MODULE 1: How the Universe is Formed call protons, neutrons and

electrons.
- These parts later form into atoms
Creation Myth
- According to GENESIS, in the Old
testament, the creation of the entire
cosmos (universe) is done in six days.

Big Bang Theory

Big Bang Timeline of Events

- 200-400 million years after Big Bang

- 1st stars and galaxies form
- 4.6 billion years ago
- Our Solar system forms

Among all other theories, it is said to be the most

The proponents of the theory are Aleksander credible one due to the supporting evidences:
Friedman and George Lamaitre in 1920

According to the theory, around 13.7 billion years

ago, there was nothing and nowhere. Then
suddenly, due to random fluctuation in an empty
void, there is a great explosion or expansion. The
explosion sent space, time, matter, and energy
in all directions. The event is called BIG BANG.

Time Begins
- The Universe begins 13.7 billion years ago.
- The Universe begins as the size of a single
atom. Misconceptions about the Big Bang
- The Universe began as a violent - there was no explosion; there was (and
expansion continues to be) an expansion
- All matter and space were created - Rather than imagining a balloon
from a single point of pure energy popping and releasing its contents,
in an instant imagine a balloon expanding: an
- 3 minutes after Big Bang infinitesimally small balloon
- The universe has grown from the expanding to the size of our
size of an atom to larger than the current universe
size a grapefruit - we tend to image the singularity as a little
- E=mc2 fireball appearing somewhere in space
- energy froze into matter according - space began inside of the
to Albert Einstein’s equation. singularity. Prior to the singularity,
- This basically says that like
nothing existed, not space, time,
snowflakes freezing, energy forms
matter into clumps that today we matter, or energy - nothing.
Big Bang Timeline - Include, label, and color - C.O.B.E. satellite confirmed for the
entire universe that noise radiation
1. What happened
(static) is evenly spread
2. When each event (thing) happened
- Law of conservation of energy
(energy can neither be created or
destroyed) — energy remains
constant over time
3. Quasars
- Super large (solar system size)
galactic cores that put more light
than whole galaxies
Neutrons and protons are held together in the - Only found 10-15 billion light years
nucleus by the “strong” force, which has to away
overcome the electrical repulsion of the two - Found nowhere else
positively charged protons in helium (and in - Nothing exists past them
more complex atoms too). Electrons are held 4. Radioactive decay
around the atom by the electrical attraction - Radiometric dating - gives us the
between their negative charge and the positive age of items from the decay of
charge of the protons in the nucleus. radioactive materials found within
the object
- Moon rocks have been dated and
- Big Bang - energy found to be older than Earth
- Matter - Gives us an estimated time
- E=mc2 that Earth and the Moon
- Protons formed
- Neutrons 5. Stellar formation and evolution
- Electrons - We observe the life cycles of stars
- Atoms across the universe using tools
- Hydrogen such as satellites and telescopes
- Helium - We view stars form, burn and
- Stars and galaxies explode
- Our solar system
- Sun and all planets
- Earth (present day)

Big Bang Evidence

1. Universal expansion and Hubble’s Law 6. Speed of light and stellar distances
- Hubble observed the majority of - The speed of light is a universal
galaxies are moving away from us constant of 300,000 km/s2
and each other - We observe stars millions/billions
- The farther, the faster they move of light-years away
- Red Shift - A light-year is the distance that
2. 3 degree background radiation light travels in 1 year – the light we
- Noise radiation (static) is evenly see today from a star 500 light
spread across space years away is 500 years old
- The amount of radiation matched - The furthest stars away are 10-15
predictions billion light years away
- We have telescopes that can see
further, but there isn’t anything
viewable
Steady-State Theory Inflation Theory
- The proponents of the theory are - It was proposed by Alan Guth, Andrei
Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Sir Linde, Paul Steinhart, and Andy Albrecht.
Fred Hoyle in 1948. - The theory proposed a period of
exponential expansion of the universe .In
physical cosmology, is a theory of
exponential expansion of space in the
early universe.
- During the rapid expansion, the energy
density of the universe is dominated by a
constant- type of vacuum energy. Later,
this decayed to produce the matter and
radiation that filled up the universe.

