weight deducted from the first will give you the amount of moisture in the sample. The
dried fabric is next boiled for about five minutes in a solution containing about 10 per cent,
of caustic soda, calculated to the weight of the material, and which will be strong enough to
entirely dissolve the animal (wool or silk) fibre. The remainder being the cotton the fabric
contained, which wash well with water, and next with dilute acetic acid and again with
water. Dry this refuse at 212° to 230° F. and when perfectly dry, weigh, thus giving you the
amount of cotton present, which, if added to the amount of moisture and deducted from the
original weight of the fabric, will give you the amount of animal (wool and silk) fibre, the
fabric contains.
If the sample contains the cotton added in a special structure, for example double cloth,
the cotton in itself will form a coherent fabric throughout the process. The same, if the per-
centage of cotton in warp and filling of single cloth structures predominates, or any way is
sufiicient to hold the structure by itself together, no difficulty is apparent. However, if after
boiling with caustic soda the texture transforms itself into individual fibres or threads floating
about the liquid, care must be exercised not to lose any of these individual fibres, they must
be carefully filtered, and the greatest care taken that no fibres get lost in the subsequent
washing, drying and weighing processes.

How to Ascertain the Percentage.

The amount of each kind of fibre in a sample is in proportion to the percentage of each
fibre in a full piece of cloth.
Example. — Required to ascertain the percentage of cotton and wool fibre in a fabric.
Sample for testing weighs 60. 24 grains; after drying at 212° F , i. extracting all
moisture, it weighs 55.32 grains. The refuse of cotton after drying at 212° F. weighs
20.08 grains.
 94
6o.24 grains = total weight of sample
— 55-33 " = weight of dried sample
4.92 " = moisture.
20.08 grains = weight of dried cotton in sample
-{- 4-92 " = moisture found in original sample

25.90 '* = weight of cotton and moisture.

60.24 grains = total weight of sample
— 25.00 — weight of cotton and moisture

35.24 " = weight of wool fibre in sample.

Answer. — The sample in question contains
35- 24 grains wool fibre
20.08 " cotton fibre, and
+ 4.92 " moisture
60.24 " total weight.
And
20.08 : 55.32 :: X : 100 = 36.29 per cent, cotton.
35- 24 : 55-32 x : 100 = 63. 71 per cent. wool.
Answer, — The sample in question contained
36.29 per cent, (about 361^ per cent.) cotton.
63.71 per cent, (about 63^ percent.) wool.

Test for Wool and Silk.

Weigh your sample, next dry it at 212-230° F., weigh it again, and deduct this weight
from the weight first gotten, and thus obtain the moisture of the fabric. Next dissolve out
the silk from the fabric by boiling the latter in a solution containing
850 parts of water
400 " " zinc chloride
40 " " zinc oxide.
Then wash sample thus treated in water, next in dilute hydrochloric acid, and finally in
water; dry and weigh. The percentage of silk the fabric contains will be found somewhat
too low, for the reason that the zinc is permanently absorbed by the wool fibre.

Test for Fabrics Composed of Cotton, Silk and Wool.

Proceed with the fabric as in the case before ; after separating the silk and thus ascertain-
ing the amount of wool and cotton left, the first (wool) is dissolved in caustic soda and the
amount of cotton in the fabric thus readily obtained.

HOW TO TEST THE SOUNDNESS (i. e. THEIR STRENGTH) OF FIBRES

OR YARNS.

The soundness or strength of a fibre (z. e. it§ elasticity) is of the greatest importance to a
manufacturer.
Most often this point will become of importance when selecting or buying a lot of raw
materials, yet it also will be a necessity to test either fibres used in the construction of yarns
or fibres or yarns used in the construction of fabrics.
 95

Illustration and Description of a Testing Machine.— In order to ascertain exactly the

strength of the various fibres or yarns, the amount of their elasticity, the use of a little
machine, as shown in the accompanying illustration, Fig. 74, will be found of great advan-
tage. Letters of reference in the illustration indicate as follows : A, is a base board of hard
wood (generally leaded) upon which is fixed a pillar B. The top end is forked into a jaw,
carrying on each side a screwed
centre-piece, into which is fixed
the fulcrum of the lever C, D.
These two center-pieces can be
screwed closer together, or further
apart, as required, and the pivot
which forms the fulcrum E,
of the lever is pointed at
each end, and fits into a hol-
Fig. 74. low in the two ends of the center-
pieces and enables it to work
perfectly free, and yet can have no lateral motion as would be the case if knife edges
were used.
The lever from E, to D, is divided into five equal parts, each of which is equal to the
distance of the center of the jaws C, from the centre of the fulcrum at E. G, is a balance
weight to counterpoise the longer arm E, D, of the lever. Each of the five divisions of the
lever E, D, are divided into ten parts. The range of the instrument depends upon the weight
of the sliding weight F, and which can be varied when desirable. Three difierent weights,
viz.^ 50 grains, 100 grains, and 1,000 grains are most frequently used, and the range of the
instrument with these different weights is as follows :
First Third Fourth Fifth
Weight. Second Division. Division.
Division. Division. . Division.

Grains. Grains. Grains. Grains. Grains. Grains.

100 150
100 100 200
200 250
1,000 50 1,000
2,000
By using the intermediate 0 decimal divisions of spaces on the levers, we obtain in the case
5
of the 50 grains weight, an increase of 5 grains for each3,00division
0 ; with the 100 grains weight,
4,000 for each division ;
10 grains for each division, and with the 1,000 grains weight,300 100 grains400
so that the range is from 50 grains up to 5,000 grains, with difference of not less than 5,000 2.5
grains when the 50 grain weight is used, 5 grains when the 100 grain weight is used, and5050 0
grains when the 1,000 grain weight is used. At the end of the lever D, a graduated scale H,
is placed, divided into spaces which enable the elasticity of the fibre to be measured in terms
of the distance of the two jaws C, and I, from each other. The generally used arrangement
is that if the jaws C, and I, are separated one-tenth of an inch it will indicate half an inch on
the scale H, thus enabling very small ranges of elasticity to be readily seen.
A small stop S, adjusted by a thumb screw at the back of the plate, is inserted in a long
slot in the divided plate so as to prevent the lever from falling when the point of fracture is
reached .
For moving the weight along the lever a fine silk thread (attached to the ring which
slides along the lever) is generally used so as to avoid any pressure which otherwise would be
exercised if using the fingers. Generally two or three experimental tests are made previously
to the final ones as required for reference.
 HOW TO TEST GIVEN COUNTS OF YARNS.

The simplest method of testing a given count is thus :—

J^ule.— Reel as many yards as there are hanks to the pound in the count to be tested,
and weigh against 12}^ (12.5) grains for worsted ; 8}i (8.33) grains for cotton ;
4}i (4.375)
grains for woolen yarn run system, and 23^^ (23.33) grains for woolen yarn cut system. For
spun silk proceed as per cotton ; for linen, as per woolen cut system. The reason for the
above shortenings of the process is found in the fact that there are 7,000 grains in one pound
96
avoirdupois. For this reason, i yard of I's worsted would weigh 7,000 -=- 560 = 12^ grains •
and 10 yards of lo's worsted, 20 yards of 20' s, 60 yards of 6o's, etc., all should weigh the same'
The same reasoning applies to the other system of grading (counting) yarns.

HOW TO ASCERTAIN THE WEIGHT OF CLOTH PER YARD FROM A SMALL

SAMPLE.

Frequently it happens to the manufacturer to ascertain from a small sample the weight
of the fabric in ounces per yard. The more experienced manufacturer will promptly
judge
said weight by simply handling the sample between his thumb and forefinger, t. e., ascertain-
ing its bulk ; again, by lifting, as to its weight with reference to size of sample in question.
However, it will also be of benefit to the most experienced manufacturer to test the correct-
ness of his practical guesswork by weighing the sample on hand on accurate scales, and
ascertaining from it, by figuring in proportion, the weight in ounces per yard for the fabric.

How to Proceed.— Trim your sample most accurately to the greatest possible size, for
the greater the amount of surface you can obtain the more accurately you can figure. After
you have thus carefully trimmed your sample to a known size, put it on the, scales and ascer-
tain the weight in grains ; from the size of sample and its weight in grains ascertain by pro-
portion the weight in ounces per yard.
The whole procedure will be best explained by

A Practical Example.— Suppose we trimmed our sample, which was a 6/4 fancy cassi-
mere, to 3 X 3 inches = 9 square inches, and found it to weigh 45 grains ; thus—

Rule:— /P" \ : weight\ in one yard \ . /its weight\

\in sample/ ' \ in grains / " \of the piece of cloth/ ' \ in grains /
Our example :— 9 : 45 1944 . ^ and
45 X 1944 = 87480 9 = 9720 grains
9720 437>^ (grains in one oz.) = 22.21

Answer .—"t^^e fabric in question weighs 22.21 ounce or practically 225^ ounces per yard.
Above rule given in the proportion might thus be expressed for a standing
.—Multiply weight in grains of sample with number of square inches in one yard
of the piece of cloth and divide the product by number of square inches in sample ; the quo-
tient divide by 437 >^ thus obtaining the weight of the fabric for one yard expressed in ounces.
The same result is obtained if proceeding after
Another Rule .—Cut your sample to a known size and divide the number of square inches
thus derived into the number of square inches one yard of the fabric contains, multiply the
quotient
by 437 of this division with the weights in grains of your sample and divide the product
 97

The previously given example will figure according to this calculation :—

54" fabric = 1944
1944 9 =zz 216 X 45 = 9720 437.5 = 22.21 oz. weight of fabric per yard, being the
same answer as before obtained.

HOW TO CALCULATE THE WEIGHT OF FINISHED CLOTH.

Little if anything on this subject can be found in print, since the subject is one which
must be mastered mostly by experience, again rules would be hard even to apply to every
fabric of a certain grade of cloth ; however points thus given will assist the student in his
calculations.
After mastering the rudiments of the grading of yarns it is an easy matter to ascertain
the weight of cloth from the loom, since this is nothing but common arithmetic, however,
it is not so easy for the novice to calculate the weight per yard for finished cloth. In cloth
made of wool the variation in weight are caused by the loss of oil, grease and dirt in scouring ;
loss of fibres in fulling, gigging j increase in weight on account of take up warp-ways of the
fabric at fulling, and which contraction again may be varied at will according to circum-
stances. With reference to cotton and linen the influences above mentioned are of no account
since these materials have little, if any, felting properties. The only modifying influence to be
taken into account by these materials is, the bending of warp or filling, or of both systems
during weaving, and the amount of sizing, starching, put into the cotton, etc., during the pro-
cess ofsizing. With reference to silks, variation will also occur, regulated by the condition
of the yarn, if the same contains a great amount of saliva (gum) left on the fibres quite a loss
in weight to the fabric may be expected, whereas properly boiled-oflf silk will lose little, if
any, during the process of finishing (especially at scouring) of these fabrics.
With reference to woolen and worsted yarn, as previously mentioned already, the loss of
oil, etc., which all yarns of this class contain, must be carefully taken into account. The best
plan will be to reel ofi" a small amount of yarn, weigh it, next scour the same with soap at
about 96° F., dry and leave the yarn lay for a few days, in order to regain its natural moisture,
then weigh again, and calculate shrinkage. If you want to be very accurate, test a second
sample, and proceed as before, and if not obtaining the same result, strike an average between
both losses for the loss to use in your calculation.
The next process which will influence the weights of woolen cloths is that of finishing
and which is a subject that only can be mastered by experience on account of the various
finishes to which said fabrics are subjected. In fact the only way for a test of this subject is
the finishing of a sample piece. As previously already alluded to the weight of woolen cloth
can be varied during the process of fulling by means of shrinking the fabric lengthways, also
by tentering, crabbing, etc. ; however there are limits to the modifying influences of these
operations, and these limits must be understood if good results are to be obtained.
This fact of shrinking (take-up) fabrics warp ways during the process of fulling is of the
greatest influence to the finished weight. Since cloth is sold at a certain price for a certain
weight, and width of the fabric, any shrinkage (take-up) filling ways, will not influence the
weight of the cloth per yard. The previously referred to shrinkage of a fabric warp-ways
will best be explained by an
Example— K fabric from the loom 50 yards long weighs 14 ounces per yard.
Less in
oil, fibres, etc., during fulling and scouring 13 per cent. Fabric fulled up to 40 yards.
Question.— WixiA. weight of cloth per yard after fulling.
50 yards length of cloth from loom.
X 14 ounces weight of cloth per yard from loom.
 700 ounces total weight of the piece from loom ; and
loo : 88 : : 700 : x
88X700^ 616
and

616 40 (yards in finished fabric) = 15.4 ounces.

Answer. — 15.4 ounces weight of cloth per yard after fulling.
The average loss in weight for woolen cloth, which is generally taken into consideration
at calculations is thus ; for ordinary goods allow about \98on the calculation weight which
will bring a fabric of a total weight of 100 pounds from loom down to 80 pounds. For
clear face finished cloth allow about ^ on the calculation weight, hence a piece of cloth
weighing 100 pounds from the loom will weigh 75 pounds finished. However, these weights
will vary.

After picking out a sample of cloth, the student will find on pages 263-268 of " Tech-
nology of Textile Design," all the information necessary on the subject of " How to ascertain
from a finished sample its texture required in loom ; how to ascertain counts of yarn required,
and the amount and direction of twist ; how to ascertain the weight of cloth per yard from
loom, etc." j

HOW TO TEST AND ANALYZE THE VARIOUS FINISHES OF COTTON GOODS.

The first to be done when required to ascertain how a fabric has been finished, is
to examine the external or physical properties, since a practical eye can detect at once if the
fabric in question has been simply calendered or glazed, or if starched on the reverse side, etc.
By examining the fabric against the light, it is easy to observe whether it has been filled or
not, besides a heavily weighted cloth will lose much of its stiffness by rubbing it between
the fingers. If, in tearing the sample, a lot of dust flies off, this indicates a weighted finish ;
and by the aid of the microscope we can readily see whether the thickening is superficial or
whether it has penetrated into the fabric, and if it contains mineral substances.
Next we must ascertain the amount of moisture the fabric contains by carefully weighing
a sample of a known size, drying it in a stove until there can be no further loss of weight,
then re-weighing the dried piece. The difference of weight is the amount of moisture in
the cloth.
Although we cannot come to a conclusion as to the quality of the finish by this process,
yet it is better to make it, since cellulose by itself is less hygrometric than wheat and other
starches. If there be a great difference in the weight, this is a certain indication of the cloth
being heavily starched.
To know exactly how much foreign matter a cloth contains, treat a large sample of the
fabric with distilled water containing malt, let it disaggregate, wash afterwards and weigh.
In this first experiment the difference in weight will indicate the quantity of foreign
substances deposited on the fabric ; but even after this treatment, certain insoluble soaps may
still remain in the fabric and it is necessary to again boil in weak acid to remove all fatty
matters. Weigh again to obtain the actual total loss, and, from the difference in weight, the
percentage of dry finishing substances is determined. In testing printed or dyed goods, we
must bear in mind that all colors are more or less attacked by acids.
The next process is to examine the components, and for which two operations are
necessary ; first treat with boiling water for a few hours, this removes the feculae, starches,
thickenings, gums, soluble salts, alum, sulphates, chlorides, etc., and minerals or earthy
matters ; secondly, by filtering, separate the soluble from the insoluble substances. Soluble
substances are detected in the following manner -.—evaporate part of the liquid, treat a few
drops with tincture of iodine, which will reveal starchy substances by turning blue ; if no
 99

starch be found, again concentrate the whole and add two or three times its volume of
alcohol, when glue, dextrine and gum are precipitated. Gelatine is detected by a tannin
solution which precipitates it.
To distinguish gum from dextrine, use the Polariscope, when dextrine is diverted to the
right, gum to the left. The mixture of the two can be sufficiently indicated by basic acetate
of lead, which, when cold, precipitates gum, but not dextrine; when warm, both are
precipitated ; if no precipitation be obtained, but an organic substance be still shown by the
incineration oa the platinum blade, this indicates the presence of mosses, lichens, etc. Sugar
is found by Fehling's liquor, before and after interversion ; add to the tolerably concentrated
aqueous liquor a few cubic centimetres of pure hydrochloric acid, ordinary concentration,
warm in water bath, in an apparatus with reflux refrigerator and treat with copper solution.
If it is desired to examine still more closely the soluble mineral substances, recourse must
be had to the usual methods of analytical chemistry.
In the residue insoluble in water, we again find the earthy matters, which it is unneces-
sary to examine closer, as generally the most economical are employed and China clay is one
of the only substances which fulfils almost all the conditions and therefore is also the most
frequently used ; alabaster, gypsum and talc or French chalk, are also found in this residue.
If it is desired to detect resin, take a sample of the cloth, boil it with carbonate of soda,
which dissolves the resin the presence of which is shown by the precipitate of sylvic acid
obtained from the liquor when treated by an acid. The other fatty matters do not give any
precipitate, but an oily fluid which swims on the surface of the liquor. Glycerine is found
in the watery solution and can be detected, after the damping of the drying process by the
acroleine reaction, which takes place after treating with sulphate of potash.
To ascertain the quantity of fatty matters contained in a certain finish, a second opera-
tion isperformed by ether, which dissolves all fatty matters. After evaporation the weight
of the residue expresses the quantity of fatty matter. An exact analysis of this mixture is
not possible practically ; we must be satisfied with treating with boiling water and thus
ascertain that there are no soluble substances in the water.
In analysing the quality of a certain finish it is almost impossible to obtain the quantita-
tive proportions : the various qualities of cloth requiring such varied treatment. The prin-
cipal point is to know what substances are incorporated and this determination once made,
it is for the practitioner to discover by preliminary experiments, the proportion of the various
ingredients.

THE BEST SIZE FOR COTTON GOODS

consists of :
Farina or flour.
Chloride of magnesium to give the necessary moisture and consequent suppleness and
pliability to the warp.
Chloride of Zinc (Antiseptic) to prevent mildew in damp weather, consequent upon the
necessary use of magnesium.
Neutralized Fat (in place of Tallow) to prevent the yarn from sticking to the cylinder
and breaking in the opening rods. This neutralized fat mixes readily with the size and does
not swim on top same as tallow or oil.
Sizing Wax (specially made to melt and dissolve in the size at a low temperature) used
to smooth the yarn and lubricate the heddles and reed.
Gum (white) to give additional strength.
China Clay (or French chalk) for extra heavy weight.
 lOO

Size Glue (Gelatine) or bone size, used for the purpose of fixing the other ingredients.
The amount of each ingredient required is regulated by the kind of yarn used and cloth to
be woven.

TO ASCERTAIN THE PERCENTAGE OF SIZE

(or finish) in a piece of cotton cloth, weigh sample, then wash and dry it and weigh it again,
and the difierence represents the amount of size or finish in the sample.

Example .—S^mii^ for testing 6" X 6" = 360'' weighs 7.46 grains. After scouring
and drying this sample weighs only 5.32 grains.
Question : — Ascertain percentage of size employed
5.32 : 7.46 : : 100 : x == 140.22
2. e, according to sample 100 pounds yarn have been sized to 140.22 pounds
giving us
Answer -.—"^^i^ fabric requires 40 per cent, (actually 40.22 per cent.) sizing.

SUBSTANCES USED IN FINISHING COTTON CLOTH.

For Stiffening. — Corn, wheat, rice, acorn, maize, barley, chestnut, potato or farina
starches and diverse flours— Arrow-root, salep, sago, tapioca, linseed— Gums, dextrine,
leiogomme, gelatine, isinglass, lichens, Iceland moss, algae, apparatim, dulcine, albumen,
casein.

For Softening . — Glycerine, glucose, fatty matters, tallow, paraffin, stearine, spermaceti,
cocoa-nut oil, soluble oil, olive oil, bees or Japan wax, soda ash, ammonia, chloride of calcium
or zinc.

For Weighting .'—Oy-^sum, plaster of Paris, chalk, Spanish clay, the sulphates of lime,
baryta, magnesia, soda, zinc or lead, talc, china-clay, chloride of magnesia or barium, car-
bonate ofbarium, cellulose.

For Coloring Size .—Ultramarine, blues, pinks, violets, greens, Prussian blues, indigo
blues, Paris blue, soluble indigo blue, aniline blues of all kinds, cobalt blues, indigo carmine,
ammoniacal cochineal, black, grey and dark mineral matters, etc. Ochres of all colors.

Antiseptics :—Cd.iho\ic, salicylic, tannic, oxalic, boracic, formic, arsenic and arsenious acids,
reosote, camphor, sulphate of zinc, chloride of zinc, borate of soda, alum, sulphate of alumina,
chloride of sodium.

To make Fabrics lVater-proof:—Or&3iSy matters of all natures, resin, paraffin, tannic acid,
drying oils, salts of alumina, alums, carbonate of magnesia.
To render Fabrics Incombustible .—Boracic acid, borax, phosphate of soda, lime or
ammonia, carbonate of magnesia, alum, sulphate of soda or zinc, silicates in general, gypsum,
salts of magnesia.

To give Metalic Lustre .—Sulphides of lead, silver, tin, antimony, etc. Bronze, silver,
copper and gold powders, argentine, etc.
 lOI

COTTON SPINNING.
Power Required to Drive the Various Machines in a Cotton Mill.

Pickers 6 to 8 horse power

Cards 3 to 5 cards per horse power
Railway Head '% to 1% horse power
Drawing Frame 4 to 6 deliveries per horse power
Coarse Speeder 27 to 33 spindles per horse power
Intermediate Speeder 37 to 50 spindles per horse power
Fine Speeder 42 to 51 spindles per horse power
Slubber Fly Frame . 40 to 50 spindles per horse power
Intermediate Fly Frame 70 to 80 spindles per horse power
Fine Fly Frame ... » 100 to 120 spindles per horse power
Ring Spindles, Common 70 to 120 spindles per horse power
Ring Spindles, Sawyer 90 to 130 spindles per horse power
Ring Spindles, Rabbeth 70 to 90 spindles per horse power
Spooler 250 to 400 spindles per horse power
Warper 4 to 6 per horse power
Slasher i >^ to i^ horse power
I^oom 4 to 6 looms per horse power

Speed of the Various Machines in a Cotton Mill.

Revs, per Min. Revs, per min.
Picker, Beater 1,300 to 1,600 Fine Fly Frames, Flyers 1,100
Picker, Fan 1,400 to 1,700 Ring Spindle, Common . . 6,000 to 7,000
Card, Cylinder 120 to 150 Ring Spindle, Sawyer . . . 7,000 to 7,800
Railway Head, Front Roll . . 400 to 500 Ring Spindle, New Rabbeth, 7,000 to 10,000
Drawing Frame, Front Roll . 300 to 400 Mule Spindles ..... 5,000 to 10,000
Coarse Speeder, Flyer 720 Spooler Spindles 700 to 900
Intermediate Speeder, Flyer .... 900 Warper, Drum 30 to 40
Fine Speeder, Flyer i)25o Slasher, Pulley 350 to 400
Slubber Fly Frame, Flyers 600 Looms on Prints 170 to 190
Intermediate Fly Frames, Flyers . . . 900 Ivooms on Sheetings 150 to 170

Heat and Moisture Required for Good Cotton Spinning and Weaving.

In Spinning use 68° F with 65 per cent, moisture ;

In Weaving use 68° F with 80 per cent, moisture.
SLIVER TABLE.