Inflation Theory is said to be the extension of the

Big Bang theory. To resolve the conflict , the
following notions were offered:
- Flatness. The vastness of the universe
would appear flat to an individual even
though it is still a sphere. This is the same
The expansion of the universe is balanced by the
with our Earth experience. Inflation
spontaneous production of bubbles
stretches any initial curvature of the
of matter-anti-matter, so that the Perfect
universe to near flatness.
Cosmological Principle is preserved.
- Monopole. Monopoles are produced prior
to inflation. During the rapid
- It proposes that universe is unchanging in
expansion,the density of the monopoles
time and uniform in space.
dropped exponentially to an undetectable
level.
Nucleo synthesis in stars can account for the
- Horizon. The exponential expansion in
abundances of all the elements except the very
the early universe presupposes that the
lightest.
distant regions were much closer with
each other prior to inflation.
The following accounts for the unresolved
String Theory
conflicts between Big Bang and the Steady State
- a theoretical framework in which the
theories:
point-like particles of particle physics are
replaced by one-dimensional objects
called strings. It describes how these
strings propagate through space and
interact with each other.
- On distance scales larger than the string
scale, a string looks just like an ordinary
particle, with its mass, charge and other
properties determined by the vibrational
state of the string. In string theory, one of
the many vibrational states of the string
corresponds to the graviton, a quantum
mechanical particle that carries
gravitational force. Thus string theory is
a theory of quantum gravity.
M - Theory - The Nebular Theory - proposed by
- The origin of the Universe occurs as a Marquis de Laplace
result of the contact of two - In 1976, he first suggested that the
hyperdimensional branes . Strings can Sun and the planets formed in a
actually attach at one or both ends of the rotating nebula which cooled and
string. The collision of the branes lead to collapsed. It condensed into rings
the formation of the universe. which eventually formed the
planets, and a central mass which
Conclusions: became the Sun.
- The UNIVERSE is spontaneously created
from nothing (like Quarks appear to be) –
all natural laws etc have developed
randomly over time
- There are basic laws / creative powers
‘behind’ nature that explain how it has
come do develop the way it has. This
creative power is the final explanation of
the universe (which some people also call
God)

Module 2: The Origin of the Solar

System

Solar System
- Is located within the Milky Way Galaxy
- Is located about 25,000 light-years to the
galactic center and 25,000 light-years
away from the rim.
- Revolves around the galactic center once
in about 240 million years
- 4.6 billion years old - Descartes’ Vortex Theory - proposed by
Theories about the Origin of the Solar System Rene Descartes
- The Planetesimal Theory - proposed by - A French Mathematician and
Count Georges Comte de Buffon physicist, explained that the orbits
- A passing star collided with our of the planets in terms of
sun and the collision caused large whirlpool-like motion and the
chunks of material from the two satellites around the planets as
star to be thrown off space. These secondary whirlpool-like motion.
streamers then presumably broke - Solar System formed into bodies
into small chunks called with nearly circular orbits because
“planetesimals”. of the whirlpool-like motion in
- The Companion Star Theory - proposed pre-solar materials
by Fred Hoyle - Jeans-jeffrey’s Tidal Hypothesis Sir james
- According to these theory the sun Hopwood Jeans & Harold Jeffreys
had a companion star. These stars - Suggested a dualistic theory in
exploded when it collided with one which the planets and the sun
another due to the sun's were produced by different
gravitaion. The materials from mechanisms
these collision became the planets - Tidal Theory proposed that the
and other bodies found in the solar planets were formed from the
system. substance that was torn out of the
 sun. As the speeding massive star The Solar Nebula Hypothesis
passed near the Sun, it pulled off
- Basis of modern theory of planet
material due to gravitational
formation
attraction. Torn off materials
- Planets form at the same time from the
condensed to form planets.
same cloud as the star
- Solar Nebular Theory
- Planet formation sites observed today as
- The solar system was formed from
dust disks of T Tauri stars
the condensation of Hydrogen
- Sun and our solar system formed - 5
gas(interstellar gas) and dust
billion years ago
cloud.
- About 4.5 billion years ago it is believed
- Explosion of supernova caused the
that the Solar System consisted of a large
gas and dust to collapse and form
cloud of gas and dust, called a nebula.
the sun and planets.
- This cloud started rotating, and the dust
- Gas and dust cloud collapsed due particles combined to form
to the force of gravity, the center planetesimals. As the cloud rotated
compressed and became protostar. faster, it flattened, and the planetesimals
Continuous shrinking speeds up formed — eventually forming planets.
the rotation. - Initial composition:
- Contractions converted - 98% hydrogen and helium
gravitational energy into heat - 2% (carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,
energy and caused the center to silicon, iron)
glow, nuclear reaction began and Planet Formation - Accretion
sun was formed.
Accretion
- The remaining gas dust cloud
formed disk-shaped bodies (due to 1. Condensed grains from nebula collide and
rotation) called solar nebulae. The stick to form planetesimals
solar nebulae came together to 2. Planetesimals grow by further collisions
form planets. 3. Gravity holds them together when big
enough some planetesimals eventually
Regardless of what theory is closer to the become very small planets.
speculated mechanics of how the solar system
Evidence for Ongoing Planet Formation
was formed, any theory to describe the
formation of our Solar System must adhere to - Many young stars in the Orion Nebula are
these facts: surrounded by dust dusks: probably sites
of planet formation right now.
1. Each planet is isolated in space.
Dust Disks around Forming Stars
2. The orbits are nearly circular.
3. The orbits of the planets all lie in roughly - Dust disks around some T Tauri stars can
the same plane. be imaged directly (HST)
4. The direction they orbit around the Sun is Extrasolar Planets
the same as the Sun’s rotation on its axis.
5. The direction most planets rotate on their - Modern theory of planet formation is
evolutionary
axes is the same as that for the Sun.
- Many stars should have planets
6. The direction of a planet’s moon orbits is - Planets orbiting around other stars
the same as that planet’s direction of = “Extrasolar planets”
rotation. - Extrasolar planets cant be imaged directly
7. The Terrestrial planets are very different - Detection using same methodds as in
from the Jovian planets. binary star systems: look for “wobbling”
8. Asteroids are different from both types of motion of the star around the common
planets. center of mass
9. Comets are icy fragments that don’t orbit
in the ecliptic plane.
Indirect Detection of Extrasolar Planets Terrestrial Planets
- Observing periodic Doppler shifts of stars - Four inner planets of the solar system
with no visible companion: - Relatively small in size and mass (Earth is
- Evidence for the wobbling motion the largest and most massive)
of the star around the common
- Rocky surface
center of mass of a planetary
system - Surface of Venus cant be seen directly
- Over 100 extrasolar planets from Earth because of its dense cloud
detected so far cover.
The Solar Sytem Craters on Planets’ Surfaces
- Includes the sun, planets, moons, - Craters (like on our moon’s surface) are
asteroids, comets, gases, solar wind. common throughout the solar system