0.167
Grains Grains 0 097 0.0.131349
Per Yard. Number. Per Yard, Number. PerGrains
Yard. Number. Grains
Per Yard.
Number.
66 0.185
0069 83-3 0 160
120 86 0.103 0.144
0.126
no 0.076 0.107
00.100
113 60
62 0.154
102 00.085
082 82 45 0.208
0.089 0.1 19 0.238
0.093 0.148
74 0.278
94 54
98
90
35
78
70
58
56
50
 6X
"VTA
102

ROVING 1-3 TABLE. 8^

8^
(This can be used with one or ten yards readily.)
1.14-5 I 149 8|^
Grains No. of Grains No. 01
Roving. Grains Roving.
NO. 01 ijrains
I 234 INO. 01
Roving.
Per Yard. Roving. Per Yard. 1-7 Per Yard. I -075
Per 1.Yard.
1-9 190
83-33 6 41 2X 2.38
185 6%
0 15
O.IO 5-95 3K
I2.2275
2^ 1.96 3X
55-56
27.77 00 30 20 5 55 4 I. Ill
41.66
20.83 1.6 2.08
1.44 A%
0.40 1.04 1 PA
16.66 0.50 1-58
1-33 0925 8
5.20 I8 1.66
I-5I 5 I.OIO
13-88
11.90 0.60
0.70 2 5X 00.952
980
44 2.90
6277 5H
10.41
8.33 0.80 1.38
090 343833 9
96.2594 6
7 57 1.1. 00
10 4.3-0316
2.56 3
3X A'A
I 20 3 70 I 28

Calculation for Yarns 20's to 26's from the Lap to the Yarn.
Lap II ounces per yard, sliver 54 grains per yard, will give5'A draft on card about 89,
including loss by waste.
In this example we will take three processes of drawing, leaving it optional whether we
use two processes or three ; some spinners only using two, especially when there are three
frames following.
Doubling 6 and drawing 6 will produce the sliver at all the heads about the same weight,
54 grains or o. 154 hank. Product, 1000 pounds per delivery per week of 60 hours.
Draft in slubbing 4.0 and 54 grains drawing, will give 0.62 banks slubbing. Product,
87 pounds per spindle per week.
Draft on intermediate 4.5 and 0.62 double slubbing will give 1.4 hank intermediate.
Product 40 pounds per spindle per week.
Draft in roving 5.3 and 1.4 double intermediate will give 3.7 roving. Product, 12
pounds per week.
Draft in spinning 7, from this roving will give 26's yarn.
Production of Ring Throstles ly^io 1% pounds per spindle per week.
Production of Self-acting Mule i pound to i^ pounds per spindle per week.

How to Ascertain the Capacity of a Carding Engine.

Rule. — Multiply the speed of the delivery roller by its circumference, which will give the
inches turned off per minute ; multiply this result by 60 (minutes per hour), then by 60 (hours
worked per week), this result by 36 (inches in a yard), multiply this again by the weight of i
yard of sliver, and the result equals the card's capacity.
How to Find the Number of Carding Engines Required to Give Regular Supply of Cotton to
Each Drawing Frame.
Multiply the inches taken in by the back roller per minute by the number of ends put
up ; and divide the product by the inches delivered by each carding engine per minute.

How to Find the Quantity of Filleting Required to Cover a Card Cylinder or Doffer.
Rule. — Add the thickness of the filleting to the diameter of the cylinder or doffer, which
total take for the diameter ; then the circumference of the cylinder or doffer, multiplied by
its length, and divided by the breadth of the filleting, will give the length required.
 I03

Traveller Table for Spinning at Medium Speeds.

Such as 4,000 per minute for lo's counts of yarn ; 5,000 for 12's; 5,500 for 14's ; 6,000
for i6's ; 6,500 for 20's ; 7,000 24's ; 7,500 for 30's ; 8,500 for 40's ; 9,000 for 50' s.

Diam. of Diam of Diam. of

Rings I in. Rings iK in. Diam. of
Counts Number Counts Rings 1% in. Rings 1% in.
of Yarn of Traveler of Number
Traveler of Yarn ofNumber
Traveler
Number
of Traveler
10 's require 0 s or 7 s 30 's require
0 s or 7 0 3/0 or 4/0 4/0 or 5/0
ii's " 3/0 or 4/0 4/0 or 5/0
12's " 6's or 5's
7's or 6's 6's or 5's 4/0 or 5/0
13's 7's or 6's 3' * 4/0 or 5/0 5/0 or
6/0 or 6/0
7/0
14's " 6's or 5's 6/0 or 6/0
7/0
6's or 5's 5's or 4's 5/0 or 6/0 5/0
15's's " 5's or 4's 6/0 7/0
i6 5's or 4's 4's or 3's 33 's " 5/0
6/0 or
or 6/0
7/0
1 7 's " 5's or 4's 4's or 3's 's
3354's "" 8/0 or 8/0
7/0 9/0
i8's 4's or 3's 's " 7/0
8/0 or
or 8/0
9/0
4's or 3's 3's or 2's 36 7/0
8/0 or
or 8/0
19's " 32 's
's or
or 2I 's
's 9/0
20'S " 3's or 2's 's
37's "" 7/0 or 8/0
2 1 'S " 2I 's or I1 /o
's 38
23's's oror 2's
I 's I 's or i/o 9/0 or 1 0/0
22 'S " 's ""
39's
40 lo/o
9/0 or
or 1ii/o
0/0
2I 's's or
or Ii/o
's 8/0 oror
9/0 19'o
0/0
23'S i/o or 2/0 41's " 9/0 or 1 0/0
lo/o or ii/o
" I 's or I /o lo/o ii/o ii/o or 12/0
24 'S i/o or 2/0 42 's " lo/o or ii/o
2/0 or 3/0 ii/o or 12/0
2625'S
's " i/o or 2/0
2/0 or 3/0
ii/o or 12/0 12/0 or 13/0
i/o or 2/0 ii/o or 12/0 12/0 or 13/0
27's " 2/0 or 3/0 12/0 or 13/0
28's 2/0 or 3/0 3/0 or 4/0 46 's " 13/0
29 's " 3/0 or 4/0 13/0 or 14/0 14/0 or
or 14/0
15/0
47's "
s
454'44s'3s'
Note.— When spinning long stapled cotton, such as Sea Island or Egyptian, a Traveler
from four to six grades or numbers heavier than is shown in the above table may be used.
48's
50's
To Calculate Loss of Twist in Ring Spinning.

The usual way of calculating loss of twist through the various dias. of the bobbin as it
fills is as follows : Each coil of yarn deposited on the bobbins is equal to a loss of i turn in
twist in that length of yarn constituting the coil. Let it be assumed that the yarn (20's)
has 16.75 turns per inch according to roller and spindle speed.
Smallest circum. of bobbin 2>^ inches X 16.75 turns = i turn lost in 41.87 turns.
Largest " 4-75 inches X 16.75 " =t " " 79 5^ ||

Average mean loss . . . . =1 " " 60. 7 "

This calculation, however, is not correct, as the actual loss is more, and in order to get
at the truth the layers of yarn deposited in one up and down motion of the ring rail must
be measured and multiplied by the number of turns per inch, and the number of coils in the
2 layers of yarn must be counted, and divided into total number of turns. Thus, if the
up motion of the ring rail deposits 72 inches of 20's yarn with 16.75 calculated turns per
inch, then 72 X 16.75 = 1,206 ^ 20 coils = 1.8 per cent, of loss, and if the down motion
deposits 178 inches of yarn with 16.75 calculated turns, then 178 X 16.75 = 2,981.5 — 46
coils = 1.6 per cent, or an average for one up and down motion of the ring rail of 1.7 per
cent. Of course, the finer the yarn spun the less the percentage of loss in twist, as the rings
are smaller and the difference between the diameter of empty and full bobbin is less, and
the number of turns per inch is more.
 104

To Find the Percentage Cotton Yarn Contracts in Twisting.

^«/(?.— Divide the number of the yarn by the product of the draught and hank roving,
and subtract the quotient from i.
Example. — 28's yarn spun from 4 hank rove, draught 7.25.
7.25 X 4= 29
— 280.965
H- 29 = 0.965
I.0-000
035

Answer, — The contraction in length amounts to 3)^ per cent.

How to Ascertain the Number of Yards of Cotton Yarn on a Bobbin.
Multiply circumference of front roll (inches) with the number of revolutions
per minute, and the product by time (minutes) required to fill the bobbin ; divide by 36 and
deduct the contraction in twisting, the result being the amount (number of yards) of yarn
on the bobbin.
TWIST TABLE. Hosiery
Twist for
Extra Warp 6-93
Extra Mule Mule Twist. Twist 6.14
for
Doubling. Yarn.
Counts. Twist. Warp Twist. Twist. 839 Filling Twist 6 73
4-33
8.23
4.75
8.9
4.00 4 3.75 2.75 8.79 2.50 8 29
I 6 72 4.50 3.25
6.50 8.25
2 636 6.50
3 7 79 3 53
8 00 56.12
59
4 II
12.5647 12.73 563
5 10.62 io.c6 5-30 7.07
6 11.02 10.58 11.25 7-27 7-77
II. 91 5.66 12.44
12.99 661
7 13 94450 II. 31
12.65 8.60 4.76
8 1 9.00 10.61
9 19 7-27
3 14-25 14 23 12.00 9-75 60 5-50
109 1 1645 13 50 750 12 4.59 3.88
II
415 15-75 15 59 13.27 11.86 10.78 10.65 33
II 15 02 14.92 14.979.80 109 28
19
14.03 10 89
12
17 1717.7137 16 84
17-43 15 16.4
499
9-92 11.72
117 96
26 85.00
66
16.22
18.55 14.42
1316.9867 13-16.35
52 12.16 1030
19 18.40 13-79 12.29
10.28
11.00 9 35
14- 52 12.89
16 18.00 16.00 16 77 10.00
20.15
19 00 1909 14 53 11
If..9668 12 74
18 24
1958 17.44 15.46
17
15.00
1837 59 13.4017 13-9.91
47 12.
1060 24
7790
50
20 70
21.24 17.89 15 91 1316.57
00 11
11 72 18
22 95 15-24 14-9.55
12
20 22.05
20.12
19.62 18 76
21. II 20.54 952
22 22.28
23 27 21.17
20.40 18.95 1369
15-92 16.03 901
26 25 13 22.63 19 84 16.95
24.22 24.65 2119 91
60 21 87
26 87 20 55
1838 17-39
28 26.02 26.
238124 19
21 2112 20.03 15-1850
14.02
16 5644
25-46
27.74 22 50 17.20 968
27.70
28.50 23-32 17 80 15 06 13 22
34 26,83
24 00 19-50
27.00
28.46 24
30 29.28
30 04
25 30
24.66 12
26.52
23 72 22.98 19 4459
45 32 30.19 29.05 21.80
27
33-59
36.79
28.28 25-1719 21.30
3 6 31-86 25.16
31 37
60 38 31 82 29 07
42 49
39-74 33-47
30.98
80 40 40.25
37-65
42 69 37 95 33 54
100 50 34.86 30 83 26
23 08
00
120 5245 0306 27 50
70 47-50 60.37 35 78 31 35
130 50.59
40.00 38.45 32 54
49-30
51.31 47-33 35 58
44-37
140
160 6o.c8 45.00 37-50
47-43 32.50
90 54.16
56.20 53 63
24 42.76
180 56.91
63 .82 41 08 36 89
200 63.72
67 17 454361 38.89
50.31 30.12
56 56 53-03 35.60
53-66 41 37.06
10 34 78
45-96
43.60
 I05

83 84
85 87
63 89
64
DRAPER'S TABLE 6 5
OF THE BREAKING WEIGHT67 OF AMERICAN COTTON
WARP YARNS PER SKEIN. 69
(Weight given in pounds and tenths.) 24.3
Breaking Breaking No. Breaking
23 Breaking 23 4
No. NO. 24 • No 22.4
23-7
Breaking-
Weight. 25 Weight. Weight. Weight. Weight.
21 27 302854
I 838 43 61 31-3 21.3
21.7
2 22 29 62
3 66.3 41.4 21.5
4 79-7
72.4
61.3
75-9 44 27.4 81 22.8
56 530.00
410 40.7 68 24.0
26 69 2 66 2826.58 8682 20.4
78 275.0
330.0 45 39 3 2222.0
20 675
237.6
209.0
186.5 28 63.6 29.2
29.6 22.2
23 2
4749 43.8
42.2 255
loII9 168.7
41
43.0
37-9 30.8
28.2
253
13 154 I 74 88
12 57-3 37-3
40.0 2426.89
30.0
15 142.0
131. .s 33 42 35 5 27.8 93 21.0
21.2
H 122.8 59 -2 54 386 27.1
17i6 108
115-14 34 53 95
3537 -6 34-9 737977 26.2
i819
102.5 52.655
54-0
48.7
51-2 5560 toYa 36.6
34.4
25.8
94
3 1 3 0 46 r n 36.1 75 20.2
88.3
97.3 39 32 46.5 59
57 32.3
20 50.0
45-5 8 33-4
92.6 4 31-7 97 20.0
47.6 5 0 24 6 100
36 80 99
Table Giving the Amount 52 533-8
32.8
1 Various Kinds of Twisted Yarn. 6 Ply
38 44.6 of Twist for the

of Number
70 2 Ply 11-43
40 2 Ply 5 6 6 Ply
of Number

6 Ply 1
to Yarn

894 7 16 33
2 Ply 58 8.17 72 16.49 12 65 II 54
3 Ply 4 Ply 5 Ply 11-54 41Ply
3 Ply 0 3 9 5 Ply 76 52 9910
I 79 1.65 14.14 8.79 20 59 316Ply.9 144 Ply 14 125 Ply II92 89
2 53 8 64 7 8 7
1 2.83 2.83
2.00 2.83 25 H.78 10.00 49 1665
16.16 12 90
12.78
2 2 30 26 12.44 1010.7207 8 94
8.48 14.00 II 127833
3 4.00 3.28
2 3'^ 1442 12.00
27 14.70 832 51 20.4020.00
13 39
1058 20 20
bTewisied

19 SoT 1296 44
4 490 4.00
5 66532 4-47 3.10
29 15-23
14.96 12.22 10.96
28 15-49
30 II. 14 50 20.78 21 .5
wis
t
14.42
14
14.5683 13 14 11.66 9128 54
6936 4.61
5-17 4 00 3 4 6 15-75 11 .49 10 43 52 20. 98 17-594 16.82
e
17-43d 14
14 7028 1 2.00
6 4-73
3 5 8 3
4-33 64 12.6'i 53 T2 I I
7 6.54 5-29 4 00
6.10 3 28 16 49 12.86 II. 31 9 63
16.25 12 be
8 8.00 748 65.6936 4 90 438 4.00 32 1616.7003 109.7
9.46
10. 12 3 15
14 96 13 02 12 65
49
33 10 28
93 0 55 15-23
9 8848 .94 6.00 5 37 16 97 13.06 1183 57 21.36
54
56
21.16 17.74
21.72 17.89
13 2674 12 22
10 663
65.966
6.32 34 11.66 10.58 9.24 58 2222 c 9 18.04 18
17.12 33 13
13 97
50
3 5 06 4.61 31 13.46
13.26 12 33 9.80 21.91 45 17.28 15 15-756.37
11 7-30 564935 45 90 17 35 12 49 11.03 10 33 22.27 10 12.76
12 9 38 887 00 66
5.66
6.20
6. 93 5-41 36 '7 43 13.66 14.04 12 00 996 9. TO 1847 15-36
13 ro9 2080 83264 6.69 37 13.86 12.16 10.88
14.24 IT. 17 13.62
6589 11-5 10 45 60
14 10.58 8.94 665-1074
3 38 17 20 14 79 12.65 TI 31 9 9 94 59 62 18 18 16.25 14 53 12.96
15 10 96 77-75
21 5-66
6.32
6.93 39 17.89 '833 14,42 lo.o6938 61
10.20 to
Yarn
63 16 49 13 86 12.86
16 11.31 87.4800 40 17 66 11.46
9. 66 2 64 22
22.62 98 15
16. 6273 14.08 13 37
16CO
9 24 18.55
18 ir 12
12 81
96 ir.87 10
10.58 839 5 18 76 14.64
14 3r
17 II 66 8.2;; 7-59 41 14 60
r4.96 73 1071 9.80 65 22.80 1862 16 151688
12.97 14
14.4220
18 1212 33 00 8
8 48 7 16 42
43 18 .9 7 15-14 66 23-15 18 90
19 109.3
TO 52 8 9724
9 0680
3 15-49 12.13
12 .3 9 II 19 67 1904
'9 59 16.85
738 TO 96 68
20 12.65 883009 44 18.76 15-32 12.00 2332
13 06
21 12 96 10.58 8.20
78) 7.12 45 1939 13.12
13.42 23- 83 16 61 14.96 13 13.26 16
22 13 26 10 83 46 19 59 15.84 13 26 11.08 23 50 4 75 13-46
13-56 12. 26 II 31 69 15-07
23 1356 IT. 08 959 9. 16 858 7-83 7 30 47 19 18 1486 13 .s6
24 1386 II. 31 938 8 76 87748 00 48 1566 13-71 71 23.66 1932 19 j8
19.46 13.76
66 16 00 70
9.80 13 86 1 72 24 00 13-66
Production of Drawing Frames. 15.18
13 86
The front rollers of these frames vary from i}( to i}i inches ; i }i inches diameter is
taken ; this with 60 grains sliver will produce in 60 hours as follows :
Front Roller, i}i inches. Front Roller
, inches.
Revolutions per minute. Production, 60 hours. Revolutions per minute. Production, 60 hours.

1 ,000 lbs. 1,200 lbs.

300 1,065 lbs. 1,265 lbs.
320 1,135 lbs.
340 1,335 lbs.
IvigHter or heavier slivers in proportion.

0
4030680
3
 Pounds

e
Spindl
io6

m> inute

of
Pounds

per ns evolutio
Table Giving Production per Spindle for Warp and Filling Yarn from 4's to 6o's.

of
Warp Yarn Ring Frame. Filling Yarn Ring Frame. Filling Yarn Mule.•• 4) 4>

R Front
Spindle
of
*

Yarn.
v. a

evolutio
roductio
u
ai) p.a

R Front
cumber

evolutio
M au

ns per
minute
Pi

)f
1-835

ns per
2.305 .747
1-330
a O.P-1 297 1.058
W •574

oils.
2.160 a P<

day.
f\ 1550 1.205
2.043 169
168.0I
165.5 J.1.^ 124 a p-P- 4
4: 153-5 .994
.885 •513
-650 5
1. 716 166.6 3775 1.520
•799 an .464
.866
•423 106
152.0
150.4 4600 162.5 4 575 5,291
0) -J}
1. 418
Q? 148.9
1474 5100 160.5
163 6 4.610
4.505
4-435 5.134
.289 7
-255 8
1459 5600 .6 73 -729 13
119
9 6600
6300 •573 5
5,322 229
lU 1443 4100 4 0 0 12

mi
i nute
59
6990 00 .822 3 5.198
11 .921 4 540 5.260
la 159-0 4650 •529
.671 4 400 -309
141 3 .741
.616 157-3
142.8 4400

o i l.
Id 139 7 •524 4 470 5.166 •358.227 15

minute
14 7100 158 0 4 295 .271
.453 5100 .618 4 365 5.071 14
15 136 7 8000
7600
7 4 0 0 .566 154
151-7 2 60004900 4.225 5.038 .388rt•1■ 95 17
.205
138.2 155-6 6100 4-155 4 974 -332 18
16
Id
17 8200
7800 .486 54.843
102
5850 5 3 00 4 330 .241
lo 135. 1 8300 .424
.374 6200 550000 •385
••492
407 5.C06
19 133-6 8600
8500 .353 149.6 57 •295 44.190
260
•299
.333 147.8 •432 4.876 19
132-1 •398 146
143-3 I .365 .169.1.55149 20
aO
al 127.5
129.06 8800 6600
6300
6400 •2
.460 79 4085 23
130 8700 •315 4.015 21
144 6 .307.253 44.908
941
743 .216 22
22 126.0
124.4 .284 6500 4.120 4.709 25
23 122,9 8900 .257 142. 1 6700 •342
24 •234
.270 135-3 6800 4.776
4.810
4.574 24
25 121. 4 .245 139.0 6700 43 050
3875
945 .178 27
26 136.1 • 143.123 28
1183 9000 6700 .321 •195 3.980 4.676 .127 26
27
28 119.8 130.7
128.4 .266 .186
.138
9100 00 134.6 6900 .I62
92 •.214
224 6950 .•203
24 1 4.642
29 116.8
115-3 9200 132-1 6900 -232 3.910 29
.205 6950 4.505
4.435
SA
Ov 113-7
9300
126. 2 6950
3 735
3
805
840 .114.107
31 125.
119.41 .221.175 4 608 31
112. 2
110.7 99430000 4.470 .132
82
33 .173 117.7
123
121. 2I
.187 4-295 .103 •07 ou
34 9400 .196 .212.169 3665
3 770
3 595 5 33
34
109. 1 .181 32
37
35 107.6 940000 .188
.1 54 II5-3 7000 •154
3-455 .118 35
10451
106. 95 .181 116.1 .164 .085 36
36
87 9500 7000 .144•135 3 630
9 5 0 0 ,166
.160 112.5 7000
7000 35253 700 4.224
4.366 .110 38
38 101.5
103 0 9 5 0 0 1 10.5
114.6 7000 4 401
89 9 5 0 0 .148 1 13- 1 4.044
4 331 ,096 - 0 59 40
100 0 7050 4.260
40 9500 .138 7000 3 560
3 490
42 9500 .115
.130 •115.099 3385
4-152 .090 39
44 9500 108 0 7100 4.188 .080 44
46 9500 .094 101.3
103.4 7150 .128 3 897 46
42
48 82.0 .0 9500 .099
.103
.122 105.6 7100 .104 3 420 48
9968.0 .ic8 100.7 .094
.120 3 350
3,280
2.930
3-823
3-971
4
3-597 116
.070 50
50 9500 7200 3.140 56
52
52 9 4.0 7200
54 88.0
89.0 9500
9600 7200 .110 23.210
860 .066 58
54
90.0
87.0 9500 7200 .056 60
66
58 9600 23 790
2.650070 3.672
86.0 9600 .090 7200 23.000
720
60 85.0 ,062 665
9600 .086 3748
9800 7300 665 3-364
Production 9800of Cards at Various 95-498 8Speeds 73000 with Various Weights of Slivers. 835
0 7 30
97 8 65 Production in lbs. in 603 52hours.
7300 0
938 7300
Speed of DofFer. 60 grs. Sliver. 3421
13 55 grs.610Sliver. 50 grs.555Sliver.
10 1revolutions
II 4
15 610
800 1.035
850
670
12 "
775
1,065
890
16 " 1,000 915
975
7 " 1,130 0
18 " 7 3
1 1,200 1,000
1,100
With slivers of other weights the production will be relative. 790
730
930 720

0
 I07

SPEED, BELTING, POWER, ETC.

SPEED.

How to Find the Circumference of a Circle, or of a Pulley.

Rule. — Multiply the diameter by 3. 1416 ; or as 7 is to 22 so is the diameter to the circum-
ference.

How to Compute the Diameter of a Circle, or of a Pulley.

Rule. — Divide the circumference by 3.1416 ; or multiply the circumference by .3183 ; or
as 22 is to 7 so is the circumference to the diameter.

How to Compute the Area of a Circle.

Rule. — Multiply the circumference by one-quarter of the diameter ; or multiply the
square of the diameter by .7854 ; or multiply the square of the circumference by .07958 ; or
multiply half the circumference by half the diameter ; or multiply tlie square of half the dia-
meter by 3. 1416.

How to Determine the Speed of a Driven Shaft when the speed of a driving shaft or wheel
and the size of the gearing transmitting the power is given.

Rule. — Multiply the speed of the first driving shaft by the size of the driving wheel or
wheels, and divide by the size of the driven wheel or wheels.

Example. — A line shaft in a weave room revolves 120 times per minute, and carries
pulley 13 inches in diameter. The looms driven by them carry pulleys 10 inches in diameter.
Question. — Find the speed of the looms ?

Ansiver. — The speed of the looms is 10 = 144 revolutions.

The term size of the wheel in before given rule includes either the number of teeth, dia-
meter, radius, or pitch circle, and refers equally to bevel and other cog-wheels or rope or strap
driving.

A Pair of Mitre Wheels are bevels which have the same number of teeth, and which
reverse the direction of the motion, consequently make no change in the speed.

How to Compute the Velocities, etc., of toothed gears. The relative velocities of geats
IS as the number of their teeth.
Where idle or intermediate gears intervene they are not reckoned.

The Pitch of a Gear is the distance apart of the teeth from each other, and gears of un-
equal pitch cannot run together.

Bevel Gears are employed for shafts fixed at various angles, and running at dijfferent
velocities, governed by the respective bevels, which may vary in size, as with spur gearing.

N. B. — These rules are practically correct. Though, owing to the slip, elasticity, and thickness of the belt, the circumference of the
driven seldom runs as fast as the driver.
Belts, like gears, have a pitch-line, or a circumference of uniform motion. This circumference is w^ithin the thickness of the belt,
and must be considered if pulleys differ greatly in diameter, and a required speed is absolutely necessary.
 io8

In computing the velocities of gear-wheels their diameters on the pitch line may be
taken instead of the number of their teeth.

The Pitch Line of a gear is a circle struck from the centre, and passing through the
middle of the teeth. It defines the diameter of a gear, which is not, as many suppose, the
whole distance across from point to point of teeth, but half way from bottom to top of teeth.

To Measure the Diameter of a Gear it is only necessary to take the distance from the
bottom of the teeth on one side to the top of the teeth on the opposite side of the gear.

To Ascertain the Pitch of a Gear.— Find the diameter as above, then count the teeth, and
divide their number by the diameter.
Example.— li a gear of 21 teeth measures 3 inches diameter on the pitch line, then the
gear is 7 pitch.

Driving-Driven.— The manner of describing the driving wheel must also be applied to
the driven. If the diameter of the driving wheel be taken, we must also use the diameter
for the driven wheel, and neither the radius or circumference.
Example i. — An engine has a driving wheel 20 feet in diameter, revolving 40 times per
minute, which drives, by means of ropes, a pulley on the second motion shaft 3 feet in
radius.
Question. — Ascertain the speed of the second motion shaft ?
Two feet radius = 4 feet diameter, thus : 40 X 20 feet -r- 4 = 200.
Answer. — 200 revolutions speed of the second motion shaft per minute.
Example 2. — Speed of under shaft of a loom 80, the same carries a lo-teeth bevel, which
gears with a 10 on an upright shaft at the top of which a 32-teeth wheel on a block of tappet
wheels, is driven by an 8.
Question. — Find the speed at which they revolve ?
80 X first driver, 10 X second driver, 8 -r- first driven 10 and second driven 33.
80 X 10 = 800 X 8 = 6400 10 = 640 -f- 32 = 20.
Answer. — 20 revolutions per minute.

How to Distinguish the Driver from the Driven Wheel.— If the gearing is in motion a
glance will usually suffice to show this, since if a wheel is bright or worn on the front of the
tooth, i. e., on the side in the direction of which the wheel is moving, it is the driver ; whereas
the driven wheel is worn on the side of the tooth further from the direction of motion. With
reference to bands or straps, one side of the band or strap is always tighter than the other
since the driver is doing the pulling.

How to Find the Speed of the Driving Wheel, when the speed of the last driven wheel and
the size of the gearing are known.
Multiply the speed of the last driven wheel by the size of the driven wheels and
divide by the size of the drivers.
Example. — A spindle revolving 1,500 times per minute, is driven from a line shaft by a
30 inch drum to a 10 inch pulley, which is fixed to a 10 inch tin roller driving the \}i inch
wharve of the spindle.
Question.— h.%Q.ti\.dxn speed at which the line shaft will revolve ?
The drivers being 30 and 10, and the driven 10 and i^.
1500 X 10 X 13^ = 18750.
18750 30 = 625 10 = 62.5.
Answer. — 62 revolutions per minute speed of line shaft.
 I09

How to Obtain the Size of the Driving Wheel the speed of the driven and driving shaft
and the size of the driven pulleys being given.
Rule. — Multiply the speed of the driven by the size of the driven pulleys, and divide by
the speed of the driver.
Example. — A shaft having a speed of 125 per minute, drives another at 100 per minute,
on which is a 40-tooth bevel wheel.
Question. — Ascertain the size of a bevel wheel on the driving shaft ?
100 X 40 -i- 125 = 32,
Answer. — The bevel wheel on driving shaft has 32 teeth.

How to Obtain the Size of the Driven Wheel if the speed of the driver and driven wheel or
wheels are given and also the size of the driver.
Rule. — Multiply the size of the drivers by the speed of the first driver, and divide by the
speed of the driven, and by the driven pulleys given, if any.
Example. — A shaft making 17 revolutions per minute carries a 15-tooth wheel, which
drives a second shaft by means of a wheel the number of teeth in which it is desired to find.
On this shaft is a 120-tooth wheel driving one of 64 teeth, which latter revolves at 16 revolu-
tions per minute.
Question. — Required the size of the first driven wheel?
Drivers 15 and 120. Driven 64.
120 X 15 X 17 15 64 = 30.
Answer. — 30 teeth required in wheel.
Worm Wheels. — As drivers only are usually single threaded and are equal to one tooth
as a multiplier of speed, worm wheels are used to rapidly diminish speed.
Example. — A worm wheel revolving 750 times per minute, drives a 150-tooth wheel.
Question. — What is the speed of the latter ?
Answer. — 750 X i 150 = 5 revolutions per minute.
If the worm wheel had been double-threaded it would have taken two teeth at one revo-
lution, and the result would have been 10, obtained thus : 750 X 2 150 = 10. .

A Mangle Wheel is a driven wheel only, and is used to reverse its own direction of
motion. The speed for it is calculated as for an ordinary wheel, but since the tooth at each
ena is used only once in a double revolution, (all the others being used twice) its size is taken
as one tooth less than it actually is.
Example. — A 12 pinion revolving 350 times in a minute, drives a mangle wheel of 140
teeth or pegs.
Question. — How many times will the mangle revolve in a minute ?.
350 X 12 140 =30.
Answer. — 30 revolutions (equalling 15 in each direction) speed of mangle in a minute.

How to Change the Speed of a Driven Pulley, Shaft or Wheel.

Rule. — Increase the size of the driver or decrease the size of the driven pulley in exact
proportion to the increase of speed required.

To Increase the Speed by Increasing the Size of the Driver.

Example. — A loom now running at 85 picks per minute is required to be changed to 95

picks ; the diameter of the present driving pulley on the line shaft of the weave room is 15
inches.
 no

Question. — Find size of new pulley required ?

95X15-^85=16!:.
Answer. — Size of new pulley required 16^.

To Increase the Speed by Decreasing the Size of Driven Wheel.

Example. — The cams of a loom being set for eight-harness twill, it is desired to weave a
six-harness twill, thus increasing the speed of the shaft carrying the cams in the proportion of
6 to 8. The driven wheel on the shaft being an 80.
Question —To what size must the driven wheel on the shaft be reduced ?
80 X 6 8 = 60.
Answer. — The driven wheel must be changed to a 60.

How to Ascertain the Circumferential Velocity of a Wheel, Driver or Cylinder.

^a/^.— Multiply the circumference in feet by the number of revolutions per minute.
Example.— K roller has a circumference of 4 feet and makes 12 revolutions per minute.
Question. — Ascertain its circumferential velocity?
4 X 13 = 48.
Answer. — Its circumferential velocity is 48 feet.

How to Find the Speed of Last Shaft where several shafts and pulleys intervene,
^z^/^.— Multiply all the drivers into each other and the product by the speed of the first
shaft, divide this product by the product of all the given pulleys multiplied into each other.

How to Ascertain the Number of Revolutions of the Last Wheel at the End of a Train
of Spur Wheels, all of which are in a line and mesh into one another.
Multiply the revolutions of the first wheel by its number of teeth, and divide the
■ product by the number of teeth of the last wheel ; the result is its number of revolutions.

How to Ascertain the Number of Teeth in Each Wheel for a Train of Spur- Wheels,
each to have a given velocity.
Multiply the number of revolutions of the driving wheel by its number of teeth,
and divide the product by the number of revolutions each wheel is to make, to ascertain the
number of teeth required for each.

How to Find the Number of Revolutions of the Last Wheel of a Train of Wheels,
and pinions, spurs, or bevels, when the revolutions of the first, or driver, and the diameter, or
the number of teeth, or circumference of all the drivers and pinions, are given.
Rule.—yiv\\.v^\y the diameter, the circumference, or the number of the teeth of all the
driving wheels together, and this continued product by the number of revolutions of the first
wheel, and divide this product by the continued product of the diameter, the circumference
or the number of teeth of all the pinions, and the quotient will be the number of revolutions
of the last wheel.

How to Straighten a Crooked Shaft.— Set the shaft on the blocks at each end, and
under the hollow side make a fire, or apply sufficient
a swab, put water on the top, and the contraction will, heat to make the shaft hot. Now,' with
by repeated operations, finally straighten
the shaft.
 Ill

How to Cool a Hot Shaft. — Make a belt of something of a loose, water-absorbing

lature, and hang it over the shaft as near the fiot journal as possible, allowing it to hang
iown and run loose on the shaft. A pail of water may now be fixed so the lower part of the
'>elt will run in it, and in this simple way the shaft may be cooled while running.
Another method consists in the use of black antimony and best castor oil ; you may, if
you like, add a little black lead. Work it up nicely together and lay it on the shaft, first
thick, and then taper down to nothing but the oil.

Cooling Compound for Hot Bearings.— Mercurial Ointment mixed with black cylinder
oil and applied every quarter of an hour, or as often as expedient. The following is also
recommended as a good cooling compound for heavy bearings :— Tallow, 2 pounds, plumbago,
6 ounces, sugar of lead, 4 ounces. Melt the tallow with a gentle heat, and add the other
ingredients, stirring until cold. For lubricating gearing, wooden cogs, etc., nothing better
need be used than a thin mixture of soft soap and black-lead.

Steel and Iron. — To distinguish steel from iron pour on the object to be tested a drop of
nitric acid ; let it act for one minute, then rinse with water. On iron the acid will cause a
greyish-white, on steel a black stain.
In case of wire, heat in the gas and dip in water ; if hard and brittle it is steel.

How to Harden Cast Iron. — Heat the iron into cherry red, then sprinkle on it cyanide of
potassium and heat it to a little above red ; then dip. The cyanide may also be used to case-
harden wrought iron.

BELTING.

Rules for Calculating the Width for Leather Belting (single) required for given power.
Multiply horse power with 33,000 and divide by velocity (in feet) of belt per minute and result
is the tensional stress on belt ; allow for each inch in width a stress of 55 pounds and divide
into the stress due to the horse power and given velocity, and the result is width of belt
required.

Example. — Horse power 75 X 33,000 = 2,475,000 pounds 2500 feet = 990 pounds
(mean stress, both pulleys being same diameter) -r- 55 = 19 inch, single belt required to
transmit 75-horse power at 2500' per minute. The actual stress depends, however, entirely
on the relative diameters of the driving and of the driven pulley embraced by the belt ; the
stress becomes less, the more the driven one is embraced (as the leverage of the driver in-
creases) and vice-versa.

Another Rule, but which only applies to the best quality of belting is thus :

Multiply horse power by 7,000 length in feet of that portion of the belt which clips
smallest pulley and divide again by velocity in feet per minute.

Example.— ^dLutOid. width of single belt to transmit 75-horse power indicated (smallest
drum 8'' diameter, belt clipping 11' of the periphery).
75-horse power X 7,000 — 525,000 11' = 47,727 -J- 3,000' V. = 15.9 or 16 inches.
 112

Table of Safe Actual Width of Single Belts to Transmit Given Power at Given
Speeds, allowing for Leather of Very Indifferent Quality.

N. B.— The body of the table gives the width of the belts in inches.
24
24
INDICATED 24 POWER.
HORSE 24
24
20 60 80
15 100
in Speed
feet per 10 1 4
min. 14
60
20 60 60
600 16 20
800
400 12
1000 9 18 20 28 60 60
1200 18 28 60
8 16 20 34 60 44
1500 7 12 35 44
1800 6 16 18
12 30 40
2400 5 10 20 50 44
4 8 18 20 28
3 6
3000 32 48
(For double belts 400about half the width of single.)
3
50 70
To Find the Length of a Driving Belt Before 42 the4408 Pulleys are in Position.— Add the
circumference of the two pulleys, divide the product by 2, and add the quotient thus obtained
40 0
to double the distance between the centres of the two shafts, which 5 will give the length of belt
required. For a cross belt, add the circumference of the two pulleys, multiply
50 the product by
3, and divide by 2 ; the quotient added to double the distance between 3036 the centres of both
shafts will give the length required. 50
30 50
3 6 36
How to Find where to cut Belt-holes in Floors.— Measure the distance in inches from
centre of driving shaft to underside of floor ; on the upper side make a mark over the centre
of shaft. Now measure the distance from centre of shaft on machine to be driven to floor, 32
making a mark on the floor immediately beneath the centre, then measure the distance
between the two marks. Transfer these figures to a board or paper, draw
driven pulleys after finding their diameters, at the distance from each other off" the driving and
and the floor line
previously obtained, and draw the lines representing the belt cutting the floor line, which will
show where the belt passes through the floor. The drawing can be made to a scale to reduce
it to convenient dimensions, maintaining the proportions. The holes may now be marked
off" on the floor and cut with a certainty of being correct. In making the drawing it is best
to make it full size on the floor, if room can be had ; and allowance must be made for the
thickness of the flooring.

HOW TO MANAGE BELTS.

It is better for belts to relieve the strain upon them whenever they are out of use, as they
last longer and pull better than if kept continually strained up.
Machines requiring 3-h. p. and upwards to drive them should be from 16 feet to 25 feet
between centre of driving and driven pulleys ; the length and width of belt, and diameter and
width of pulleys to increase as the power required is greater.
Avoid Belts made up of short lengths, varying in quality of leather, as they become
crooked, causing trouble and expense.
A Good Dressing for Leather Belts is to sponge them on the outside with warm water,
then rub in some dubbin. This done once every four or six weeks keeps the belts supple,
and prevents them from cracking.
 "3

Anotlier good dressing may be made by tl^^ use of castor oil mixed about half and half
with tallow or other good oil. Castor oil makes not only an excellent dressing, but renders
the belts vermin prooE
For Slipping Belts. — First cleanse the inside by brushing, and drop a few drops of castor
oil on the inside of the belt, or the side next to the pulleys.
By no means use resin for belts when slipping, as it hardens the belt, and causes it to
crack.
Belts made of India-rubber, with plies of strong canvas interposed between their lengths
are best in cases were they become constantly wetted.
A Good Diameter for Drums or pulleys is 5 to 6 times the width of belt.
A Good Distance from centre to centre of drums is from 2 to 2 >^ times the sum of their
two diameters.
A Pulley Covered with Leather^ with the Hair Side of the Belt Turned to it^ offers 50 per
cent, more resistance to slipping than a pulley merely polished. When a belt is turned with
the hair side to pulley, the contact is greater, from the fact of a more even surface being pre-
sented, than when the flesh side is to the pulley ; and, again, as the outside of a belt must
necessarily stretch more in bending over a pulley, it follows that if the hair side is the outer
one it will finally crack ; but by reversing it, so that it must contract in wrapping around the
pulley, it lays on with great smoothness, and the flesh side, being more open and irregular,
experiences no difficulty or injury by the stretch from being outside.
It is claimed, however, that, if belts are run with the flesh side to pulley, and tanner's
dubbin applied thereto, they will become as smooth as the hair side, and will become more dur-
able. Itis also well to remember that the pliableuess of a belt has often more to do with its
adhesiveness to the pulley, than the question of which side shall be presented to it, and for
that reason they should always be maintained as pliable as possible.
It is reckoned that leather belts, grain or hair side to the. pulley, will drive 34 per cent,
more than with flesh side to the pulley ; 48 per cent, more than rubber ; 121 per cent, more
than gutta-percha ; and 180 per cent, more than canvas.
Direction of Running. — Belts where it is possible should always run from the top of the
driving to the top of the driven pulley.
Belts always run to the high part of a pulley when the shafts are parallel; but when they
are not, the belt will always run toward the ends of the shafts which are nearest together, and
this tendency is much stronger than to run to the highest part of the pulley.
To Ascertain Length of a Roll of Strapping add inside and outside diameters in inches X
numberof coils X 0.1309 12'' = length in feet.
In Order to Preserve Belting in the best condition apply the following mixture while hot
and thin, with a common hand brush while the belt is in motion, once every two or three
months :

Bee's wax .............. 2-5ths.

f. Castor oil 2-5ths.
Resin , , , . . . . . i-5th.

To Keep Ropes from Fraying. — Apply a cake of paraffin wax once a month for a few
minutes while the ropes are running.
The adoption of belt and rope driving has been greatly influenced by the number of
breakdowns where gearing was used.
Where rope or strap driving has not been introduced — these instances, however, are very
few — cast-steel wheels have been generally substituted for the broken cast-iron ones.

1 1^8
 114

WATER POWER.

Velocity of Water-. — To ascertain mean velocity of stream, find surface velocity by observ-
ing rate of feet per minute with cork floats ; deduct 25 per cent, for friction and multiply by
area in feet of cross section of river and product is discharge in cubic feet per minute =
number of gallons.

Water Power.

English Rule : — (33,000 pounds raised i foot in i minute = i H. P.

200 pounds of water (20 gallons) 3 feet fall per second ==i H. P. or
60 gallons I foot fall per second — i H. P. Therefore :—
I ton

224 gallons = 2240 lbs. X 3 feet X 60 seconds ^ ^^.2 H. P. calculated.

minus 25 per cent, on account 33,

of turbine000
loss = 9.8 actual ' .
' or* effective H. P.

French Rule : — (75 kilos raised i metre high in i second = i H. P.) Therefore,
I ton approx.
■ ' ^ N
I cubic metre (1000 kilos or 1000 litres), i metre fall 1000
litres X i metre fall X 60 seconds
per second = = 13.33 H. P. calculated.
75 X 60 seconds:
minus 20 per cent, on account of turbine loss =10.67 effective H. P.
6 metres fall of i cubic metre or \ Qr>> tt p 1
I " "6 " I — Qo n. r. I minus 20 per cent.
6 " " 4 " 1 TT TD I turbine loss.
24 - " \ - I =32oH. P.J

STEAM POWER,

For each nominal horse power a boiler should have :—

I cubic foot of water per hour (at least).
I square yard of heating surface.
I square foot of fire-grate area,
I cubic yard capacity.
28 square inches flue area.
I pint water evaporates into 206 gallons of steam.
I gallon of water is converted into 1648 gallons of steam at the mean atmospheric pres-
sure of 14.7 pounds per square inch.

X diameter in feet.
Nominal horse power of boiler = length in feet
To Ascertain the Chimney Area
lb. of coal— per hour X 12 . .
— — r = area in square inches.
y height m feet
To Prevent Incrustation to Boilers use nothing but common soda. Put a bucket full into
the feed water supply tank once daily, or more, according to quantity and quality of the
water used.
 "5

To Ascertain the best Size of Injector for any given boiler, multiply the nominal horse
power by lo, which gives the number of gallons of water required per hour.
To Find the Number of Cubic Feet of Exhaust Steam emitted from cylinder per minute-
multiply area of piston (in square feet) by speed of piston in feet per minute.
A Horse Power (H. P.) is equal to 33,000 pounds lifted one foot high in one minute or
equivalent motion against resistance.
T 9 Find the Indicated Horse Power of an Engine : Multiply mean pressure in pounds per
square inch on piston X the area of the piston in square inches X piston speed in feet per
minute and the result is number of pounds engine will raise one foot high per minute.
Divide by 33,000 for the indicated horse power, and deduct one-sixth for friction, which will
then be the eflfective horse power of the engine.
T 7 find the maximum efficiency of a theoretically perfect steam engine use the following
Rule : — E -of which
T-T'
T = absolute temperature of steam on admission—?, e. , temperature Fahrenheit + 450°.
T' =absolute temperature of exhaust steam— 2. e., temperature Fahrenheit + 459°.
K =Maximum efficiency of theoretically perfect steam engine.

HEAT.

A Unit of Heat is the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of i pound of
water at or near its temperature of greatest density (31.9° F.) through 1° F.

How to change degrees of Centigrade or Reaumur into degrees Fahrenheit and vice versa.

F = Degrees Fahrenheit. C = Degrees Fahrenheit into Reaumur.

Centigrade or Celsius. R = Degrees Reau- 32)
mur. ^ 4 X (degrees F given
Centigrade into Fahrenheit.
Example. — Find degrees R. for 104° C.
F = 9 X °C given ^ 4 X (degrees -F given — 32)
Example— Vm.^ degrees F. for 40° C. 104 — 32 = 72 X 4 = 288 ^ 9 = 32.
40 X 9 = 360 5 == 72 + 32 = 104.
Answer. — 104° C = 32° F.
Answer. — 40° C ■ 104° F.
Reaumur into •Celsius. 4
Reaumur into Fahrenheit.

p ^ 9 X °R4 given _^ C = 5 X degrees R given

Example. — Find degrees F. for 32° R. Example. — Find degrees C.for 32° R.
32-X 9 = 288 ^ 4 = 72 + 32 = 104. 5 X 32 = 160 -J- 4 = 40.
Answer. — 32° R = 104° F. Answer. — 32° R = 40° C.
Fahrenheit into Celsius. Celsius into Reaumur.

Q _ 5 X (degrees F. given — 32)

R — 4 X degrees5 C given
Example.— degrees C. for 104 F. Example. — Find degrees R. for 40° C.
5 X (104 — 32) 72 = 360 9 = 40. 4 X 40 = 160 -f- 5 = 32.
Answer. — 104° F = 40° C, Answer. — 40° C = 32° R,
 ARITHMETIC.

^{Specially Adapted for Textile Purposes).

ADDITION.

Addition has for its object the finding of a number (called sum) equal to two, three, or more
numbers.
The symbol + (read plus) is used to indicate the operation of addition. The symbol = (read is
equal to, or are) is the sign of equality.
Example. — 3 + 4 + 7 yards=14 yards.
If adding higher numbers than units place figures that represent units in each number in the same
vertical line, those representing tens in the same vertical line and continue in this manner with the
numbers representing hundreds, thousands, ten-thousands, hundred-thousands and millions. Next
draw a horizontal line under the last number, and under this line place (in the same arrangement
as to value of positions) the sum of the given numbers ; i. e., commencing to add the right-hand column,
writing the units of the sum beneath, and adding the tens, if any, to the next column, and continue
in this manner with all the columns until writing the entire sum of the last column.
Examples. — 206 lbs. 46 yards.

""
4763200lbs.
+555286
230 ""
4377
62351 yards.
+57698 "
Question. — Find number of threads in pattern dressed :
10 threads black.
2 " blue.
4 " brown.
24 " black.
+ 2 " blue.
Afiswer. — 42 threads in pattern.
Question. — Find total weight for the fallowing lot of wool :
960 lbs. Domestic.
40 " Australian.

Anmer.- 1000 lbs., total weight.

SUBTRACTION.

Subtraction is the process of taking away a number (called subtrahend) from a larger number
(called minuend). The result of a subtraction is termed difference.
The symbol — (read minus, or less) denotes the operation of subtracting. To prove a subtrac-
tion, remember that the difference and subtrahend, added, must equal the minuend.
Example.— 8 — 3 lbs. = 5 lbs. Proof.— 5 + 3 = 8.
If subtracting higher numbers than units, write the subtrahend under minuend, placing units of
the same order in the same column. Next draw a horizontal line under the subtrahend and begin
to subtract with the units of the lowest order, andii6proceed to the highest, writing the result beneath.
 117

If any order of the minuend has less units than the same order of the subtrahend, increase its
units by ten and subtract ; consider the units of the next minuend order one less, and proceed as
before.