Survey of the Solar System Relative Sizes of the - Not seen on Jovian planets because they
Planets dont have a solid surface
- Assume, reduce all bodies in the solar Jovian Planets
system so that the earth has diameter 0.3
mm. - Much larger in mass and size than
- Sun: size of a small plum. terrestrial planets
- Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars: size of a - Much lower average density
grain of salt. - All have rings
- Jupiter: size of an apple seed. - Mostly gas; no solid surface
- Saturn: slightly smaller than Jupiter’s
“apple seed” Space Debris
- Uranus, Neptune: larger salt grains - In addition to planets, small bodies orbit
- Pluto: speck of pepper.
the sun: asteroids, comets, meteoroids
Planetary Orbits - Comets
- Icy nucleus, which evaporates and
- All planets in almost circular (elliptical)
gets blown into space by solar
orbits around the sun in, approximately
wind pressure
the same plane (ecliptic).
- Mostly objects in highly elliptical
- Sense of revolution: counter-clockwise
orbits occasionally coming close to
- Sense of rotation: counter-clockwise
the sun.
(with exception of Venus, Uranus, and
- Meteoroids
Pluto).
- Small ( µm – mm sized) dust grains
- Orbits generally inclined by no more than
throughout the solar system
3.4 degrees
- If they collide with Earth, they
- Exceptions:
evaporate in the atmosphere
- Mercury (7 degrees)
- Visible as streaks of light: meteors
- Pluto (17.2 degrees)
The Age of the Solar System
Two Kinds of Planets
- Sun and planets should have about the
- Planets of our solar system can be divided
same age
into two very different kinds:
- Ages of rocks can be measured through
- Terrestrial (earthlike) planets:
radioactive dating
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
- Measure abundance of a radioactively
- Jovian (Jupiter-like) planets:
decaying element to find the time since
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
formation of the rock
- Dating of rocks on Earth, on the moon,
and meteorites all give ages of 4.6 billion
years
Characteristic Properties of the Solar System - Further out -> Protostellar cloud cooler
-> metals with lower melting point
1. Disk shape of the solar system
condensed -> change of chemical
a. Orbits in nearly the same plane
composition throughout solar system
b. Common direction of rotation and
revolution Formation and Growth of Planetesimals
2. Two planetary types
- Planet formation starts with clumping
a. Terrestrial planets - inner planets;
together of grains of solid matter:
high density
planetesimals
b. Jovian planets - outer planets; low
- Planetesimals (few cm to km in size)
density
collide to form planets
3. Planetary ring systems and large satellite
- Planetesimal growth through
systems for Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
condensation and accretion
Neptune
- Gravitational instabilities may have
4. Space debris — asteroids, comets, and
helped in the growth of planetesimals into
meteors
protoplanets
5. Common ages of about 4.6 billion years
for Earth, the moon, Mars, meteorites, The Growth of Protoplanets
and the sun
- Simplest form of planet growth:
The Story of Planet Building - Unchanged composition of
accreted matter over time
- Planets formed from the same
- As rocks melted, heavier elements
protostellar material as the sun, still
sink to the center ->
found in the sun’s atmosphere
differentiation
- Rocky planet material formed from
- This also produces a secondary
clumping together of dust grains in the
atmosphere -> outgassing
protostellar cloud
- Improvement of this scenario: gradual
- Mass of less than ∼ 15 Earth
change of grain composition due to
masses:
cooling of nebula and storing of heat from
- Planets can’t grow by
potential energy
gravitational collapse
- Earthlike planets The Jovian Problem
- Masses of more than ∼ 15 Earth
- Two problems for the theory of planet
masses:
formation:
- Planets can grow by
- Observations of extrasolar planets
gravitationally attracting
indicate that Jovian planets are
material from the
common
protostellar cloud
- Protoplanetary disks tend to be
- Jovian planets (gas giants)
evaporated quickly (typically
The Condensation of Solids within 100,000 years) by the
radiation of nearby massive stard
- To compare densities of planets,
- Too short for Jovian planets
compensate for compression due to the
to grow
planet’s gravity:
- Soluton: Computer simulations show that
- Only condensed materials could
Jovian planets can grow by direct gas
stick together to form planets
accretion without forming rocky
- Temperature in the protostellar
planetesimals
cloud decreased outward
Clearing the Nebula - Gaseous envelope that
surround the Earth and
- Remains of the protostellar nebula were
constitutes the transition
cleared away by:
between its and the vacuum
- Radiation pressure of the sun
of space
- Solar wind
- Hydrosphere
- Sweeping-up of space debris by
- Includes all water on Earth
planets
(including surface water
- Ejection by close encounters with
and groundwater)
planets
- Biosphere
- The life zone of the Earth
and includes all living
Module 3: The Earth’s Systems organisms, and all organic
matter that has not yet
decomposed
“Earth is a complex system of interacting
physical, chemical and biological processes, and Overlapping Cycles in the Earth System
provides a natural laboratory whose experiments
have been running since the beginning of time.”

Earth as a Closed System

- Closed system: exchange of energy but
negligible exchange of mass with
surroundings
Earth System Science
- Earth is a dynamic body with many
separate, but highly interacting parts of
spheres
The Atmosphere
- Earth system science studies Earth as a
system composed of of numerous parts, - The earth is surrounded by a blanket of
or subsystems air, which we call the atmosphere
- The atmosphere consists of four unique
The Earth System
layers (the troposphere, the stratosphere,
- Air the mesosphere, and the thermosphere).
- Land - The atmosphere reaches over 560
- Water kilometers (348 miles) up from the surface
- Life of the Earth.
- The atmosphere is primarily composed of
The Earth’s Four Spheres
nitrogen (about 78%) and oxygen (about
- The Earth is a system consisting of four 21%). Other components exist in small
major interacting components: quantities
- Geosphere (Lithosphere) - Consists of a mixture of gases composed
- Comprises the solid Earth primarily of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
and includes both Earth’s dioxide, and water vapor
surface and the various - The mesosphere, thermosphere,
layers of the Earth’s interior exosphere are zones of diffuse
- Atmosphere atmospheric components in the far
reaches of the atmosphere
 - The troposphere (0-10km) constitutes the Subcomponents of the hydrosphere are
climate system that maintains the connected via the hydrologic cycle
conditions suitable for life on the planet’s
surface
- The stratosphere (10-50km) contains
ozone that protects life on the planet by
filtering harmful ultraviolet radiation from
the Sun
Atmosphere: Interactions with other Earth
system components
Hydrosphere: The gases of the atmosphere
readily exchange with those dissolved in water
bodies (e.g. oceans, lakes, etc.) Distribution of Water on Earth
Biosphere: The atmosphere supplies oxygen and
carbon dioxide that form the basis of life
processes (photosynthesis and respiration).
Geosphere: Gases in the atmosphere react with
water to produce weak acids that aid in the
breakdown of rock.

System Interactions
- Hurricanes (atmosphere) sweep across
the ocean (hydrosphere) and onto the
land (geosphere), damaging the dwellings Ocean Zones
of people (biosphere) who live along the - Oceans are divided into layers called
coast zones: horizontal and vertical
The Hydrosphere - Horizontal Ocean Zones
- Intertidal Zone
- Contains all the water found on our - Neritic Zone
planet - Oceanic Zone
- Water found on the surface of our planet - Benthic Zone
includes the ocean as well as water from - Vertical Ocean Zones
lakes and rivers, streams, and creeks - Epipelagic Zone
- Water found under the surface of our - Photic Zone or
planet includes water trapped in the soil Sunlight Zone
and groundwater - Mesopelagic Zone
- Water found in our atmosphere includes - Disphotic Zone or
water vapor Twilight Zone
- Frozen water on our planet includes ice - Bathypelagic Zone
caps and glaciers - Aphotic Zone or
- Only about 3% of our water on Earth is Midnight Zone
“fresh” water, and about 70% of the fresh - Abyssopelagic Zone
water is frozen in the form of glacial ice - Aphotic Zone or
Midnight Zone
- Hadopelagic Zone
- Aphotic Zone or
Midnight Zone
 Earth’s layers: Composition and Mechanical
Characteristics