Examples. — 4322 lbs. (minuend) 4284 yards

—2111 " (subtrahend)
—3395 «
2211 lbs. (difference). 889 yards.
Question. — Weight of cloth required, 21 oz. ; weight from loom, 19 oz. Find difference.
21 oz.

—19 "
2 oz.

Anm)er. — The cloth in question is 2 oz. too light.

Question. — The weight of a lot of wool in grease is 100 lbs.; its weight after being scoured and
dried is 67 lbs. Find loss during scouring process.
100 lbs.

— 67 "
33 lbs.
Answer. — The lot of wool in question lost during scouring 33 lbs.
Question. — Basis of cotton yarn, 840 yards per lb. ; basis of worsted yarn, 560 yards per lb.
Find difference.
840 yards.

-560 "
280 yards.
Answer. — The worsted yarn basis is 280 yards less than the one for cotton yarns.
MULTIPLICATION.

Multiplication is the process of taking one number (called multiplicand) as often as another number
(called multiplier) contains ones. The sum thus derived, or the result of a multiplication, is called the
product or result.
The symbol X (read multiplied, or times) denotes the operation for multiplying.
Example. — Multiplicand. Multiplier. Product.
4 'X 3 =12
Proof. — 4
4 ^

+ 124

If multiplying higher numbers than units, begin the process with the ones, and write the ones of
the product reserving the tens if any. Next multiply the tens of the multiplicand, adding number of
tens reserved from the previous process, write tens in place for tens in product and reserve (if any) the
hundreds; continue in this manner, always multiplying the next highest number of the multiplicand,
adding number of same value (if any) from the previous part of the operation, until all the numbers of
the multiplicand are taken up, writing in full the last operation.
Example. — If weaving 212 yards of cloth in one day, how many yards will be woven, under the
same circumstances, in 3 days ? 212x3=636.
Answer. — 636 yards.
 ii8

The product for multiplying a number by 10, is obtained by simply annexing 0 to tiie multiplicand.
Example.— 336 yards X 10=3,360 yards.
By annexing 00 to the multiplicand, we multiply the latter by 100 ; by annexing 000, with
1000, etc.
If required to multiply with a number having tens and zeros (0) for ones, we first multiply with
the tens and annex 0 to the result.

Examples.— 36 X 30=1,080 ; 36 X 300=10,800 ; 36 X 3,000=108,000, etc.

Remember that the multipler and multiplicand can change places, without altering the product ;
thus, if zeroes are found in the multiplicand reverse factors so as to apply previously given rules.
Example. — How many picks per hour does a loom make if running 85 picks per minute?
1 hour=60 minutes; thus, 60X85=5,100.
Answer. — The speed per hour is 5,100 picks.
If the multiplier contains two parts, for example 5 and 60 (or 65), multiply the multiplicand first
with the units (5 in example) and afterwards with the tens, using zero for ones (60 in example). In
setting down this second result omit the zero, as it has no effect on the addition to be performed.
Example. — If one loom produces 235 yards of cloth in one week, how many yards will 23 looms
produce in the same time and on the same work ?

235 X 3= 705 235X23

2,6b X 16 rpu
oQKx/OQ Ihus : ^ 30= 4700 705^(235 X 3)
470 = (235X20)
5405 5405
Answer. — 23 looms will produce 5,405 yards per week.
If the multiplier is made up of three parts, multiply with the units and tens as before, next the
hundreds, using zeros for tens and units, but omitting both zeros in setting down the third result. For
similar reasons any future value of figures in the multipler requires corresponding increase of zeros not
set down in the respective result.

Example. — ' 783X233

2349 =(783 X 3= 2349).
2349 =(783 X 30= 23490).
1566 =(783X200=156600).
Anmer.— 182439
In some instances we are requested to find the continued product of three, four, or more numbers.
In such instances multiply the first two numbers, and multiply product derived with the third, etc.

Example. — Find number of yards of filling wanted to weave 32 yards cloth, 72 inches wide in
loom, 45 picks per inch. Thus: 32X72X45.
32X72=2,304X45=103,680
Answer. — 103,680 yards of filling are wanted.
Some examples call for a number to be multiplied by itself once, twice, three times, or oftener. If
so, the resulting products are called the second, third, fourth, etc., powers of the number. The pro-
cess istermed involution, and the power to which the number 'is raised is expressed by the number of
times the number has been employed as a factor in the operation. The raising of a number to the
second power is called square ; the raising to the third power being termed cube. Thus :
16 is the square of 4, because 4X4=16
64 « « cube " 4, " 4X4x4=64
 119

DIVISION.

Division is the process by which we find how many times one number (called divisor) is contained
, into another (called dividend) The quotient is the result of a division, and the part of the dividend not
containing the divisor an exact number of times, is called the remainder.
The symbol of division is -f- (read divided by), and is written between the dividend and divisor;
for example, 8-7-4; but is also frequently substituted, either by writing the divisor at the left of the
dividend with a curve, for example, 4)8, or by writing the divisor under the dividend, both num-
bers to be separated by a horizontal line.
Q
For example, Dividend. Divisor. Quotient.
8 4 = 2

Example. — If dividing higher numbers than units, find how many times the divisor is con-
tained inthe fewest left-hand figures of the dividend that will contain it ; write answer as the first
number of the quotient. Next multiply this number by the divisor ; subtract the product from the
partial dividend used, and to the remainder annex the next dividend figure for a second partial divi-
dend. Divide and proceed as before, until all the numbers of the dividend are called for, writing the last
remainder (if there is one left), with the divisor under it (as common fraction), as a part of the quotient.
Example. — Find number of repeats of pattern in the following warp :
3,904 threads in warp. 32 threads in pattern.
3904--32=122
32
70
64

64
64
Answer. — In the warp given in the example there are 122 repeats of pattern.
Remember that the dividend is the product of the divisor and the quotient ; hence, use this as proof
for the division in question.
Divisor. Quotient.
32 X 122 = 3,904 (Dividend.)

64
64
32
3904
If we have to divide a number by ten, simply insert a decimal point between the last two figures
(toward the right) in the dividend, thus expressing at once the quotient.
Example. — 4,220 end in warp, dressed with 10 sections. Find number of ends used in each section.
4,220^10=422.0, or
Answer. — 422 ends are used in each section.
If the divisor is hundred, thousand, or more, always move the decimal point correspondingly one
more point toward the left in the dividend, so as to get the quotient.
Example.— i 25 lbs. of filling must weave 100 yards of cloth, how many pounds must be used
per yard, to weave up all this filling?
125^100=1.25
Answer. — 1^ lbs. yarn must be used per yard. , ,
 120

Dividing or multiplying the dividend and the divisor by one number does not alter the quotient ;
thus, if the divisor contains zeros for either units, units and tens, units, tens and hundreds, etc., we can
shorten the process by throwing out such zeros and reducing the dividend correspondingly, by simply
placing a decimal point in its proper place.

Example. — 4,905 threads in warp, 30 threads in pattern. Find number of repeats of pattern in warp.
4905^30=490.5^3^=163.5
3

19
18
10

15
15

Answer.— There are 163| repeats of patterns in warp.

Previous example also explains the multiplying of both the dividend and the divisor (without
altering the proper quotient) towards the close of the division, when 1.5 is to be divided by 3.
1.5 X 10 = 15 1
3 X 10 = 30 2

PARENTHESIS OR BRACKETS.

A parenthesis (expressed by symbol ( ) ), is used in calculations for enclosing such numbers as

must be considered together. Hence, the whole expression which is enclosed is affected by the symbol
preceding or following the parenthesis.
Hence, (18 X 4)-7-(4 X 2)=72-=-8=9 ; whereas without parenthesis example would read as follows :
18X4--4X2=(18X4=72^4=18X2=) 36
If the main operation, as in the present example, is a division, we may use in the place of the
parenthesis, the vinculum (expressed by symbol ), writing the dividend above the line, and the
18 X4
divisor below; thus, previously given example would read ■ 4. ^
X ^ = 9
240^(7+4X2) means that twice the sum of 7+4 equal 22 is to be dividftd into 240. It might
also have1.
11- been writ .ten - ,240
.,
7+4x2
(3 X 4—2) X (6 X 9 +4) +43 means : Subtract 2 from the product of 3 multiplied by 4, and multiply
the remainder (10) by the sum of 6 multiplied by 9, plus 4 (58), and add to the product (10X58=580)
thus obtained 43, which gives 623 as the result or answer.
Frequently brackets are made to inclose one another, if so, remove the brackets one by one, com-
mencing bythe innermost.

Example.— (2+5X(4+82)+8)X(3+10).
(2+5X 86 +8)X(3+10).
( 7 X 86 +8)X(3+10).
( 602 +8)x(3+10).
610 X 13

^wswer.— (2+5x(4+82)+8)X(3+10)=7,930.
 121

Example.— (3X(6+9-v-2x(4x8)+8) )X2.

(3X(6+9-i-2X 32 +8)),X2.
(3X( 248 ))X2.
744 X2.
Answer.— (3 X (6 +9-^-2 X(4 X 8)-f 8) )X 2==1,488.

PRINCIPLE OF CANCELLATION.
18X4
Example given in previous chapter on brackets we will also use to explain the subject of
cancelling or shortening calculations. The rule for this process is : Strike out all the numbers common
to both dividend and divisor, and afterward proceed as required by example.

18X4 _ 18X^ _ 18 _ . ■ _9
^X2 - T -
4X2 is-to ascertain ^ -
Another point for cancellation if a number in the dividend and in the divisor have
the same common factor.
2
Example.— 36X9 ^^X9 2X9 = 18 -J- 5 = 3i
18X5 ;^X5 1X5
1
Proof.— 36X9 324
18X5 — 90 = 324 90 = 31.
270

54
90 10 I 5

For reducing fractions to th^ir lowest denomination as in previous example ^ * ^ ^ \ 2_§~

as well as for assisting the student quickly to find the same common factor for two numbers, we give
herewith rules by which he can quickly ascertain if a number is exactly divisible by 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
9, 10 or 11.
If the last figure of the number is either zero or an even digit, such a number is exactly divisible by 2.
Examples.— 420-r-2=210, 336^-2=168.
If the sum of the figures is divisible by 3, such a number is exactly divisible by 3.
Example.— 38,751-^-3=12,917.
If the last two figures of a given number are divisible by 4, such a number is exactly divisible by 4.
Example.— 396,564--4=99,141.
If the last digit in a number is either 0 or 5, such a number can be exactly divided by 5.
Examples.— 320h-5=64, 38,745-f-5=7,540.
When the last three figures of a number are divisible by 8, such number can be divided by 8
Example.— 376,256-^8=47,032.
A number is exactly divisible by 9, when the sum of its digits is divisible by 9.
Example.— 887,670-^-9=98,630.
A number is exactly divisible by 11, when the difference between the sum of the digits in the
uneven places (commencing with the units) and the sum of the digits in the even places, is either zero
or divisible by 11.
Example. — 514,182,746-f-ll=46,743,886.
 122

COMMON FRACTIONS.

A common fraction is a fraction in which we write the numerator above, and the denominator
below, the dividing (— or /) line.

Example.- i = Zri^'rl/fSln } Both being the terms of the fraction.

The horizontal dividing line is the one most frequently used, but the oblique (X) answers the
same purpose.
The denominator of a fraction indicates in how many equal parts the unit is divided ; and the
numerator shows how many of those parts are taken.
There are two kinds of fractions :
(a) Proper Fractions, which have for their terms a numerator which is less than the denominator.
For example, f, I, 7, etc.
(6) Improper Fractions, which have for their terms a numerator, which is greater than the
denominator. For example, I, 1, I, etc.
An improper fraction can be changed to a mixed number by dividing the numerator by the
denominator, setting down the quotient as the integral part, and making the remainder the numerator
of the fractional part of the mixed number, whose denominator is the denominator of the original
fraction.
An integer {= whole number) can be expressed as an improper fraction, without reducing its
value, for example, 6=t, 8=f, etc. The combination of an integer and a fraction is termed a mixed

For example, 7| ^ 7 fc Numerator. X\

4 Denominator.
number.
A mixed number can be changed to an improper fraction by multiplying the integer by the de-
nominator ofthe fraction, adding to the product the numerator of the fraction. This sum is the nu-
merator of the improper fraction of which the denominator is the denominator of the given fraction.
2x7 I 1
Example. — 21 = — improper fraction.

A fraction is expressed in its lowest terms {i. e., cannot be reduced) when the numerator and de-
nominator have no common factor except unity, or in other words, when both terms are not dividable
by any number except one. For example, , f, etc.
Thus, to reduce a fraction to its lowest terms, use

Rule. — Divide the numerator and the denominator by their highest common factor.
The highest common factor of a fraction is the highest number which will exactly divide each of
the terms of a fraction ; for such small numbers, as are generally used for fractions, the highest com-
mon factor is found at a glance. For example : I. Readily the student will see that both the 6 and the
8 can be divided by 2. Thus : f 2 = f, or f i.
If dealing with large numbers, the highest common factor cannot always be determined by inspec-
tion, but is found by

Rule. — Divide the higher number of the fraction by the lower, and the latter (the divisor of the
first operation) by the remainder ; continue the process until no remainder is left, the divisor used last
being the highest common factor for the fraction.

Example. — Reduce to its lowest terms UU; i. c, find the highest common factor for 2166 and
and 2888, by previously given rule.
 123

2166)2888=1
2166
or, 722 is the highest common factor. 2,166^722=3
;h-722=4
722)2166=3
2166

Answer. — fill expressed in its lowest terms equals I

Frequently we must change a given fraction to terms of a known denominator ; if so, proceed as
follows : Divide the required denominator by the denominator of the given fraction and multiply by
the quotient thus obtained with both terms of the given fraction.

Example. — Change 1^2 to equivalent fraction expresseed in 60's.

• 60^12=5 and ^5 ^ X 5 = 25
5 _

Anmoer. — A equals M in value.

If two fractions are to be changed to equivalent fractions (fractions having the same denominator)
find the lowest common multiple (see * below for explanation for lowest common multiple) for the two
given denominators, which is the new denominator for each fraction. Next find the new numerators
for both fractions, by means of previously given method for changing a given fraction to terms of a
known denominator. This rule also applies for three or more fractions.

Example. — Change f and f to equivalent fractions, having the same denominator.

4X7 (prime numbers) = 28, new denominator.
28 4 = 7 28 7 = 4
3 X 7 =21 5^X 4=^
4' X 7 == 28 7 X 4 = 28
Answer. — f = |i and f = ii.

Example. — Change I, I and f to equivalent fractions, having the same denominator.

3X4X7 (prime numbers) = 84, new denominator.
84 -f- 3 = 28 84 4 = 21 84 7 = 12

^X 28 = 56 3^X21 = 63 X 12 = 60
3 X 28 = 84 4 X 21 = 84 v T X 12 ="84
ATiswer. —

* The lowest common multiple of two or more numbers is the lowest number which is exactly
dividable by each of them, and is obtained for two numbers by dividing one of the numbers by the
highest common factor, and multiplying the quotient by the other number. If numbers are prime, their
product is the lowest common multiple.
If we have to find the lowest common multiple of three or more numbers, find the lowest common
multiple of any two, next find the lowest common multiple of the resulting number, and of a third
of the original numbers, and so on, the final result being the lowest common multiple wanted.

ADDITION OF COMMON FRACTIONS.

Only fractions having the same denominators can be added; thus, change fractions given to
equivalent fractions having the lowest common denominator. Next add the numerators of the equiva-
lent fractions and place the result as the numerator of a fraction whose denominator is the common
denominator of the equivalent fractions.
 124

Example. — Find sum of i and i oz. 24-^-8= 3 24^3:^ 8

3 I S
8X3=24, lowest common denominator. _1^X3=^
8 X3=24 JL_X8=8_
3X8=24
Answer. — T oz. 4" I OZ. = H oz.
Example. — Find sum of ts and tV inches.
The lowest common denominator of 20, 15 and 10 is 60, since
■ 60 ^20 = 3 60 H-15 = 4 60 --10 = 6
9 -j-t ^5I 6 -J-
I 6 = ^3 1
^X3=_9 ^X4=J^ J_x6 = ^
20 X 3 = 60 15 X 4 = 60 10 X 6 = 60
Answer. — inr + + tV = ih inches.
Example. — Find the total yards for the following three pieces of cloth containing respectively 3 tV>
8A, and lOSA yards.
The lowest common denominator of 16 and 20 is 80, since 80-5-16=5 and 80-^-20=4.
4 X 4 16 ^Qg^4 ^ -^Qgie
AX 5^10^ thus:
3A = 3H
16 X S 80' 80' -}- 108it = 119M
16 X3H 64- 8i§
20 X 4 80'
Answer. — The total yards for the three pieces cloth given in question are 119fu yards.
If the sum derived is an improper fraction, the same can be changed (if required) to a mixed
number, by dividing the numerator by the denominator, the quotient obtained being the integer.
The remainder is the numerator of the fraction which has the given denominator of the improper
fraction for their denominator.

Example. — Find sum of 7 and 1 lb.

The lowest common denominator of 7 and 9 is 63, since 63-=-7=9, and 63-f-9=7.

_^X»=±^and 1X7 = 66 II + If = -W- (101 --.a) = 1^

7X9 = 63 9X7 = 63
Answer.— \\h. + f lb. = W, or 111 lbs.
Previously given rule also applies if adding improper fractions.
Example. — Find sum of I and i yards.
The lowest common denominator of 5 and 3 is 15, since 15-^3=5, and 15-^5=3.
_8^X3 = 24 ^X5 = 35
5 X 3 = 15 3 X 5 = 15 _l_f| = H (5.-^15):
Answer. — \ yard -f- i yard = 3tI yards.
If adding mixed numbers, first add the fractions ; if their product is a proper fraction, reduce the
same to their lowest equal terms ; but if an improper fraction, change the same to a mixed number
and put the fraction part down for the fraction of the sum. Next add the integral parts of the given
mixed numbers plus the integral part from the addition of the fractions.
Example. — Find the sum of 31, 41 and 21 inches.
The lowest common denominator of 3, 8 and 7 is 168, since 168-^-3=56 168-5-8=21; 168-5-7=24.
3f(fxii)=3Hf -168=111
lOH
4f(lxii)=41ff
2f(IXit)=2T¥^ 9||2^
+

262-
Answer,- 31 -I- 4! 4- 2i inches = 1011 inches.

+ 9
 125

SUBTRACTION OF COMMON FRACTIONS.

Only fractions having the same denominator can be subtracted ; thus, change fractions given to
equivalent fractions having the lowest common denominator. Next deduct the numerator of the
smaller of the equivalent fractions from the numerator of the greater fraction. The difference place
as the numerator of a fraction whose denominator is the common denominator of the equivalent
fraction. This fraction is the difference of the given two fractions (can be reduced to its lowest
terms by previously given rule).
Example. — Find the difference between I and 7.
The lowest common denominator of 8 and 7 is 8X7, or 56 ; and 56-i-8=7 ; 56-7-7=8.
6_X7 = 42 ^X8=16 H_-_H = if
8X7 = 56 7X8 = 56
Answer. — I — f = M.

Example.— FM the difference between the weight of two pieces of cloth weighing respectively
23f and 20! lbs. The lowest common denominator of 7 and 9 is 7 X 9 or 63.
63 -T- 7 = 9 63 ^ 9 = 7.
23f = 23H
201 = 20M

3li lbs.
Answer. — The difference between the two pieces of cloth given in example is 3li lbs.

Previously given rule also applies, if dealing with improper fractions. In some instances we may
iiave to deduct a fraction or a mixed number in which the value of the fraction of the subtrahend is
greater than the one of the minuend. If so, we must change the fraction by adding one unit of the
integer (changed to a fraction of the same denominator) to the fraction of the minuend.
Example.— Find the difference between the weight of two pieces of cloth weighing respectively
28f and 281 ounces. The lowest common denominator of 7 and 8 is 8 X 7, or 56.
28f=28M=27l§
22f=22M=22||

611, or 511 oz.

Ansu)^. — ^The difference in weight between the two pieces of cloth, given in example, is 511 ozs.
MULTIPLICATION OF COMMON FRACTIONS.

A fraction is multiplied by an integer, by multiplying the numerator of the fraction by the integer
and leaving the denominator of the fraction unchanged, or divide the denominator of the fraction by
the integer and leave the numerator unchanged.
Example. — Multiply f with 2.
3 ^ ._SX2
_X2-_g _ T'^'T
6 3

|X2=^^=4
Example. — If 1 lb. filling weaves f yards cloth, how many yards will 26 lbs. weave ?

4-X
8 26 = 8 = 8 or 130-f-8=16i.

Answer. — 26 lbs. filling will weave 16| yards cloth.

 126

A fraction is multiplied by a fraction by writing the product of the numerators over the product
of the denominators. The product thus divided change either to a fraction of the lowest term, or, if
an improper fraction to a mixed number.

Example. — Multiply A by x? inches.

A X — = 3X4 _ ^ X 4 ^ 4 ^ _£
13 15 13X15 — 13x;^ 13X5 65
6
Answer. — t j X tV = ^S.

Example. — Multiply I by 2f.

8X7-8^-^^' 17^8_2|
Answer. — ^ | x 2f 8X7
= 2i

weave.Example.— 1? one pound of filling weaves f yards of cloth, how many yards will 38| lbs. filling

I X 381= (f X -^f^) =*8X4 = 775-^-32=24/^

Answer. — 38| lbs. of filling will weave 24^ yards.
Previously given rules also apply to improper fractions. In the application of the rules to mixed
numbers, change the latter to their equivalent value in improper fractions and proceed as in the fore-
going example.

Example. — Find square inches for a sample cut to the rectangular shape of 31X41 inches.
(Mixed numbers.) (Improper fractions.)
5
31 = ^
17^25 17 X^^ 17 X 5 85 „

Answer.— -The surface of the sample in question is (3IX4i) 14i inches.

DIVISION OF COMMON FRACTIONS.

A fraction is divided by an integer by multiplying the denominator of the fraction by that num-
ber, leaving the numerator unchanged; or by dividing the numerator of the fraction by the integer, and
leaving the denominator unchanged.

Example. — (Fraction -r- Integer.) Divide v by 2.

±-^2=-A__A = A or±-2-iz:2_2
9 9X2 18 9 ' 9 * 9 ~ "9"
Answer. — f 2 = f. •

Example. — | lb. of filling weave 3 yards cloth, ascertain amount used per yard
7 _ 7 _ 7
8 ■ 8X3 24

Answer. — The amount of filling used per yard, is 5? lb.

If we have to divide an integer by a fraction, we must change the integer to a fraction, and use
the same rule as given next for
 127

Dividing Fractions by Fractions.

Rule. — Invert the divisor and proceed as in multiplication of fractions.

Example, — (Fraction Fraction). Divide H by A.
6
11 . 3 _ 11 ^ 15 _ 11 _ 11X5 _ 55 ,

Answer. — H -i- -is = 4i^j.

Proof. — The product of the quotient and the divisor must equal the dividend, thus :
11 1

V, a _ 55 ^ 3 _ _ 11X1 _
4 3

4tV X tV = H, the same as \h -4- tV = 4tte

Example (Integer-^ Fraction). Divide 8 by f.
3
8 . 3 _ 8 . 3 _ 8 9 8X^ _ 8X3 _
8 ^ _______ X -3- or - 24
Answer. — 8 -4- I = 24.
In the application of the rules for mixed numbers, change the latter to an improper fraction, and
proceed as in the foregoing examples.
Example. — (Mixed Number Fraction. Divide 91 by I.

91-^ 5 = A=75><1_^_
• 9 ~ 8 ^ 7 8 X7 ~ 56 -^"^^^
An^er. — 9f -f- ^ =8 12A.
Example. — (Mixed Number -4- Mixed Number). Divide 41 by If.
3

8' 9~8 ^13~~8 x;^ 8 ~"

Answer. — 4J -r- If = 31.
DECIMAL FRACTIONS.

A decimal fraction is a fraction whose unit is divided into tenths, hundreths, thousandths, ten-
thousandths, hundred thousandths, etc. and is expressed without a denominator by means of the decimal
point.
Value of decimal fractions commonly termed decimals.

it
^ . Ii
.5S "S
id 2i «3 I. 2i -2d
Qu hS aa ,cH hS K3 S3
.123456 (.123456) and so on, each digit decreasing tenfold advancing to the right.
Above number reads : One hundred twenty-three thousand four hundred fifty-six millionths.
The denominator of a decimal fraction (which as already mentioned, is not put down, but
indicated by the decimal point) is 1 plus as many zeros annexed as there are places in the fraction.
Hence : .4 reads, 4 tenths, t*^.
.73 seventy-three hundredths, xVir.
.821 eight hundred twenty-one thousandths, toVt, etc.
 128

Some parties also use a zero one point to the left to indicate that the fraction contains no
integer
parts; thus, foregoing fractions may also be written 0.4, 0.73, 0.821, without changing
or their reading. their value
Zeros affixed to a decimal do not change its value.
Hence, .38=.380=.3800, etc., 0.693=0.6930=0.69300 etc.
Mixed numbers are made up of an integer and a decimal. For example: 3.25
read, three and
twenty-five hundredths. 347.3 reads, three hundred forty-seven and three tenths.
1873.472 reads
one thousand eight hundred seventy-three and four hundred and seventy two thousandth
To change a decimal fraction to common fraction of equivalent value, omit the decimal s. '
point and
write the proper denominator as explained previously, next change the fraction to its
lower terms.
Example. — Change .25 to a common fraction. *

25= - 1
Answer. — .25 equals J. 100 25 ~ 4

Example.— Change 43.625 to a mixed number having a common fractional part.

43.625=43TVA=(A¥<r-j-Jil=l) 43i
Answer.— 43.625 equals 431.
To change a common fraction to a decimal fraction, add decimal ciphers to the numerator,
divide
by the denominator, and point off as many decimal figures in the quotient as there are ciphers
annexed.
Example. — Change J to a decimal. Example. — Change 43| to a decimal.
1.00^-4=0.26
10 1=5.000^8=0.625.
50

4820
20 43.000
20 16 -f 0.625
40

40 43.625
AnMoer. — J equals .25 or 0.25.

Answer. — 431 equals 43.625.

If the division does not terminate, or has been carried as far as necessary, the remainder may be
expressed in the result as a common fraction, or may be rejected if less than J, or unimportant, and the
incompleteness of the result marked at the right of the fraction by +. If J, or more than J, the last
digit of the decimal may be made to express one more.
Example. — Change ^ to a decimal.
7.000-r-9=0.777-f
70
63
70

63
70

63

Answer.- ^ = 0,7771, or i;'^ =0.777 +, or = 0.778.

 129

ADDITION OF DECIMAL FRACTIONS.

Bule.— Place the decimals to be added one under another, decimal point under decimal point.
Next
add the figures as if dealing with whole numbers, and place the decimal point for the sum under the
others.

Example.— Add 0.22, 0.384, and 0.054.

0.220
0.384
- + 0.054

0.658

Answer.— 0.22 + 0.384 + 0.054 = 0.658.

If the numbers to be added be mixed numbers, place integers in front of the decimals, in their
proper position, and proceed as before.
Example.— Add 3468.12; 483.39; 27.0003 and 3.18
3468.1200
483.3900
27.0003

+ 3.1800
3981.6903
Answer.— 3468.12 + 483.39 + 27.0003 + 3.18 = 3981.6903.
Find total cost of a piece of cloth in which the value of the warp is $22.32 ; of the filling, $16.02
•
of the selvage, $0.64, and (general) manufacturing expenses are $5.00.
$22.32
16.02
0.64 Answer. — The total cost of the piece of cloth in question is $43.98.
-f 5.00

$43.98
SUBTRACTION OF DECIMAL FRACTIONS.

i^w^e.— Place the subtrahend below the minuend, keeping the different values
of positions under
each other, also point under point. Next subtract as if dealing with whole
decimal pomt for the difference under point of the subtrahend. numbers, and place

Example. — Subtract 0.27 from 0.473

0.473
—0.270 Answer.— 0.473 — 0.270 = 0.203.
0.203

If dealing with mixed numbers, place integers in front of the decimals, in their proper
proceed as before. place, and

Example.— F'md cost of filling in a cut of cloth in which the value of warp and filling
is $56.32
' '
and the value of the warp is $32.19
— 32.19
$56.32

$24.13
Answer.— The value of the filling in example is $24.13
 I30

MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMAL FRACTIONS.

Rule. — Multiply as if dealing with whole numbers, and point off in the product a number of
decimal places equal to the sum of the number of decimal places in both factors. If there are not
figures enough in the product, prefix the deficiency with zeros, and put the point on the left of these
factors. Whole numbers and mixed numbers are dealt with alike.

jKcamp^e.— Multiply 0.26 by 0.35.

0.26 X 0.36
130 Four decimal places are in both factors ; hence
78 Answer.— 0.26 X 0.35 = 0.0910, or 0.091.
910

Example.— M.n\i\i^\y 4.32 by 2.81.

4.32 X 2.81

432
3456 Four decimal places in factors ; hence
864 Answer.— 4.32 X 2.81 = 12.1392.

12.1392

Example. — Ascertain value of 432 lbs. of wool, costing $1.31 per lb.
432 X 1.31

432
1296
Answer. — The value of the lot of wool in question is $565.92.
432

565.92
DIVISION OF DECIMAL FRACTIONS.
Rule. — If the dividend is a mixed number, or a fraction, and the divisor an integer, divide as if
dealing with whole numbers, and mark off in the quotient as many decimal places as there are decimal
places in the dividend.
Example.— D'Me 39.42 by 2. Example. — Divide 0.84 by 4
39.42 -4- 2 = 19.71 0.84 4 = 0.21
2
19
18 044

14 0
14 0.84 -f- 4 = 0.21.
Answer. —
002
2

0
Answer,— 39.42 h- 2 =19.71.

Rule. — If the divisor is a decimal, change to a whole number by moving the decimal point a suf-
ficient number of places to the right, annexing zeros if required, and then divide as if dealing with
integers. If the dividend is an integer, the quotient will be an integer ; and if the dividend is a deci-
mal, the quotient will be a decimal of the same order.
 Example.— Divide 0.924 by 0.033. Example.— Biyide 38.76 by 10.2.
0.924 ^ 0.033 = 924 -- 33 -= 28 38.76 ^ 10.2 = 387.6 102 = 3.8
306
6G
816
264
264 816

In this instance the dividend is a decimal of

Here the quotient is an integer, because the the first order ; hence, the quotient is a decimal of
dividend is an integer ; hence the first order, therefore
Answer.— 0.924 0.033 = 28. Answer.— 38.76 h- 10.2 = 3.8

Example.— Biylde 3.876 by 10.2. ^;a;amp/e.— Divide 0.0924 by 3.3

3.876 10.2 = 38.76 102 = .38 0.0924 3.3 = 0.924 33 = 0.028
306
66
264
816
816 264

Here the dividend is a decimal of the second Here the dividend is a decimal of the third
order ; thus the quotient correspondingly also a order, thus the quotient also a decimal of the
decimal of the second order ; therefore third order, hence :
Answer,— 3.876 -^- 10.2 = 0.38 Answer.— 0.0924 3.3 = 0.028

If the divisor does not terminate, or has oeen carried as far as necessary, the remainder may be
expressed as a common fraction being part of the quotient, or may be rejected if less than J or unim-
portant, and the incompleteness of the result marked at the right of the fraction by +, or if the
remainder is | or more, the last digit of the decimal may be made to express one more.

Example. — Divide 409.6 by 8.5 to three deci- Example.— If 437f lbs. wool cost $529.67|
mals. what will one pound cost ?
409.6 8.5 :4096 ^ 85 = 48.188 529.671-^-437.75 or 52967.75^43775=1.21
340 43775
696 91927
680 87550
160 43775
85 43775
750
680 Answer. — The value of one pound of wool
given in example is $1.21
700
680
20

Answer.— 409.6-=-8.5=48.188ff=48.188TVor
409.6^-8.5=48.188+ or
409.6^-8.5=48.188
 132.
SQUARE ROOT.
The square root of a given number is such a number which, being multiplied by itself, will
produce the given number. Hence, the square root of 36 is 6, because 6X6 (or the square of 6) is 36.
The symbol i/ or ^ placed at the left of a number denotes that the square root of that
number is to be taken ; hence, reads : take the square root of 49, which is 7, since 7 X 7=49.
The square root of a number contains either twice as many figures as the root, or twice as many
less one. For example :
V 64 = 8 (since 8 X 8=64) \ ^IHr/ilTror'"
V 100 =10 (since 10X10=100) ^^fH^S 1" ro^T"
A small figure 2 placed to the right and above a number is the symbol that the square of that
number is to be taken, hence 4^ denotes the square of 4 or 4X4=16.
A number which has a whole number for its square root is termed a perfect square, and such
perfect squares, not greater than 100, must be committed to memory ; e., 2^=4, 3^=9, 4^=16,
5'=25, 6'=36, 7'=49, 8'=64, 9^=81, 10^=100. An imperfect square is a number whose root
cannot be exactly found.
Rule. — For finding the square root for any number.
Separate the given number into periods of two figures each, beginning at the unit places.
Find the greater square in the left hand period, and place its root as the first figure of the root ; deduct
its square from the first period, and to the remainder (if any), bring down the next period for a dividend.
Divide this new dividend, omitting the right hand figure by double the first figure of the root,
and place the quotient to the right of the first figure of the root, and also to the right of the partial
divisor. Multiply the complete divisor by the last figure of the root, subtract the product from the
dividend, and to the remainder bring down the next period for a new dividend.
Divide this new dividend, omitting the right hand figure by double the whole root so far found,
and place the quotient to the right of the root, and also to the right of the partial divisor. Multiply
the complete divisor by the last figure of the root, subtract product from dividend, and to the
remainder bring down next period for a new dividend.
Continue the operation as before until all periods are brought down.
If the last remainder is zero, the given number is a perfect square.

Example. — Find square root of 729.

1/7T29 = 27.
4
Answer. — i/729 = 27.
47)329
329 Proof.— 27 X 27 = 729.
000

Example. — Find square root of 148,225.

|/14 I 82 I 25=385
9

68)582 In dividing 58 by 6 the quotient is 9, but if we add this to complete the divisor (6 and 9—69 X 9—631)
544 the latter would become 69, which if multiplied by 9 would give 621, a number larger than the
dividend 582, thus 8 in place of 9 must be used.
765)3825
3825
Answefr. 1/14 I 82 I 25=385.

Proof.— 385X385=148,225.
 133

Example. — Find square root of 89,401.

1/8 I 94 I 01 = 299
4

49)494
441 "®gThe division of 49 by 4 illustrates the same remarks as made in previous example.

689)5301 "^<The second remainder (53) is in this example greater than the divisor (49), a result not uncommon.
5301

Answer.— t/89401 = 299 Proof.— 299 X 299 = 89401.

If the dividend at any time does not contain the complete divisor, place a zero in the root, and add
the next period for a new dividend.
If an integral number is not a perfect square and its root is to be found, annex as many periods
of ciphers as there are to be decimal places in the root. The more periods of ciphers we use, the nearer
approximation of the root is obtained.
Example. — Find square root of 36469521.
|/36 I 46 I 95 I 21=6039
36

1203) 4695 "^®Here in the process as 0 occurs in the root, we annex the 0 to the divisor 12, and
3609 annex the next period to the corresponding dividend.

12069)108621
108621
Answer. — 7/36469521 = 6039.
Square Root of Decimal Fractions.
For finding the square root of a decimal fraction, make the decimal such that the index of its
order is an even number ; also, since every period of two figures in the square equals one figure in the
root, we must use as many periods in the decimal part of the square as there are to be decimals in the root.

Example. — Find the' square 0.372

root of
+ 0.139 to three places of decimals.
1/0.13 I 90 I 00
9
t/0.139 = 0.372+
67)490 Answer.-
469 0.372 X 0.372 = 0.138384
Proof.- + Remainder. 0.000616
742)2100
1484 0.139000

616

The square root of a decimal of an odd order is always a non-terminating decimal. See symbol +
for it at the right hand of the decimal fraction of the square root in previous example.
Example. — Find square root of 0.8436 to two places of decimals.
t/O.84 I 36 = 0.91 +, or 0.92
81

181)336
181
165
 For this example the index is of an even order but not terminating; hence, symbol + at the right of
the root. The last figure of the root is tk, which we may change to ih, as the remainder, 155, is
more than | of the divisor, 181 ; thus:
1/0.8436 0.92.
Answer. —

Square Root of Common Fractions.

If we have to extract the square root of a common fraction, change the fraction to its lowest
terms ; if both terms are perfect squares, take the root of each ; if imperfect squares, change the fraction
64
to a decimal, and find root as before.
3
Example. — ]/ 649
l/64 Answer. —

Example. — Find square root of If

81 27 27
=5.19615+
25
=3.60555 +
9 --
]/ 13
101)200
101
66)400
396
1029)9900
7205)40000 9261
36025
10386)63900
72105)397500 62316
360525
103921)158400
721105)3697500 103921
3605525
1039225)5447900
91975 5196125
251775

T^-S- = ^41- = fSis- or 3.60555^5.19615

36055500000-^-519615=0.69388
3117690

4878600
4676535

2020650 81 0.69388
Answer.-
1558845
4618050
4156920

4611300
4156920

454380
 135

To prove the correctness of the above example, we will next find answer by changing the com-
mon fraction If, for which we have to find the square root in a decimal.
= 39.0 ^ 81 0.481481 + 1/0.481481 = 0.69388+
324 36

660
648 129)1214
1161
120
1383)5381
4149
81
390
13868)123200
324 110944
660
138768)1225600
648 1110144
120 115456
81
39
Answer. — 0.69388 being the same result as before.
81
Another method of proving this example, is to find the square root out of the common fraction
without reducing it to its lowest terms. If correct it will also demonstrate to the student that the
reducing of a common fraction (for drawing the square root) to its lowest terms is correct, and either
may be made use of or not.
1/^9 i/j9_ 1/39
36 = 6.24499 +
^TT = 6^91± or 6.24499^9
122) 300
244
9)6.24499=0.69388 +
1244) 5600
4976 54

84
12484) 62400
49936 81

124889) 1246400 27
1124001 34

1248989) 12239900 79
11241901 72
79
997999
VSI = 9 72
81

Ansiver. |/f|~ = 0.69388+ or the same answer as already proven.

JVofe.— This example will also demonstrate to the student that the reducing of a fraction to its
lowest terms is not always the shortest course ; i. e., always examine in which fraction you find either
one or both terms a perfect square ; 81 is a perfect square, whereas 27 is not.
 13^

Square Root of Mixed Numbers.

If we have to extract the square root of a mixed number composed of an integer and a common
fraction, change the same to its equivalent vakie either in an improper fraction, or a mixed number
expressed by integer and decimals, and proceed as explained before.
Example — Find square root of 911. a. Use decimals, h. Use improper fraction.
a. /Ml 36 _ 3g _ g4 0.5625; thus: 911 = 9.05625 and,
64
y 9.56 I 25 = 3.092+
9

609) 5625
5481
a. 3.092+ is the square root of 9ff.
6182) 14400 Answei'. —
12364

2036
7/9ff = 24.739 + and
i/9ir= l/ 612 24.739 8 =3.092 +
j/eTu = 24.739+ 24
l/~64
4

44)212
176 73
72
487) 3600 19
16
l/U ■= 8
3409
64 85
4943) 19100
13929

49469) 517100
445201 b. 3.092 + is the square root of 911.
Answer. —
71899 19
Table of Square Roots.
23 (From I to 240.)
24 8.9443
25 6.1644 8.6603
Number Square Root. Number Number Number
Square Root. Square Root. Square Root.
I 1. 0000 27 29 6.0828
6.2450
2 4.3589 9-2195
1. 4142 20 80
3 21 37
39 6555
6.
6.3246 10.9545
1. 7321 4. 6904 74 75
4 2.0000 4.4721 6.4031
6.4807
5 2.4495
2.2361 22
6 4-7958 43 10120000
.2474
2.6458 45826
4.8990 6.6332
6.8557
TOO
7 2.8284 110 10.4881
8 26 5.0990 44 6.7823 95
120
9 13 5.0000
5-2915 45
49 130 9.7468
II.9.4868
I12.6491
r. 4018
8322
10 14 3.1623
3.0000 28 5. 1962 6.7082 140
II 15 47 13.0384
12 160
33166
3.4641 5-3852
5.4772 6.9282 150
3.6056 5-6569 180 13.4164
3-7417 5-5678 8.0623 170
3-^730 33 55 190 14.8323
16 34 5-7446 60 7.0000 13.7840
15.4919
4.0000 7.0711
38 220
240 14.1421
4.1231 5-8310 40 200
18
17 35 6.0000
4.2426 7.4162
41
7.7460
8.3666
5-9161
42
31 30 46
32
90
48
36 50
 137

CUBE ROOT.
If a number is multiplied twice by itself, the product is called the cube of the number ; hence 216
is the cube of 6, since 6 X 6=36 X 6=216.
To extract the cube root of a given number, is to find one of the three factors producing.
The symbol placed before a given number, indicates that the cube root is wanted.
There are two kinds of cubes, perfect cubes, being such which have an integer for its cube
root; and imperfect cubes, containing a mixed number or fraction for its cube root.
The following numbers of less than 1,000 are perfect cubes :
8 is the cube of 2 ; 27 is the cube of 3 ; 64 is the cube of 4 ; 125 is the cube of 5 ;
216 is the cube of 6 ; 343 is the cube of 7 ; 512 is the cube of 8 ; 729 is the cube of 9.

Rule for Finding the Cube Root of a Given Number.

Separate the numbers into periods of three figures each, beginning at units place.
Find the greatest cube root of the left hand period and place its root at the right. Subtract
the cube of this root from the left hand period, and to the remainder annex the next period for a new
dividend. Next place three times the first figure of the root to the extreme left and three times the
square of the first figure of the root, with two ciphers affixed to it, to the left near the dividend for a
trial divisor. Divide the dividend by this trial divisor and put the quotient at the right of the extreme
left situated number and also as the second figure of the root.
Read extreme number and quotient as one number, and multiply the same by the second figure
of the root. Put this product below the trial divisor and add both ; multiply this sum again by the
second figure of the root, and put product below the dividend. Next subtract, and if a remainder,
annex a new period, form second extreme left number, second trial divisor and quotient (= next figure
for root) and proceed as before.
Example. — Find cube root of 110,592.
Specified figuring.
if 110 1 592 = 48
4800 64 4X4X4=64
^Extreme
I number left
^ ^Quotient) 1024 46592 4X3=12
4X4=16X3=48 (4800)
12
5824 46592 128X8=1024
00000 5824X8=46592

Answer.— f 110592 =48 48 X 48=2304 X 48=1 1 0592

Proof. —
If required to extract the cube root of a decimal fraction, divide the fraction also into periods of
three figures each, commencing from the decimal point toward the right. If in the last period only
one figure is left, annex two ciphers ; if two figures are left over annex one cipher, or in other words,
the decimal fraction must be some multiple of 3.
Example. — Find cube root of 553.387661. Specified figuring.
553.387 I 661=8.21 8X8x8=512
512 8X3=24
24 19200 8X8=64x3=192=(192aD)
2 — 484
41387 242X2=484
19684 39368 19684X2=39368
82X3=246
246 1 2017200
2019661 82X82=6724X3=20172 (2017200)
2461
2019661 2461 X1=2461
209661 2019661X1=2019661
Answer. 1^553.387661=8.21. Proof.— 8.21 X8.21=67.4041 X 821=553.387661.
 138

The cube root of27^a common fraction

27 is found either by taking the cube roots of their terms or by
reducing the common fraction to a decimal and proceeding as before.

Example. — Find cube root of 343

1^27 #"27 =3
343 343 = 7 ; hence,

343
or 343 27
change 3I3 to a decimal. (27 -r- 343 = 0.078717+) and find
.078 I 717=0.42 +

12 4800 64
— 2 —
244 14717
5044 10088

4629
Answer.
343 f-to 0- 42+
Proof.— Change a decimal 3^7=0.42 +
If we have to extract the cube root of a mixed number composed of an integer and common
fraction, change the same to its equivalent value, either in an improper fraction or to a mixed number
27 29
expressed by integer and decimals, and proceed as explained before.
14 15
Table of Cube Roots.

(From No. 2 to 50.)

17 19

Number Cube Root. Number Cube Root. Number Cube Root. Number Cube Root.
39 3.361975
2 1.259921 23 2.410142 26 2.962496
3 16
1.442250 24 25 2.446212
2 519842 28 3.036589
4 1.1.709976
587401 3-419952
5 2.620741 3.000000
3.072317
6 1.817121 18 2.571282 3.448217
7 1.912931 2.668402 33 3.107232 43 3.391211
3-503398
8 13 2.000000 20 2.714418 3.207534 3.476027
2.080084 2.802039
2.758924
9 2.154435 2.884499 3.141381 45 3-556893
3-530348
ID 22
21 2.843867 3.174802
II 2.223980 44
47
12 34 3-583048
2.289428
2.351335 3.239612
3.301927
35 3.271066 3-634241
3.608826
3.684031
2.924018
37
3.332222
AVERAGE AND PERCENTAGE.

Average. — The average of two, three or more groups of numbers,

30 is found by adding the numbers
and dividing the sum by the number of groups used.
3t 38
Example. — Find average counts between 5 and 6 -run yarn. 32
1
4 40
5 42
36
4 6
11-^2=5^

Answer. — 5J-run. 50
48
+6
 139

Example. — Find average lengths of the following 5 pieces of cloth measuring respectively 42 yards,
43 yards, 42| yards, 41f yards, 42 yards.
42
4341i

42J 2111 ^ 5 = 421

211i

+ 42
Answer. — The average length of the pieces of cloth in question, is 42^ yards.
Percentage. — The symbol of percentage is ^, and reads per cent. For example: 32^ white
wool, reads 32 per cent, white wool.
Per cent, means by the hundred, thus 32 ^ means 32 of every hundred. For example, we speak
about a mixture of wool as gray mix, 40 ^ white, the remainder black ; this means, that in every
hundred pounds wool there are forty pounds white, and sixty pounds black ; thus, if the lot of wool
contains 450 lbs. wool, we used 180 lbs. white wool, 270 lbs. black wool.
The Rate per cent, is the number of hundreths.
The Base, is the number on which the percentage is estimated.
Rule for finding the percentage : Multiply the base by the rate per cent.
Example.— Find 12 per cent, of 430 lbs. 430 X = 51.60.
Answer.^ — 12 per cent, of 430 lbs. is 51.6 lbs.
Proof.— 100
12 and 88 per cent, of 430 = 430 X tA = 378.40-

88 + 12 « of 430 = (J.:rp.e.) =51.60

430.00 lbs.

Rule for finding the rate per cent. — Divide the percentage by the base.
Example. — In a lot of wool of 400 lbs., there are 20 lbs. red wool and 380 lbs. black ; how many
per cent, of red wool are used in this lot ?
20 -V- 400 = = zh.
Answer. — 5 per cent, of red wool are used.
Proof.— 400 X rh = 20.
Rule for finding the base. — Divide the percentage by the rate per cent.
Example. — Received 138 lbs. of yarn marked as 8 percent, of the entire lot, how many pounds
are in the whole lot ?
138 lU = 1725
Answer. — 1,725 lbs. yarn are in the entire lot of yarn.
Proof— 138 -V- 1725 = 0.08 = or 8 per cent.
RATIO.

Ratio is the relation which one number (called the Antecedent) has to another number (called the
Consequent) of the same kind, and is obtained by dividing the first by the second ; thus, the ratio of
20 to 5 is 20^5 or 4.
The symbol of ratio is a colon (:), or the ratio may be written as a fraction; thus, 20 to 5
may be expressed either as 20 : 5 or ¥*.
Both terms of a ratio are called a Couplet.
Simple Ratio is the comparing of two numbers; for example, 18:6 = 3.
 140
Compound Ratio is the comparison of the products of the corresponding terms of two or more
ratios ; for example. — find the ratio of 2:4, 8:3, and 6 : 2.
2 2
2X8X6 ^ ^X^X^ ^ 2X2 ^ _4_ ^ ^
4X3X2 ^X^X^ 1 1

Answer. — The simple ratio for example is 4 : 1 or 4.

This example will give us the rule for changing a compound ratio to a simple ratio as follows :
Multiply the antecedents together for a new antecedent, and the consequents for a new consequent, and
reduce both to their lowest equivalent terms.
As previously mentioned the ratio is a fraction, consequently its terms may be treated like those of
a fraction, thus the following
Principles of Ratio.
The ratio is equal to the antecedent divided by the consequent.
Multiplying the antecedent, multiplies the ratio.
Multiplying the consequent, divides the ratio.
Dividing the antecedent, divides the ratio.
Dividing the consequent, multiplies the ratio.
Multiplying or dividing the antecedent and consequent by the same number, does not effect the ratio.
The product of two or more simple ratios, is the ratios of their products.
PROPORTION.

Proportion consists in the equality of two ratios, and is expressed by the symbol of equality (=)
or the double colon ( : : ).
Every proportion consists of two couplets, or four terms. For example. — 8 : 12 = 4 : 6.
The Antecedents are the first and third terms (8 and 4 in example).
The Consequents are the second and last terms (12 and 6 in example).
The Extremes are the first and last terms (8 and 6 in example).
The Means are the second and third terms (12 and 4 in example.)

Principles of Proportion.

In a proportion the product of the means is equal to the product of the extremes.
/- 1 2 X 4 = 48, product of the means. \
\ 8 X 6 = 48, " " extremes. ^
The product of the extremes divided by either mean will give the other mean.
f Product of One ) \ The other )
1 the extremes. [ ' ] mean. , \ mean. )
48 12 = 4
48 H- 4 = 12
The product of the means divided by either extreme will give the other extreme.
Product i = (The 6other
48 -f
■ ]-extreme.
8
of means. ' _^ j One ; ( extreme.
48 6 8
There are two kinds of proportions ; single and compound proportion.
Single proportion is an equality between two simple ratios, and is used to find the fourth term
of a proportion where the other three terms are given. Two terms of the given three must be of the
same kind and constitute a ratio ; and the third term (of the given three) must be of the same kind as
the regular term, and constitute with it another ratio equal to the first.
 141

Example. — 16,800 yards of yarn weigh 16 oz., find the weight of 3,900 yards.
Yards. Yards. oz. oz.
3 6800 : 3900 :: 16 : x
j Product of ) ^ j The given ) _ j The other )
\ the means. J ' / extreme. \ \ extreme. J
3,900 X 16 = 62400 (product of the means). 62400 -4- 16800 = 3Hf or 3f .
Answer. — 3,900 yards weigh 3f oz.
Proof.— 3,900 X 16 = 62,400 product of the means.
16,800 X 31 = 62,400 " " extremes.
(16,800 X 3f 16,800 X ¥ and 16,800 X 26 = 436,800 7 = 62,400.)
A Compound Proportion is a proportion in which either one or both the ratios are compound.
The rule for finding the answer is as follows : Place the number which is of the same kind or
denomination as the answer required for the third term, form a ratio of each remaining pair of numbers
of the same kind, the same as done in simple proportion, using each couplet without any reference to
the other. Next, divide the product of the means by the product of the given extremes, and the
quotient is the fourth term (= answer.)
Example. — If weaving 1,536 yards of cloth on 8 looms in 12 days, how many yards will be
woven on 34 looms in 16 days.
(l/ooms to Looms.)
8 : 34 ( Yards to Yards. )
(Days to Days.)
12 : 16 1,536 : X
2 128

16 X 12X
34 X 1,536 ^ 8
^ or -il><#
;^X^4iW = 2 X 34 = 68 X 128 = 8704

Answer. — 8,704 yards will be woven.

Proof. — 8 looms 12 days = 8 X 12 = 96 looms running 1 day.
1,536 yards are woven on 96 looms in one day; thus, 1536 -f- 96 = 16 yards per day (per one loom).
34 looms 16 days = 34 X 16 = 544 looms running 1 day; thus,
544 X 16 = 8,704 yards will be woven either on 544 looms in 1 day, or on 34 looms in 16 days.
Example. — If weaving 9,448 yards of cloth on 12 looms in 9 days, running the looms 10 hours
per day, how many yards of cloth will 20 looms, running 11 hours per day, produce in 12 days.
(lyooms to Ivooms.)
12 : 20
(Days to Days.) (Yards to Yards.)
9 : 12 9448 : X
(Hours to Hours.)
10 : 11
11 X 12 X 20 X 9448 _

210 X 9 X 12 ~
11 X X # X 9448 _ 11 X 2 X 9448
9
~ = 207856
;p11X X9 2X =;^22 X 9448
207856 ^ 9 = 23095^
ATiswer. — 23,095? yds. will be produced.
 142

Proof. — 12 looms, 9 days, 10 hours = 1,080 hours for one loom

9,448 are woven in 1,080 hours on one loom ; thus,
9,448 ^ 1,080 = 8Hi yds. per hour on one loom.
20 looms, 11 hours, 12 days = 2,640 hours; thus,
2,640 X StI? = 23,095i yds. will be woven either in 2,640 hours on one loom, or on 20
looms running 11 hours per day in 12 days.
ALLIGATION.

Alligation has for its subject the mixing of articles of different value and different quantities.
Alligation Medial.

i^wfe.— Multiply each quantity by its value and divide the sum of the products by the sum of
the quantities.
Example.— Fin^ the average value per pound for the following lot of wool containing mixed •
380 lbs. @ 74/ per lb.
400 " 78 " "
200 " " 79 " "
20 " " 94
380 X 74 = $281.20
400 X 78 = 312.00
200 X 79 = 158.00 770.00 1000 = 0.77
20 X 94 = 18.80

1000 $770.00
Answer. — The price of the mixture is 77/ per lb.
Proof.— 77/ X 1000 = $770.00.
Alligation Alternate.

i^w/e.— Place the different values of the articles in question under each other, and the averpge rate
wanted to the left of them. Next find the gain or loss on one unit of each, and use an additional
portion (of one, two or more) of any that will make the gains balance the losses.
Example.— Ro^^ much of each kind of wool at respective values of 80/, 84/ and 98/, must be
mixed to produce a mixture to sell at 88/ per lb.
+ 8X1= 8
+ 4X1= +^ = 1 2 gain
— 10 X U = =12 loss
Answer. — We must use 1 part wool from the lot @ 80/.
1 (( << (( u (( '^34
U " " " " " " 98 in

3i parts, to produce a mixture to sell at 88/ per lb.

1 lb. X 80/ 80/
Proof. — 1 lb. X 84 84
By alligation medial.
H lbs. X 98 1171

3^ lbs. 2811/ and 3i lbs. X 88/ = also 2811/

To Find the Quantity of Each Kind Where the Quantity of One Kind or of the Mixture
is Given.

Example.— A manufacturer has 200 lbs. of wool of a value of 92 cents on hand which he
wants
to use up and produce a lot worth 80 cents per lb. He also has another large lot (2400 lbs.) of
wool
 143

worth 73 cents per lb. on hand. How much of the latter must he use to produce the result ; i. e., a
mixture worth 80 cents per lb ?
92 — 12 X 200 = 2,400 loss.
80 73 + 7 X 342f = 2,400 gain.
Answer. — He must mix 200 lbs. of the lot at 92 cents per lb. on hand and add 342f lbs. of the
lot at 73 cents per lb. to produce a mixture worth 80 cents per lb.
Proof.— 200 lbs. X 92^ = $184.00
342f lbs. X 73^ = 250.28f
542f
$434.28^ and 542f lbs. @ 80/ = also $434.28^.

U. S. MEASURES.

Measures of L#ength. Avoirdupois Weight.

1 ounce (oz.).
12 inches (in.) = 1 foot (ft.). 16 drachms (dr.) =
3 feet = 1 yard (yd.). 16 ounces = 11 pound (lb.).
quarter (qr.)
= 1 rod (rd.).
5J yards 28 pounds =
40 rods = 1 furlong (fur.). 1 hundred weight(cwt.).
4 quarters = 1 ton.
8 furlongs = 1 mile (mi.). 20 hundredweight =
3 miles = 1 league (lea.). 1 pound Avoirdupois= 7,000 grains, Troy.
1760 yards = 1 mile.
1 ounce " ==
6 feet = 1 fathom. " "
4371
Measure of Capacity.
Surface Measure. 1 fluid drachm (fl. dr.).
144 ims
mindrachms
608 fluid — ■ 1 fluid ounce (fl. oz.).
square
" feinches (sq. in.)— 1 square foot (sq. ft.). =
9 et =1 1 pint (pt.).
" yard(sq.yd.) 20 fluid ounces = 1 quart (qt.).
30J " yards =1 " rod (sq. rd.).
40 " rods =1 rood (ro.). 2 pints = 1 gallon (gall.).
4 roods =1 acre (ac). ~~ 1 peck (pk.).
=1 acre. 4 quarts
4840 square yards 2 gallons = 1 bushel (bus.).
60 acres 4 pecks = 1 quarter (qr.).
=1 square mile. 8 bushels =
1 minim equals 0.91 grain of water.
Cubic Measure. Angle Measure.
1728 cubic inches (cu. in.)=l cubic foot (cu. ft.). 60 seconds ('') are 1 minute (').
27 cubic feet =1 cubic yard (cu. yd.). 60 minutes " 1 degree (°).
360 degrees " 1 circumference (C).
Counting. Troy Weight.
12 ones* = 1 dozen (doz.). 24 grains (gr.) = 1 pennyweight.
12 dozen = 1 gross (gr.). 20 pennyweights = 1 ounce.
12 gross = 1 great gross (gr. grs.). 12 ounces — 1 pound.
20 ones = 1 score.

Paper. Apothecaries' Weight.

24 sheets = 1 quire. 20 grains
50 grains = 11 scruple.
dram.
20 quires = 1 ream. 3 scruples
2 reams = 1 bundle. 8 drams 1 ounce.
5 bundles = 1 bale. 12 ounces
1 pound.
 144

METRIC SYSTEM.

The Metric System, of weights and measures, is formed upon the decimal scale, and has for its
base a unit called a metre.
Units. — The following are the different units with their English pronunciation :
The Metre (meter).— The unit of the Metric Measure is (very nearly) the ten millionths part of
a line drawn from the pole to the equator.
The Litre (leeter). — The unit for all metric measures of capacity, dry or liquid, is a cube whose
edge is the tenth of a metre (or one cubic decimetre).
^ The Gram (gram).— The unit of the Metric Weights, is the weight of a cubic centimetre of
distilled water at 4° centigrade.
The Are (air).— is the unit for land measure. (It is a square whose sides are ten (10) metres.)
The Stere (stair). — is the unit for solid or cubic measure. (It is a cube whose edge is one (1) metre.)
Measure of Length.

Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalent in Denominations used in the United States.
Meters. Inches.
Myriametre (Mm.) or loooo equals 6.21 miles.
Kilometre (Km.) =
Hectometre (Hm.) " lOOO " 393707.904 3.280 ft. 10 in
Decametre (Dm.) " lOO
lO " 3937 0.7904 = 328 ft. I in.
Metre (M.) 3937-07904 =
" I " 3.28 ft. almost 40 in.
Decimetre (dm.) O.I 0-3937079
393.707904
0.0393707
39.3707904
=
= 32.8 ft. 4 in.
almost
Centimetre (cm.) " O.OI "
Millimetre (mm.) " O.OOI " 3.9370790 =

U. S. Measures. Metric Measure. U. S. Measures Metric Measures.

I. Inch = 2-5399 Centimeters. I P'oot =

I Yard = 0.9143 Metre. 31609.32
0479 Decimetres.
Metres.
I Mile =
Measure of Capacity.

Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalent in United States

Denominations.

Myrialitre (Ml.) = 10000 litres = 10 cubic meters = 2200.9670 gallons

Kilolitre (Kl.) =— 1000 '' = I " metre
Hectolitre (HI ) == 10
100 " = 100 " decimetres = 220.0967 "
Decalitre (Dl.) = 10 " decimetres = 22.0097 "
Litre (I..) =
== 0.1
I " = I " decimetre =— 1.7608 pints"
2.2009
Decilitre (dl.) = 100 " centimetres = 6.1027 cubic inches
Centilitre (cl.) = 10 " centimetres
Millilitre (ml.) = O.OI " == 0. 61027 " "
= O.OOI *' = I " centimetre
= 0.061 "
Measure of Weight.

Metric Denominations and Values. Equivalent in United .States

Denominations
1.543
Myriagram (Mg ) = 10000 grams. = 10 cu. decimetres of water 22.046 lbs., Avoir.
Kilogram (Kg. ) = I " " " "
Hectogram (Hg.) === 1000
10 "
Decagram (Dg.) = 100 " = 100 " centimetres " "
Gram (G.) = I = 10 " " " << 15-432
_ j; *' << il (( 154-323 " "
2.204 grams.
Decigram (dg.) - 0.1 " = 100 " millimetres " "
Centigram (eg ) 3.527 oz.,
Miligram (mg.) = O.OI " = 10 " " " "
= O.OOI " = I " " " "

"
0145 "
0 15
0.
 ADVERTISEMENT.

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ers of
Textile Machinery

Nos. I o to 30 East Canal Street,

(Rear 1033 North Front Street)

PHILADELPHIA, PA.

Looms for Tape, Binding, Ribbon, Goring, Suspender,

Fringe, etc.
Jacquard Machines for Shafts and Harness Looms.
Our new double-acting side Jacquard is specially adapted
for fast running looms.
Patented change motions for 2, 3, 4 or 6 banks of shuttles
and positive in its action at any speed.
Lathes and Battons, straight or circular shuttles, 2, 3 or
4 banks.
insinger&co.' s 56 Space. Circuiar-shutt
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This cut
Flyrepresents our

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for weaving narrow fabrics such as
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Etc.

- These I^ooms are 56 spaces (or

can be made any number of spaces)
and make 175 revolutions per
minute, one person attending to
two Looms at the same time.
Our improved shuttle motion will
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in its action, .These same Looms
can have rack and pinion shutt'es
for finer grades of work.

xi
 At)VERTISEMEN'r.

PHILADELPHIA, PA.,

Manufacturers of

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FOR WORKING IRON
. . AND STEEL TOOLS

High Speed Traveling Cranes and Swing Cranes.

Shafting,

Pulleys,

Hangers,
Etc.,
lie. Couplings,

Estimates Furnished for Work Delivered

at nill and Erected in Position Ready for tlie Belts.

Mechanical
The VICARS

Stokers^r

For Automatically Feeding Fuel to Boilers, = = =

= - = with entire absence of Smoke.

Improved Injectors, Turntables,

" Testing Machines, Etc.

 ADVERTISEMENT.

Qeorge Draper & Sons

HOPEDALE
•

MASS . . .

Are Sole Agents.

For the following
Corporations
And their Products

Sawyer Spindle Co.

DRAPER
RABBETH
WHITIN ^ SPINDLES
SHERMAN
McMULLAN

Hopedale Machine Co.

TWISTERS
WARPERS
SPOOLERS
REELS

Dutcher Temple Co.

TEMPLES, for all Goods

Northrop Loom Co.

PATENT LOOMS
With Automatic Filling
Detail of Hopper Mechanism op the Northrop I,oom Changers and Warp Stop
(other parts of loom erased) Motion
Shows fresh bobbin being inserted In shuttle with empty bobbin
falling into box

^ ^(L DOUBLE FLANGED SPINNING RINGS

&^0l*2- RHOADES CHANDLER SEPARATORS
— -^^^ PATENT CHAIN DYEING PROCESS
BOBBIN HOLDERS, LEVER SCREWS
COTTON BALE SHEARS, Etc., Etc., Etc.
Geo.

Address all communications

.to us personally GEO. DRAPER & SONS
xiii
 ADVERtlSEMEKt.

HOWT^RD St BUL-L-OUGH,

AMERICAN MACHINE COMPANY, ud.

PAWTUCKET, R. I.
manufart
.

Cotton Machinery

COMBINED 5ELF=FEEDING OPENERS

BREAKER AND FINISHER LAPPERS

All made from new models, with

many patented improvements, giving
better and evener work.

NEW PATENT
Greatest Production
revolving

Best Quality of Carding

Flat
RD
andA
The simplest C Least Waste
most accurate of •
all cards

The produced
sliver quality of the
by
ELECTRIC
these notMachines can-
be surpassed.
STOP=MOTION
Waste, Sing'e and
DRAWING Roller Laps are pre-
vented, production
creased, in-
and great
FRAMES
saving effected.

SLUBBINQ

INTERMEDIATE and

ROVING FRAMES

Patented Differen'ial Motion,

New Arrangement of Core Drums,
System of Balancrg Top or Bobbin Rail etc.
Our Machines contain many Valuable Patented Improvements.
-AH parts are made
XIV by special tools, and are exact duplicates.
 ADVERTISEMENT.

C^T/!L0QUE5 QMEERFMLLT

COnPflNT
HANUPACTURERS OF THE

5turtevant Blowers, Etc.

BOSTON, MASS., U. S. A.

THE 5TURTCVflNT 5T5TEn

For Heating and Ventilating Textile Hills.

For Drying and Handling Raw Stock.

For Drying, Tentering and Oxidizing Plants.

For Removing Steam from Dye Houses, Slashers,

^^^k Dry Cans, Etc., Etc.

Ml^^ Removing waste from French Nappers and

^mB| Collecting same.

JB^^fe For Forced or Induced Draft on Boiler Plants.

3peciai glowers and Engines for E^ery D^ty-

B, F. Sturtevant Company,
34 Oliver Street, Boston, Mass. 75 Q,aeen Victoria Street, London, E. C. Eng.
131 liberty Street, New York, N. Y. ai West Nile Street, Glasgow, Scotland,
135 North Third Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 87 Zimmerstrasse, Berlin, Germany.
16 South Canal Street, Chicago, 111. a Kungsholmstorg, Stockholm, Sweden.
 ADVERTISEMENT.

WILLIAM FIRTH,

IMPORTER OF
e
Textil

TV/Tachinery
220 Devonshire Street,

BOSTON, MASS.

SOLE IMPORTER OF

Hetherington's Cotton Carding and Combing

riachines, Drawing, Roving Frames and Mules.
ALSO

Pamsden Qros. & gtephenson patent Worsted jVJachinery for

spinning on gnglish and prench 5ystems, Patent Wool W^^sher.

--T. C. ENTW
MANUFACTURERS OFISTLE,

Patent Warping,

Balling iffi
riachines
Beaming
, , ALSO . .
All kinds of Common Expansion D. H. WILSON & CO.,
Combs for
Coppersmiths, Plumbers,
Warpers, Beamers and Slashers,
, AND A Steam and Gas Fitters.
Traverse Wheel Card JUanufactnrers of

Grinders for American or English SLASHER CYLINDERS, SILK AND DRESSER

CYLINDERS, COLOR AND DTE KETTLES.
Cards.
All Kinds of Copper Work for Mills.
164 Worthen St., Lowell, flass. 279-283 Dutton St., Lowell, Mass.
 ADVERTISEMENT

WIN

CLOTH r r

FINISHING

MACHINERY,

Friction Clutch Pulleys and

Cut=off Couplings,

32 VINE STREET,
WORCESTER. MASS.

The illustration represents J. E. Windle's

Latest Improved Machine for doub-
ling and rolling all kinds of either
Cotton or Woolen Goods.
For Circulars, prices, etc., address the
Patentee and Manufactuier,
J. E. WINDLE,
"Worcester, Mass.

Parks & Woolson Machine Co.

CLOTH FINISHING MACHINERY

Send for New lUustrated Catalogfue.

SPRINGF=IEI_D.

FULLING MILLS. CLOTH WASHERS.

SOAPING AND WETTING MACHINES.

WOOL SCOURERS.
WITH ALL
POWER TRANSMISSION MACHINERY ACCOMPANIMENTS.

James Hunter Machine Co.,

NORTH ADAMS, MASS.

XVll
 ADVERTISEMENT.

Elliot Cloth Folder

The Acme Microscopes
are famous for perfect fitting and^^easurer
and finish ; we make them suit-
able for every sort of textile
work. We will send our cata- FOR COTTON AND GINGHAM MILLS, BLEACHERIES,
logue, and will write, if desired, PRINT WORKS, BAG MFRS., Etc.
making suggestions as to the MANUFACTURED BY
instrument best suited to in-
dividual needs.
ELLIOT & HALL,
We also sell thread counters
and other magnifyiug glasses, 54 Hermon Street,
design paper and colors, and all Send for Circular. WORCESTER, MASS.
scientific instruments and ap-
paratus, which we manufacture
Acme No. 4 Microscope. or import. K. GOULD.

QUEEN & CO.,

Seientifie Instrament liJakeFs, Top roll and Clearer Coverer and Leather worker.
Cots made to order for Spinning Mills Cotton or Worsted.
1010 Chestnut St..
2207 East York Street,
PHILADELPHIA.
KENSINGTON, PHILADELPHIA, PA.
1825.
Hurt! &, Crehore,
Crehore &. Keal, GEORGE L. SCHOFIELD,
lirumel Crehore, 184:5. Dealer in New and Second-Hand
l^eiuuel Crehore &. Son, 1854.
(Geo. C. Crehore,)
Lemuel Crehore Co., 1867.
(C. F. Crehore,) Cotton and Woolen Machinery
C. F. Crehore, 1868.
C. F. Crehore & Son, 1883. Shafting, Pulleys, Belting, Pipes, Tools, etc.,
(F. M. Crehore,^
123 North Front St., Philadelphia.
THOMAS STEWART,
C, F. CREHORE (St SON, MANUFACTURER OF
Established 1825 STEEL loom: heeds,
MANUfACTURERS OR AND DEALER IN
Carpet and Cotton Mill Supplies,
312 MASTER ST., PHII«ADBI«PHIA.
Press Papers
AND HENRY TROEMNER,
710 Market St., Philadelphia, Pa.,
MAKER OF

Cards for Fine Scales

and Weights

Jacquard Looms For Accurate Weighing.

87 Milk Street,
Special Scales and Weights Ma^e to order.
M BOSTON, MASS. PRICE LIST ON APPLICATION.
 ADVERTISEMENT.

j^IT50N f^ACHINE Qo.

- riANUFACTURERS OF = -

Cotton Openers ^^Lappers

Wool Washers

Dryers and Carbonizers

LOWELL, MASS.

Establish ED,!873. 1
 ADVERTISEMENT.

GEORGE R. K. SMITH. FRANKLIN S. SMITH. STANTON M. SMITH.

466, 468, 470 Washington St., "

NEW YORK.

s 0 A P S

Of For

Every
Textile

IVIanufacturers.
Description

THE BEST IS GOOD ENOUGH. "

Our Granulated Carbonate of Soda

Is the Highest Grade ot Concentrated Sai=soda on the Market.

XX
 ADVERTISEMENT.

"52"ddnbdcket Press

jACHINE^ C°
WDDNBDCKET, ly
R. I., U. B. A.
MANUFACTURERS OF-

The Celebrated City Machine ply F^SLtnes

Patent Continuous Steam Cloth Press

1883 PATTERN, •t»

The Fisher Patent Card Feed

for Wool, Worsted, Jute, Etc.

cs 30
z
<UJ
CQ

m
UJ
CO >
H (p
UJ m
o nC/3
>

Cloth Trimming and Inspecting flachines

Atlantic Fancy Cotton Looms

The Chapman Pulley arid Coupling Forcing flachine

Shafting, Pulleys, Couplings, Etc.

IRON AND BRASS CASTINGS OF ANY DESCRIPTION

See Our New Continuous Wool Spinning flachine

JUST OUT

□ffice and lisrarks^ WDDnsDcket^ R. I.^ TT. B. R.

 ADVERTISEMENT.

Qlobe Machine HOWSON & HOWSON,

Works,
FRANKFORD, PA. (Counsellors
MAKERS OF
at Cau/,

The Denn Warpers, Solicitors

Linking Warpers,

Balling Warpers,
of patents,
119 South Fourth St., Philadelphia.
Section Beam Warpers,
38 Park Row, New York.
Beam Warpers,
918 F Street, Washington, D. C.
From 100 ends to 3200 ends for
COTTON, WOOLEN, SILK, Patent Law Business in the Courts and
before the Patent Office.
PLUSH, ELASTIC WEB,
SUSPENDER WORK.
UfllTED STATES Rfiti pOl^EIGn PATBflTS
SBCUl^ED RliD TIRADE JWflt^I^S
Electrical Stop Motions Applied to all Creels. f?EGISTBI?ED.

Charles H. Schnitzler,
PATENTEE AND SOLE MANUFACTURER OF

The Pneumatic Conveyor

For the handling of Wool and Cotton Stock, Rags,
Excelsior, Jute and all kinds of Fibrous Material,
wet or diy. Also Spool Elevators. Steam Heating
and Ventilating and Mill Work generally. Blower
and Fan Work a specialty.

f^y\Q-'}f./A' ^^^'Ce-'^,

Satisfaction Gnaranteed.

215 N. Second St., Philadelphia, Pa,

XXll
 ADVERTISEMENT

The American Drosophore Company,

MAKERS OF THE
Drosophore Humidifier
FOR HUMIDIFYING

COTTON, WORSTED, SILK FLAX MILLS.

This system has been introduced into many of the largest

woolen, cotton, silk and worsted miils in this and foreign
countries, and used to the greatest advantage. It produces
from 40 to 50 per cent, more moisture than any other similar
device to purify the air and to remove all danger from elec-
tricity generating in certain departments of the mill. The
device hangs down about a foot from the ceiling, and cannot
in any way interfere with any other part of the equipment
of the mill.
One of the Humidifiers will give the requisite moisture to
22,000 cubic feet of air. The superiority and popularity of
this system is proved by the large number in use,
References from the leading Textile Mills where this sys-
tem is in use will be furnished by "William Firth^ who is
Manager of this Company.

220 Devonshire Street, Boston, Mass.

Works: 8 Medford Street, Boston.

Correspondence Solicited.

Write for prices before ordering elsewhere.

xxiii
 ADVERTISEMENT.

BeDazet Heddle Company, Ltd.

SOLE MANUFACTURERS OF THE RD'S
BOILER LOCL EANSING
LATEST...
PATENTED COMPOUNDS,
MANUrACTURED EXCLUSIVELY BY
WIRE MEDDLES,
GEO. W. LORD,
ANALYTICAL AND MANUFACTURING CHEMIST,

DARBY, DEL. CO., PA. 316 UNION ST., PHILADELPHIA, PA.

Established 1868.
mOb H. HALL,
Malcolm Mills Co.,
FRANKFORD. PA. Cedar Vat Tank Factory
North Second St., aboTe Cambria, Phila., Pa.
Office, 229 Chestnut St.,
All kinds of TUBS
Philadelphia. and TANKS for Dyers,
MANUFAOTURERS OF Bleachers, Factories, etc..
Made at the Shortest Notice and
NOVELTY YARNS, BOUCLES, on the most Reasonable Terms.
SPIRALS, KNOTS AND
Down Town OfSce,
FANCY TWISTS, IN WORSTED, 14:0 Chestnut Street, cor. Second.
MOHAIR, COTTON AND SILK. Hours : From 12 to i.

CEDAR TANKS, VATS, DYE TUBS, ETC. Fleming & Chapin,

Tapes, Braids, Lrace Bdgingfs.
TRIMMINGS FOR MANUFACTURERS A SPECIALTY.
AGENTS FOR

HADLEY COMPANY'S

pipe (^ottop Yarps, U/arps, Jl7reads.

Nos. 30 to 100 In single, a 3 or more ply.
GEORGE WOOLFORD,
2240 and 2244 r^onth flinth Street, 215 Church Street,
PflllillDHliPJlIA. P^IIiRDEItPHlA, PR.
FREDERICK JONES. QEO. H. aiLBERT.

FREDERICK JONES k CO.

X^xtile Design Papers

58 North Fourth Street, Philadelphia.

WAVING the experience and facilities for making Design Papers in all sizes, we are enabled to supply
manufacturers and public designers with the best at the lowest rates. Special sizes made to
order. Will be pleased to quote you prices for any quantity or size 3 ou may need.
xxiv
 ADVERTISEMENT.
LIST OF THE LEADING BOOKS ON DYEING, PRINTING, FINISHING, ETC FOR SALS BY
E. A. POSSELT, Publisher, 2152 North 21st St., Philadelphia, Pa
(We only handle modern and out of date publications.)
MANUAL OP DYEING, by Knecht, Rawson, BfeCENT PROGRESS IN DYEING AND
and Loewenthal. CALICO PRINTING, by Antonio Sansone, 136 pages
In 3 volumes 910 pages, (6 x 9 inches) 116 illustrations of reading matter (8^ x 5)4 inches) with 5 plates of
and 144 dyed samples of wool and cotton fabrics on 24 Price Machinery, and 28 plates of Dyed Sam pies. Cloth Bound,
$5.60.
plates. Cloth Bound, Price $15.00
Abstract of the Contents:— Chapter I. Theory of Dyeing.
II. Chemical Technology of the Textile Fibres. III. Water. Calico Table of Contents :— Changes in Bleaching. Changes in
IV. Washing and Bleaching. V. Acids, Alkalies, Mordants, &c. in CottonPrinting. Dyeing.
Further developments in Wool Printing. Changes
Aniline Black. Substantive Coloring Matters.
VI. Natural Coloring Matters. VII. Artificial Organic Coloring Dixotized Colors. Basic Series. Acid Colors. Milling Colors
Matters. VIII. Mineral Colors. IX. Machinery used in dyeing. for Wool, the Alizarine Colors.
X. Investigation into the Tinctorial Properties of Coloring Matters. Natural Organic Dyestuffs. Chemistry of Cotton Dyeing.
XI. Analysis and Valuation of Materials Used in Dyeing. Appendix. Cop Dyeing. Cotton Cloth and Yarn Dyeing. Paper Dyeing.
Leather Dyeing. Skin Dyeing. Tin Foil Dyeing. Flower Dyeing.
THE DYEING OP TEXTILE FABRICS, by I<ake Countries Manufacture. Dyestuff Manufactures.
engaged in Dyeing and Calico Printing. On the
J. J. Hummel, F. C. S., Professor and Director of the fastness of Colors to lyight. Soap Alkalies, Acids, &c. Resistance
Dyeing Department of the Yorkshire College, Leeds, to Acids to Bleaching, Aniline Black.
Substantive Colors.
England. The Titan Colors.
Complete in one volume containing 534 pages, (6}i x The Diamine Colors.
434^ inches) with 97 diagrams for illustrating the various Diazotizing. Developing.
Fibres and the latest and most improved Machinery as
used in the diflFerent processes of Dyeing, also Scouring, SILK DYEING PRINTING AND FINISHING
Bleaching, Finishing, etc. Third edition, Cloth Bound, by Geo. H. Hurst, P.C.S., London, England.
Price $2.00. Cloth Bound, 226 pages (7x4^ inches) and xi
Table of Contents : -Cotton, Flax, Jute and China Grass.
Wool. Silk. Cotton Bleaching. Linen Bleaching. Wool Scouring plates containing 66 Patterns of Dyed Silk Yarns and
and Bleaching. Silk Scouring and Bleaching. Water. About Fabrics. Price of Book Table With Sample Plates $2 00.
of Contents.
Dyeing. Use of Mordants. Notes on Cotton, Wool and Silk Dye- Chap. I. Origin, Structure, Composition and Properties of
ing. Blue
ing Coloring
Matters. Matters.
Aniline Red Coloring
Coloring Matters.Matters. YellowColoring
Quinoline Color- Mori, Tussah and Wild Silks.
Matters. Phenol Coloring Matters. Azo Coloring Matters. Anthra- Chap. II. Boiling off and Bleaching of Silks.
cene Coloring Matters. Artificial Coloring Matters Containing Chap III. Dyeing Blacks on Silk, Logwood Blacks, Tannin
Sulphur. Chrome Yellow. Iron Buff, Manganese Brown. Prussian Blacks,Chap. Aniline and other Coal Tar Blacks.
Blue. Fabrics of Cotton and Wool. Method of Devising Experi- Silks, Reds, IV. Dyeing of Fancy Colors on Silk, Weighting of
Oranges, Yellows, Blues, Greens, Browns, Violets, etc.,
ments in Dyeing. Estimation of the Value of Coloring Matters.
The Detection of Colors on Dyed Fabrics. Tables of Color Tests. on Silk.Chap. V. Dyeing Mixed Silk Fabrics.
Tables of Thermometer Scales, Weights and Measures, &c. Chap. VI. Silk Printing.
THE DYEING AND BLEACHING OP Chap. VII. Silk Dyeing and Finishing Machinery, Yarn
Dyeing, Piece Dyeing, Silk Finishing Machinery, Silk Finishing.
WOOL, SILK, COTTON, PLA.X, HEMP, CHINA Chap. VIII. Examination and Assaying of Raw and Dyed
Silks.
GRASS, ETC , by Antonio Sansone, Late Direc- Appendix
and 66 Patterns. of 170 Recipes for Dyeing and Prmtmg Silks,
tor of the Department of Dyeing at the Manchester
Technical school . Chemist to the Actiengesellschaft fuer
AnilinFabrikation, in Berlin Germany. At present Head COLOR a Scientific and Technical Manual Treating
Chemist to the dyeworks of the Cotonificio Cantoni, in of the Optical Principles, Artistic Laws and Technical
L,egnano, Italy. Details Governing the Use of Colors in Various Arts,
Volume I. 240 pages {S)4 x 5}4 inches). Text with by Prof. A. H. Church, M. A. Oxon., F. C.S., F. I. C,
72 illustrations of Machinery on plates. Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Academy of Arts,
Volume II. 221 dyed patterns on 29 plates. Both London, England.
volumes. Cloth Bound, Price $8 50.
Table of Contents: 189tionspages, (7x5 plates.
and 6 colored $1.50. with 31 illustra-
Price Bound,
inches,) Cloth
Chap. I. History of Dyeing.
Chap. II. History of Coal Tar Colors.
Chap. III. General Characteristics of Fibres. COLOR m WOVEN DESIGN, by R. Beaumont,
Chap. IV. Testing Coloring Matters by Dyeing. Member of the Society of Arts, Professor and Director of
Chap. v. COTTON. Bleaching Cotton. Cotton Dyeing.Loose
Cotton, Yarn and Cloth. Basic Aniline Colors. Acid Coal Tar Colors. the Textile Department of the Yorkshire College, Leeds,
The Eosines. Azo Colors. New Class Azo Colors. Alizarine Colors.
Dyewood Extract Colors. Dyeing and Finishing Black Italian England, This work is most elegantly gotten up, containing on
Cotton Cloth. Other Dyewood Colors. Browns, Yellows, Reds, etc.
Indigo Blues. 32 special plates, 126 colored illustrations of various
Chap. VI, lilNBN. Jute, China, Grass, etc. diagrams, illustrating blending and mixing of colors ;
Chap. VII. WOOL.
ing, Mechanical Scouring, Basic.
Dyeing Processes. Washing.
Acid.Bleaching.
Alkaline Dye-
Coal Fancy Yarns, Fancy Cassimeres, Worsteds, Trouserings,
Tar Colors Alizarines. Dyeing Wool with Natural Organic Color- all Coatings,
diflFerent Suitings,
kinds Ladies'
of Fancy DressCotton
Goods,andCloakings, also
Silk Fabrics.
ing Matters. Indigo. Dyewoods. One Dip Dyes.
Chap VIII. SIIiK. Anilines. Alizarine Colors on Silk. Besides said 126 colored illustrations, the work contains
Weighting of Silk. 203 illustrations, executed in black and white, of Weaves,
Chap. IX. Alizarine Colors in Wool Dyeing. Various New
Dyestuffs. Preparing Soaps for Wool Scourings. Gambine. New and corresponding Color-effects in fabrics, etc. All these
Series
Cudbearof and ColorsArchill.
Directly Fixed on the Fibre. Stibine, Etc. Saluffer illustrations are accompanied by 440 pagei?, {7}4'^5 inches, )
Hermite Bleaching Process. Cochineal Carmine. Black with of reading matter. Cloth Bound, Price, $7.50.
Dinitrosoresorcine, etc. Benzidine Colors. Paraphenglene Blue.
Rhodomine. THE FINISHING OP COTTON GOODS, by
China Grass or Rhea Ramine Fibre.
Mordanting Wool and Wool Dyeing. Oflficer D'Acaddmie, etc.
Chap. X. Machinery Employed in Dyeing. Member D^pierre,
Joseph of the Soci^t^s Chemist, Industrielles of Mulhouse and
Chap. XI. Explanation to the Dyed Patterns.
g
Rouen. Correspondin Member of the Soci^t^ Industri-
nine Two PlatesHundred form theandsecond
Twenty-one
volume. Patterns on Twenty- elle of Amiens Member of the Chemical Society of
THE HISTORY OP WOOL AND WOOL Paris, of the Industrial Society of Vienna, of the Chemi-
cal Society of Prag, etc., etc.
COMBING, by James Burnley, London, England. Translated from the latest French Edition 459
American Bound Edition, published by E. A. Posselt. pages (9X X 6X inches) Reading matter, numerous plates
Complete in one volume, containing 487 pages (6x9 containing illustrations of Machinery and several hun-
inches), with numerous illustrations and portraits. dred Samples of Cloth to explain the Various Finishes.
Cloth Bound, Price $8.40. Cloth Bound. Price $12.00.
XXV
 ADVERTISEMENT.
ESTABLISHED 1853.

Joseph /entmayer,
MANUFACTURER OF

icroscopes

Magnifying Of every Description and Price.

For the Analysis of Fibres, Yarns and
Glasses Fabrics.
For Picking Out For the use of the Student and Textile
Manufacturer.
the Weave from
Fabrics. All our Microscopes have been recently recon-
structed, and are provided with our patented
arrangement for swinging the sub-stage and
mirror, with the object as the centre, without
which no Instrument can be considered
complete.

Thread Send for

Counters Our
Illustrated
Of alt Powers
Catalogue.
and Sizes.

Correspondence Solicited.-

Joseph Zentmayer
Manufacturing

Optician,

209 South nth Street,

PHILADELPHIA, PENNA.
XX vi
 ADVERTISEMENT.

When you want^^

c 0 A

Of a Superior Steam Producing Quality, either in

Car Lots or

Single Tons

At reasonably low prices, as is consistent with the quality.

Communicate with — m

Thomas E Dolan

MANAGER FOR H BROPHEY

Somerset Street and Trenton Avenue

PHILADELPHIA, PA.

xxvii
 ADVERTISEMENT.

IMPORTANT TO TEXTILE MANDFACTURERS AND THEIR EMPLOrEES.

Posselt's21SZ
Priva
Worthte2lBtSchoo
BtreEt,l PhiladElphi
of Texti a, le
Pa. Design
FOR XHH

TEACHING OF DESIGNING AND MANUFACTURING

ALL KINDS OF COTTON, WOOLEN, WORSTED, SILK AND LINEN

TEXTILE FABRICS

AI.SO FREE HAND AND MECHANICAL DRAWING.

s&-m SUIT COURSE OF INSTRUCTION TO THE WANTS OF EACH STUDENT.

HE MAY TAKE UP HARNESS OR JACQUARD WORK EITHER IN COTTON, WOOL, WORSTED, SILK
OR LINEN ; UPHOLSTERY, CARPETS, ETC., ETC.

T'WENTY years of practical experience in the leading mills of this country and Europe ; six years as
*■ Headmaster and Instructor of Textile Industries at the Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial
Art of Philadelphia, have given the principal facilities to impart designing and manufacturing of any kind of Tex-
tile fabric, most thoroughly, and besides, in the shortest possible time.
A private tuition (the Student being all day under the supervision of practical designers) will give results
in a few days or a few weeks ; besides the student is instructed only in the special branch of designing and manufac-
turing required by him.
Course of instruction laid out to suit the wants of each pupil, he being either Manufacturer, Overseer,
Loomfixer, Weaver or Graduate of a Public School.
I have instructed some of the leading Textile Manufacturers, Superintendents, Overseers and Designers in this
country, and this with the highest satisfaction on their part.
The largest collection of technical works and periodicals, as published in Europe and this country, in our
library and of free use to pupils after school hours ; also reports and collections of samples of the latest foreign
fashions at hand for the benefit of the student.
The course of freehand drawing is designed with a special reference to practical designing for Jacquard
work ; and mechanical drawing for the construction of looms and other textile machinery, cloth structures, etc.,
etc. No need to take up either course, if you don't care and only want textile designing alone.
Only a limited number of students taken for instructions at one time.
For further particulars address the principal,

B. H. POSSELT,
EDITOR OF THE TEXTILE RECORD
AND EXPERT IN TEXTILE DESiaNINQ AND MANUFACTURING,

No. 2152 NORTH TWENTY-FIRST STREET,

PHILADELPHIA PA.
xxviii
ADVERTISEMENT

xxix
 ADVERTISEMENT.
the f. mulhauser co., S. Walker Jones,
Wool Shoddies and Wool Stock
Foreign Wool,
Cleveland, Ohio. *
G. P. ROSE, AGE 114 Federal Street, Boston.
143 Federal Street, NT, RnQTHM
DUO I UIN.
W. WOLF ^ SONS,
MAUGER Sc AVERY, DEALERS IN ALL GRADES OF
COTTON in£75ST©. LINTBRS. BTO.
Botany Lambs, Wool Waste, IMPORTERS OF
Silk Noils, etc. SILK NOILS AND RAMIE NOILS,
GRADED WOOLEN RAQS AND PAPER STOCK,
105 Beade Street, 561 Atlantic Avenue,
NEW YORK. BOSTON. Stuttgart, Germany. 620 Atlantic Ave., Boston.

RICHARD T. SULLIVAN, GORHAM ROGERS & CO.

Manufacturer of
Burlaps and
00 WOOL EXTRACT,
AND FINE EXTRACTED SHODDIES. Wool Sacks,
flEWTOfl, IiOWEI^ pRIiItS, ^RBS., RJiD
155 FHDBt^AI* STI^EBT, BOSTOfi. 20 Federal Street, BOSTON.
THOMAS K. RING, J^MES H. F»A.TO]Sr,
IMPORTER OF Broker in DoiTiestic afld Foreign Wool,
185 Summer St., cor. Federal, BOSTON.
gn^lish Weolen Ra^s, Representative in U. S. and Canada of
piflB JOTH TOW, HICK, MARTIN & DRYSDALE,
WOOL BROKERS,
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Tool Grinding. Lining or Marking out Work. Machine S. S. Wheeler. Second Edition, revised and enlarged
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900 EXAMINATION QUESTIONS AND TWENTY YEARS WITH THE INDICATOR,

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XXX
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THE TEXTILE RECORD,

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Contains more original Practical Matter

than any other Textile Journal.

PAPERS ON PRACTICAL PROCESSES FOR THE WOOLEN MANUFACTURER,
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Richly Illustrated Articles on New Textile Machinery.

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New Processes translated from French and Qerman technical press.

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xxxii
 NOW ON ITS SIXTH EDITION.

THE MOST COMPLETE TREATISE ON DESIGNING AND WEAVING

OF ALL TEXTILE FABRICS EVER PUBLISHED.

Technology of Textile Design,

Being a Practical Treatise on the Construction and Application of Weaves

for all Textile Fabrics, with minute reference to the latest Inventions
for Weaving. Containing also an Appendix showing the
Analysis and giving the Calculations necessary for the
Manufacture of the various Textile Fabrics.

BY

E. A. POSSELT,

ACCOMPANIKE) BY OVKR lOOO ILIvUSTRATIONS-

In one volumBf Quarto, over SOO pages. Handsomely hound in cloth and
gold. Price, Five Dollars^ including Expressage,

ABSTRACT OF THE CONTENTS.

Division of Textile Fabrics According to their Construction.

SQUARED DESIGNING PAPER FOR THE DIFFERENT TEXTILE FABRICS.

Purpose
Paper for ofTextile
the Squared
Fabrics. Designing Paper— Practical Use of the Heavy Squares in Designing Paper— Selection of Designinf
WEAVES FOR TEXTILE FABRICS AND THE METHODS OF THEIR CONSTRUCTION.

FOUNDATION V^EAVES.
THE PLAIN OR COTTON WEAVE.
Construction—
Combination ofInfluence of the Colors.
Two or More Twist of the Yarn— Fancy Effects Produced by Using Threads of Different Sixes ; or by the
TWILLS.
Construction—
Two Influence
or More Colors of the Twist
for Producing of the Effects.
Different Yarn Upon the Various Textures — Division of Twill-Weaves — Combination of
SATINS.
Methods and Rules for Constructing the Various Satin-Weaves — Influence of the Twist of the Yarn Upon Fabrics Interlaced
with Satin- Weaves — Arrangement of Satins for Special Fabrics.
- DRAWING IN OF THE WARP IN THE HARNESS.
Description of the Operation — Principle of a Drawing-in Draft — Methods Used for Preparing Drawing-in Drafts— Division of
Drawing-in Drafts— STRAIGHT DRAWING-IN DRAFTS— FANCY DRAWING-IN DRAFTS—^. Broken Draws— ^. Point
Draws — C. Section-Arrangement Draws (ist Plain, zd Double)— Z>. Skip Draws — E. Mixed or Cross-Draws — Other Points a
Drawing-in
IN DRAFTS Draft
FROMMay WEAVES—
Require in Addition
PREPARING to the Indications for Drafting on Certain
THE HARNESS-CHAIN Harnesses—
BY FANCY DRAFTINGDRAFTS—
DRAWING-IN OF DRAWING-
RULES
FOR ESTIMATING THE NUMBER OF HEDDLES REQUIRED FOR EACH HARNESS— a. For Straight Drawing-in
Drafts—*. For the Various Fancy Drawing-in Drafts-THE REED. AND RULES FOR CALCULATIONS.
(Continued on next Page )
xxxiii
 DERIVATIVE WEAVES.
FROM THE PLAIN OR COTTON WEAVE.
I. Common Rib-Weaves— II. Common Basket-Weaves-III. Fancy Rib-Weaves— IV. Fancy Basket-Weaves— V Fieured
Rib-Weaves-Efifects Produced by Using Two or More Colors in Warp and Filling of Fabrics Interlaced Upon Rib- and
Basket-Weaves— VI. Oblique Rib- Weaves— VII. Combination of Common and Oblique Rib-Weaves.
FROM THE REGULAR TWILL WEAVE.
I. Broken-Twills— Using Two or More Colors for Producing Various EfiFects Upon Fabrics Interlaced
II. Steep-Twi.ls of 63° Grading or Diagonals-Ill. Steep-Twills of 70° Grading-IV. Steep-Twills havingwitha Grading
Broken-Twills-
of 7s°-
V. Reclining-T wills or Twills having a 27° Grading-VI. Curved-Twills-VII. Skip-Twills-VIII. Combination of Two Dif
ferent Common Twills to Steep-Twills of 63° Grading-IX. Corkscrew-Twills-^. Derived from One Regular Twill-5 From
Two Regular Twills-C. Figuring with the Filling Upon the Face-i?. Curved Corkscrew-Twills-^. Corkscrew Weaves
composed of Warp and Filling Twills-/^. Corkscrew Weaves Figured by the Warp-G^. Corkscrew Weaves in which the
Face and Back of the Fabric is produced by the Filliug-X. Entwining-Twills— XI. Twills having Double
XII. Twill Weaves Producing Checkerboard Effects-XlII. Combination of Warp and Filling Effects from a 45°TwilUEfTects-
Twill Weave
after a Given Motive— XIV. Fancy Twill Weaves— XV. Pointed-Twills.
DERIVATIVE WEAVES FROM SATINS.
I. Double Satins— II. Granite Weaves.
Combination of Different Systems of Weaves
or More Colors) Upon Fabrics Interlaced with into One Weave—
Derivative Figured Effects Produced by the Fancy Arrangement (of Two
Weaves.
WEAVES FOR SINGLE CLOTH FABRICS OF A SPECIAL CONSTRUCTION AND PECULIAR
CHARACTER.
Honeycomb Weaves— Imitation Gauze (Plain and Figured)— COMBINATION OF WEAVES
STRUCTED WITH ONE SYSTEM OF WARP AND TWO SYSTEMS OF FILLING-Combining FOR FABRICS CON
Two Systems of Filling
to One Kind of Warp for Increasing the Bulk of a Fabric— Figuring with Extra Filling Upon the Face of Fabrics Interlace. I
with Their Own Warp and Filling— Principles of Swivel Weaving— Explanation and Illustration of a Swivel Loom— COM BI
NATION OF WEAVES FOR FABRICS CONSTRUCTED WITH TWO SYSTEMS OF WARP AND ONE SYSTEM
OF FILLING— Two Systems of Warp and One System of Filling for Producing Double-Faced Fabrics—
as Backing for Heavy- Weight Worsted and Woolen Fabrics— Figuring with Extra Warp Upon the Face Using an Extra Warn
of Fabrics Otherwise
Interlaced with the Regular Warp and Filling— Principles of Lappet Weaving— Explanations and Illustrations of the Laonet
Loom-TRICOT WEAV ES. ^«»ppet
DOUBLE CLOTH.
Description and Object of Making Double Cloth Fabrics— Rules for Designing Double Cloth Fabrics—
WEAVES DESIGNED WITH THE FOLLOWING PROPORTION OF FACE AND BACK IN WARP DOUBLE AND
CLOTH
FILLING-
A. Warp and Filling, One End Face to Alternate with One End Back-^. Warp One Face One Back, Filling Two Face One
Back— C. Warp Two Face One Back, Filling One Face One Back— 2?. Warp and Filling Two Face One Back— £ Warp and
Filling Two Face Two Back-K Warp Two Face Two Back, Filling Two Face One Buck-G. Warp and Filling Three Face
One Back-DOUBLE CLOTH WEAVING WITHOUT STITCHING BOTH CLOTHS-Principle of Constructing Seam-
less Bags, Hose and Similar Fabrics -DOUBLE CLOTH FABRICS IN WHICH THE DESIGN IS PRODUCED BY THE
STITCHING BEING VISIBLE UPON THE FACE OF THE FABRIC-Worsted Coatings-Matela
Pique Fabrics and Figured Pique Fabrics)-RIB FABRICS-THREE-PLY FABRICS-Four-Ply Fabrics, sses-Quilts
Etc.
(Plain
PILE FABRICS.
PILE FABRICS PRODUCED BY THE FILLING.
Velveteens, Fustians, Corduroys-Chinchillas, Whitneys, Plain and Figured-Chenille for the Manufacture of Curtains and
Rugs— Chenille Cutting Machine Illustrated and Explained.
CHENILLE AS PRODUCED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF FRINGES.
PILE FABRICS IN WHICH THE PILE IS PRODUCED BY A SEPARATE WARP IN ADDITION TO
THE GROUND WARP.
Description of the Structure of Warp Pile Fabrics-Terry and Velvet Pile-Explanation and Illustrations of the Method of
Operation Necessary in Producing Warp Pile Fabrics— VELVET AND PLUSH FABRICS-FIGURED VELVET-ASTRA-
KHANS, Their Various Methods of Construction— Illustrations and Explanations of Machines for Curling Warp-Threads for
Astrakhans-TAPESTRY CARPETS-BRUSSELS CARPETS-DOUBLE-FACED CARPETS, in which the Pile is Produced
by Inserting a Special Heavy Filling in Place of a Wire.
DOUBLE PILE FABRICS.
Principle of their Construction-Methods of Operation for Producing Double Pile Fabrics and Cutting
During Weaving— Illustration of the Machine and Explanation of the Method of Operation for Cuttingthe Double-Pile
Same on the Loom
Fabrics
After Leaving the Loom— Weaving Two, Three or More Narrow V/idths of Double-Pile Fabrics At Once— " Let-Off' ■
and "Take-Up" Motions of the
Higher Pile— Figured Double-Pile Fabrics.Pile Warp in Double-Pile Fabrics-Double - Pile Fabrics as Produced with a ProDortional
TERRY PILE FABRICS, IN WHICH THE PILE IS PRODUCED DURING WEAVING WITHOUT
THE AID OF WIRES AS USED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF TURKISH TOWELINGS AND
SIMILAR FABRICS.
PILE FABRICS AND REGULAR DOUBLE CLOTH FABRICS OF A SPECIAL METHOD OF CON-
STRUCTION.
Smyrna Carpets and Rugs-Imitation Turkey Carpets— Two-Ply Ingrain Carpet.
GAUZE FABRICS.
Principle of Construction of Gauze Fabrics-Combination of Plain and Gauze Weaving-Jacquard Gauze-Imitation of the
Regular Doup-Cross- Weaving, as Used for Chenille and Loom for Producing the Same Illustrated and Explained-Cross-
orWeaving, as Usedon forthetheLoom.
More Widths Manufacture of Filtering Bags-Cross- Weaving for Inside Fast Selvages of Fabrics Produced in Two
THE JACQUARD MACHINE as Necessary for Figured Work— GOBELIN TAPESTRY.
APPENDIX.
 BY THE SAME AUTHOR

THE JACQUARD MACHINE

ANALYZED AND EXPLAINED:

With an Appendix on tlie Preparation of Jacqnard Cards & Practical Hints to Learners of Jacqnard Designing
WITH 230 ILLUSTRATIONS AND NUMEROUS DIAGRAMS.
Textile Designing and;M:anuracturlng ; Principal of Posselt'* Private School of Textile
By E. A. POSSBLiT, Editorin of
Design, endExpert The Textile Brcord of America ; Author and Pnblisher of " Technology
% of Textile Design " " The Structure of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics," etc., etc.
This hook, quarto, handsomely bound in clolh, will be mailed, postage prepaid, to any address, npon receipt o^ Price, 93.
ABSTRACT OK THE CONTENTS.
History of the Jacquard Machine. VIII.— Straight-through Tie-up in Three Sections.
The Jacquard
cation. Machine— General Arrangement and Appli- IX.— Point Tie-up in Three Sections.
X.— Combination Tie-up in Two Sections.
Illustration of the different parts of the Jacquard Machine XI. — Straight-through Tie-up in Four Sections.
—Method of Operation, etc. XII.— Tying-upnessofattached.
Jacquard Looms with Compound Har-
The Jacquard Harness — The Comber-boards,
lying-up of Jacquard Harness. XIII. — Tying-up Jacquard Looms for Gauze Fabrics.
I. — Straight-through Tie-up. Modifications of the Single Lift Jacquard Machine.
II. — Straight-through Tie-up for Repeated Effects, in one
Repeat of the Design. I.— Double Lift Single Cylinder Jacquard Machine.
III. — Straight-through Tie-up
Front Harness attached.of Jacquard Loom, having II. — Double Lift Double Cylinder Jacquard Machine.
III. — Substitution of Tail-cords for Hooks.
IV. — Centre Tie-up.
V. — Straight-through and Point Tie-ups Combined. Tying-up General
of Jacquard Harness
Description of theforConstruction
Two-ply Ingrain Carpet
of the Fabric.
VI.— Straight-through Tie-up in Two Sections. Straight-through Tie-up.
VII. — Tying-up a Jacquard Harness
the Design with an Extra Warp. for Figuring Part of Point Tie-up.
APPENDIX.
Preparing and Stamping of Jacquard Cards. Repeating Jacquard Cards by the Positive Aclioii
Dobby Card-Punching Machines. Lacing of Repeater.Cards.
Jacquard
Piano Card-Stamping Machines. Lacing of Jacquard Cards by Hand.
Stamping of Cards. Lacing of Jacquard Cards by Machine.
PRACTICAL HINTS TO LEARNERS OF JACQUARD DESIGNING-.
Squared Designing Paper for the different Textile Fabrics Outlining in Squares.
executed on the Jacquard Machine. Rules for Outlining in Squares Inside or Outside the
Selection of the Proper Brush for the different C! De- Drawing Outline.
signing Papers. Illustration of a Sketch— Outling on n Paper— Finished
Colors used for Painting Textile Designs. Design— Fabric Sample (Single Cloth).
Preservation of Textile Designs Designs for Damask Fabrics to be executed on a Jac-
Sketching of Designs for Textile Fabrics to be executed on quard Loom, with Compound Harness attachecf.
the Jacquard Machine. Designs for Two-ply Ingrain Carpet.
Methods of Setting the Figures. Designs for Dressgoods Figured with Extra Warp.
Size of Sketch Required. Designs for Figured Pile Fabrics.
Glossary The
Enlarging and Reducing Figures for Sketches. Shading of Textile Fabrics by the Weave.
Transferring of the Sketch to the Squared Designing
Paper.
ABSTRACT OF COMMENTS OF THE LEADING TEXTILE PRESS ON THIS WORK.
It is a thoroughly practical work, written by one who is master of the business in all its various branches.
Wade's Fibre and Fabric, Boston,
The work is well gotten up,
the student and the advanced weaver. and with its explanatory illustrations, cannot fail to be of great service both to
The Manufacturers' Review and Industrial Record, New York.
This work has long been a serious need in textile mills, and amongst designers and card stampers, and we
predict for it a wide circulation. Tributes to its value have reached us from most prominent manufacturers in
the country.
The Philadelphia Carpet Trade.
The most important addition ever made on this side of the Atlantic to the literature of the textile industry, etc.
Textile Record of America, Philadelphia,
It is a great work, and is a credit to the author, etc., etc.
The Bulletin of the Philadelphia Textile Association, now the Manufacturer.
It is the only work in the English language that treats exclusively on the Jacquard Machine. No designer
■*'ho wishes to be up in his vocation should be without it. Boston Journal of Commerce.
49- Books by Mail, Free
or in ofRegistered
Postage, toLetters.
all Par<sNotof responsible
the World.—forRemittances
money lost, should toe made bysent.
when otherwise Drafts or P. O. Orders,
addr:^SS ai,i, ordmrs tc

JS. A. POSSELT, Publisher,

2153 N. Twenty-£rst Street, Philadelphia, Pa.
XXXV
 THE LEADING WORK ON TEXTILE MANUFACTURING.

The Structure of Fibresjorns ^ Fabrics

BY Employed In the Manufacture
Being a Practical Treatise for the Use of All Persons
of Textile Fabrics.

E. A. P0S5ELT.
ACCOMPANIED BY OVER 400 ILLUSTRATIONS.
Two Yolnmes Bound in One. Quarto, Handsomely Bound in CIolli. Price, Fire Dollars, including Expressage.
THE MOST IMPORTANT WORK ON

The Structure of Cotton, Wool. Silk, Flax, Jute and

Ramie Fibres,
The Preparatory Processes these Fibres are subjected
to previously to
The Picking, Carding, Combing, Drawing, Spinning,
and
Calculations required by the Manufacturers.

This work, as well as the other books written and published by Mr. Posselt, have
been sold by the thousands
amongst our Manufacturers, Overseers and Operators. ^ inousanas
They also sold extensively in England, Germany, France, Austria, Russia,
J hey are used as Text-Books in the various Textile Schools. Brazil, Japan, etc.

What Practical Manufacturers have to say on the Books ;

SAXON WORSTEID COMPANY, Franklin, Mass. FROM CAXIAS, BRAZIL.
Mr. n. A. Posselt, Dear Sir .—You may please send to us five
(5) more copies of your new book, "The Structure of Fibres "^f:^?- ?,°gSELT, Bear Sir .—Uave received the books
Yams and Fabrics." This wiU make six copies
we will send you check. We trust the work willin meet all for which
with the
fiit
with the
!lfT,^^^'^°'
"""^ .Fibres, m. Yarns and Yours
Fabrics,"
Jacquard Machine." truly," Technology of Tex-
and Robert
am mulh pleased
D. Wall.
sale which it deserves. The composition of such an extensive
and yet accurate work certainly earns for you the thanks and RAY'S WOOLEN COMPANY, Franklin, Mass.
appreciation of all interested in textile industries. E. A. posselt, HsQ.,Dear Sir:- I have purchased more ihan
Yours, etc , I. G. Ladd, Treasurer. »2^oo worth of books on manufact uring before purchasing yours,
BONAPARTE WOOI^FN Mil,!,, Bonaparte, Iowa. double all
H^. w*",J';"i.'''^'?uythe others are. I am yours
"Fibres, Yarns ,and Joseph Fabrics,"Aldrich.
il worth
E. A. Posselt, Esq , Dear 5zV.— Your book, •' The Structure of MASCOMA FLANNEL COMPANY.
Fibres, Yarns and
draft Jio.oo on New Fabrics," York in
received 4th inst., and have enclosed E. A. Posselt Z)^a^5z>.— Enclosed please find check for pay-
for a few days before writing payment of same. I have delayed
ment ofenclosed
look through the work. I mustyousayin that order to give myself time to Fabrics. bill for
Was much copy "with
pl.ased Structure of Fibres, Yarns and
from you sterling value I have always received money to an experieoced manufactuierbook, it is well worth the
no exception to the rule.forItmymore money, and your present work is
than to beginners in the art of manufactur,ingand Ifmany times its cost
and I shall find it very helpful to myself It will meets my expectations,
be simply in- such a work in my younger days of manufacturinI g,could have had
valuable tothe young man learning the art of woolen manufact- learnedmemany points that I had to work out by itstudy would have
obser-
ure, who has to rely on himself too often and get little encourage vation and experience, attended with more
ment from those around him To such a one your work will prove-
a veiitablemine ot information. Wishing you much success I my part and expenses otherwise. M. orE. less mistakes on
George, Supt.
am, yours truly, W. R. Dredge, Supt. JAMESTOWN, N. Y.
Mr. E. a. Posselt, Dear Sir.— mease find enclosed monev
THE KNOX-HILI, COMPANY, Warsaw, Ills. S.^ book
V Technology JJ°^ books send) I amDesign,"
well pleased
The of Textile and thewith the" Struct-
books.
Mr. E. a. Posselt, D'ar Sir.— Yonr work " Technology of ure of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics." I would not bebook without for
Textile Design ' received, and I am very much pleased with it their weight m gold. Please acknowledge Yours truly, T. receipt and oblige
D. Douglass
I expected it would be good butYours
it goestruly,
beyond
J. W. myWilson,
anticipatio
Supt.n.'
EATON RAPIDS WOOLEN MILLS, Eaton Rapids, Mich.
MILLBURY SCOURING COMPANY, West Millbury, Mass, E. A. F0SSKI.T, Dear Sir .— I have further examined the books
purchased
Technology of you, " Structure of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics " and
of Textile
Mr.
book E.• Fibres,
A. Posselt,
Yarns Z»«a>-.S'z>.-
and Fabrics."— Enclosed
Thankcheck
you infor payment'
terms, etc.of '^^^'^ed.Design,"Yours and find them just what I
truly, Wm A Horner.
h^Tv^f?^
book Technology
at the Lowell Schoolof ofTextile
Design Design
and " was thehave
therefore instruction
one on HAMILTON, ONT., CANADA.
hand, which is quite inexhaustive and itsYours, own talker.
W. W. WiNDLE. Mr. E. a. Posselt, Dear Sir .—Wheti
Quebec, I sent for two of your books. I1 amwas well living in Maeoe
pleased with
MANUFACTURERS OF WOOI,EN HOSIERY, Milroy, Pa. them and would not be without them for ten times the money
Harry Marsh, 143 Pirton Street, East.
Many thanks for the superb book you sent on Textile Fibres
and their manipulations. It is excellent. Yours, etc., Bros.
Thompson THE ACME FELT COMPANY, Albany, N. Y.
Mr. E. a. Posselt, Z>^ar 5tV.-— Book, "Structure of Fibres
BRIDGEPORT SILK COMPANY, Bridgeport, Conn. Yarns and Fabrics," received. Very much pleased with it
Yours respectfully, The Acme Felt Company. -
. A. Posselt Esq., Dear Sir .--mease find enclosed amount of PROVIDENCE WORSTED MILLS, Providence, R. I.
bill for last publication sent me. I now have all your works uo
to aate, What
cflFort. and sincerely
next? Sendwishcircular.
you luck with your last exellent My Dear Posselt :— I have your latest work ," Structure of
Respectfully, F. M. Patterson. Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics," and I assume, in my opinion it is
the best work of the kind ever published. H. Sheridan

ADDRESS ALL ORDERS FOR BOOKS TO E. A. POSSELT, PUBLISHER, 2152 ISOPTH

21st ST., PHTLA.
XXX vi
 ADVERTISEMENT.

First American Builders-sUs^

Revolving Flat Carding Engine.

Pettee Machine Works,

NEWTON UPPER FALLS, MASS., U. 5. A.

O^iR SPECIALTIES —^..m^m.

REVOLVING FLAT CARDS,

A RAILWAY HEADS,

DRAWING FRAMES.
SEND FOR DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE.
xxxvii
 ADVERTISEMENT.
MILLER SPROWLES. THOS. R. HOUSEnAN, M. E.

Xhe Danforth sprowles &

Houseman
— # Belting Qo. Reliance flachine Works
MANUFACTURERS OF

Belting of Qeneral /Machinists

AMD

Superior Corner
Quality Hedge and grown 5ts., F^ankford,
APRONS FOR PHILADELPHIA, ngineers
f^PA.
WORSTED AND SILK MACHINERY,
ROLLER COVERS, Patented Dyeing Machinery
RUB APRONS, LACE LEATHER AND General Mill Work and Gearing,
BELTING SUPPLIES Calico Printing Machines, and all Machinery
MANUFACTORY . . . for Print Works, Dye Houses.
Foot and Power Presses.
221 Chestnut Street Special Tools built in the best manner.
, . . PHILADELPHIA, PA. Estimates cheerfully given.
E5TAOL13MED 166 O. TCLEPHONC t3J

REEDS. HARNESS, REEDS 6HARNE5S

LINGOES,MAILS, & JACQUARD

SHUTTLES,QUILL5 HARNESS BUILDING
, PICKERS AND EOR RIBBON
GENERAL WEAVERS
6 BROAD SILK NAN-
UPACTURERS
SUPPLIES. PULL

STOCK OF ALL5TAN-
A SPECIALTY. COR-
DARD JACQUARD RESPONDENCE
THREADS.
SOLICITED.

30-36 Hamilton Ave., Paterson, N. J.

xxxviii
 ADVERTISEM'ENT.

Tlie Keptoie Uiiversal |sppiD(| MaEtiiDe,

MANUFACTURED BY

RICHARD C. BORCHERS & CO.,

Keystone Clutch and Machine Works,

12 DB and 1710 Dermantown Ave., PHILAnELPHIA, PA.

These Machines are perfectly universal, adapted for all kinds of
woven goods of cotton, wool, or both, with or without face finish.
All adjustments necessary for the different kinds of goods can be
made instantaneously, while the machine is running.

WE ALSO MANUFACTURE

The Keystone Measuring Marking Machine,

For single width goods, which measures the goods exactly, and prints
the successive numbers of the yards on the back to avoid claims
for shortage.
^— WRITE FOR PARTICULARS.
xxxix
 ADVERTISEMENT.

se
U
the

"Halton" Jacquard,"B'^t
SINGLE
LIFT, CUMBER-
BOARDS,

DOUBLE LINGOES,
LIFT,

HARNESS
RISE AND
TWINES,
FALL,

MAILS,
CROSS
BORDER. Etc.

The Original ''Fine Index" Machine.

THOMAS HALTON,

2627=29 Mutter Street, Lehigh A PHILADELPHIA, PA.

EVAN ARTHUR LEIGH,

(Successor to E. A. Leigh & Co.)
35 and 36 Mason Building, BOSTON, MASS.

Cotton, Woolen and Worsted Machinery

^ ofthej afe5>f Most Improved Patterns.
PL ATT BROS. & CO.'S IMPROVED COTTON, WOOLEN AND WORSTED MACHINERY.
Special attention called to their Patent Preparing, Opening and Lapping Machinery, Revolving Flat
Carding Engines. Improved Machinery for Waste, and for Preparing, Combing, Roving and
Spinning Worsted on the French System.
JOHN MASON'S DRAWING, SLTJBBING, INTERMEDIATE AND ROVING FRAMES.
CURTIS SONS & CO.'S "PARR'S" PATENT SELF- AC PING MULES, for both coarse and fine counts.
COMBING MACHINES for either long or short staple cotton, with all latest improvements, for 7>^^' or loyi^^ wide
laps, with or without double nip.
JOS. SIKES steel
BROS.'
wire. CARD CLOTHING FOR COTTON, with hardened and tempered plough ground polished
JAS. CRITCHLEY & SONS' CARD CLOTHING FOR WOOLEN AND WORSTED.
MATHER & PLATT'S BLEACHING, DYEING AND FINISHING MACHINERY FOR COTTON GOODS.
MORITZ JAHR'S SPECIAL MACHINERY FOR FINISHING WOOLEN AND WORSTED GOODS.
WOOL WASHING AND DRYING MACHINERY.
BLACKBURN, ATTENBOROUGH & SONS' HOSIERY MACHINERY for Knitting all classes of Hosiery Goods.
GARNETT'S PATENT MACHINERY for Opening Woolen and Worsted Waste.
DRONSFIELD'S PATENT GRINDING ROLLERS, CARD MOUNTING MACHINES AND EMERY FILLETTING
always in stock,
TATE'S PATENT ELECTRICAL APPARATUS FOR STOPPING STEAM ENGINES OR TURBINES from any part
of the works ; also automatically stopping same from increased speed resulting from the breaking
of main driving belts, gearing, etc
 ADVERTISEMENT.

ard
Jacqu
CARD CUTTING

MACHINERY

Piano Machines
For cutting regular French Index Cards,
also for cutting Fine Scale (1304s) Cards.
Our Piano Machines possess many
points of superiority. Adjustable card
guides are provided, permitting the use of cards of diflferent widths ; the punches and
keys can readily be adjusted ; and the arrangement of treads, levers, etc., is such that
the friction is greatly reduced and power transmitted to the punches with a minimum
of effort.

I^epeaterS repeating regular French Index Cards, also for repeating Fine Scale
(1304s) cards. Our Repeaters are models of mechanical excellence and
. surpass all others in perfection of design and finish. They are self-contained ; have
great cutting power ; are equipped with improved feed motions which can readily be
adjusted to harmonize with the tension in the lacing of the cards ; and all parts are
carefully adjusted to work in perfect unison. In the Jacquard, cords, springs, etc., are
done away with, positive-acting levers and wires being substituted therefor, resulting
in accurately cut cards and reliable work at all times.

and Lace Hole Cutters punching automatically feeding,

Peg and stacking
cards prior to passing them through the Repeater. These cutters
are entirely automatic throughout and are a great
improvement over the machines heretofore offered for
doing this work.

Combined Punching and Lac=

ing Machines for automatically
punching and lacing Jacquard cards atone
operation .

Quillers, Dobbies,
etc., etc.

John Royle Ei Sons

3 3125 00013 9564

KNOWLE5

See Inside Page 2