Geosphere: Interactions with other Earth System

components
Atmosphere: volcanism spews significant
amounts of gases into the atmosphere. For
example, volcanoes inject large amounts of
sulphur dioxide to the upper atmosphere,
resulting in global cooling
Hydrosphere: Interactions with other Earth
Sysem components Hydrosphere: The formation of many minerals
involve incorporation or release of water. Also,
Atmosphere: Water is transferred between the water speeds up chemical reactions that produce
hydrosphere and biosphere by evaporation and or destroy minerals, and aids in the melting of
precipitation. Energy is also exchanged in this rock.
process.
Biosphere: Nutrients release from rocks during
Biosphere: Water is necessary for the transport their breakdown are dissolved in water (to be
of nutrients and waste products in organisms. used by aquatic plants).
Geosphere: Water is the primary agent for the
chemical and mechanical breakdown of rock
(weathering), to form loose rock fragments and System Interactions
soil, and sculpts the surface of the Earth. - Volcanoes (geosphere) erupt, sending ash
and gases into the air (atmosphere) and
sending lava and ash down onto
The Geosphere surrounding forests (biosphere) and
- The solid Earth that includes the human habitations (biosphere).
continental and ocean crust as well the - Earthquakes (geosphere) can damage
various layers of Earth’s interior buildings which may kill people
- 94% of the Earth is composed of the (biosphere), as well as cause fires which
elements oxygen, silicon, and magnesium release gases into the air (atmosphere).
- The geosphere is not static (unchanging), Earthquakes in the ocean mau cause a
but its surface (crust) is in a constant tsunami (hydrosphere) which can
state of motion. eventually hit land and kill both animals
- Mineral resources are mined from the and people (biosphere).
geosphere.
The Biosphere Taiga
- The “life zone” of the Earth, and includes - Abiotic Factors
all living organisms (including humans), - Winters are long and cold
and all organic matter that has not yet - Averages 100in/year precipitation
decomposed. — mostly snow
- The biosphere is structured into a - Soil poor in nutrients and very
hierarchy known as the food chain (all life acidic
is dependant on the first tier — mainly the - Growing season is very short
primary producers that are capable of
Coniferous/Boreal (aka Taiga)
photosynthesis).
- Energy and mass is transferred from one - Coniferous (needle-bearing) trees are
level of the food chain to the next abundant
- Roots long to anchor trees
Biosphere is divided into biomes
- Needles long, thin and waxy
- Biomes are regions in the world that - Low sunlight and poor soil keeps plants
share similar plant structures, plant from growing on forest floor
spacing, animals, climate, and weather
Desert
- Biomes are the world’s major
communities. They are classified - Abiotic Factors
according to the predominant vegetation - <10in/year of rain
characterized by adaptations of - Little to no topsoil due to high
organisms to that particular climate. winds
- Minerals not deep in soil
There are 4 major biomes
- Too dry for decay
1. Aquatic - includes freshwater (ponds, - While there are many types of
lakes, rivers, etc.) and marine (ocean, deserts, they all share one
estuaries, etc.) characteristic: they are the driest
2. Forest - includes tropical, temperate, places on Earth
coniferous, and taiga
Tundra
3. Desert - characterized by low rainfall (less
than 50cm/year) - Abiotic Factors
4. Tundra - coolest of all biomes, has low - <25in/year
biotic diversity and simple vegetation - Temp rarely higher than 100C
structure - Permafrost layer
- Short growing season
Tropical Rainforest
Freshwater Ecosystems
- Abiotic Factors
- High biodiversity and biomass - Salinity <0.5 ppt.
- Both hot and moist - Lakes are the deepest of fresh water
- Ideal for bacteria and other systems
microorganisms; they quickly - Lakes are fed by underground aquifer or
decompose matter on the forest stream
floor allowing nutrients to be - Ponds are fed by rainfall and may be
recycled seasonal
- <1 cm of topsoil
Ocean Abiotic Factors
- About 100in/year of rainfall
- Open ocean is one of the least productive
areas on earth, too little sunlight to
support plant growth
- Covers nearly ¾ of the Earth’s surface
Grasslands What Sustains Life on Earth?
- There are two types of grasslands. The - Solar energy, the cycling of matter, and
tropical grasslands (savannah) and the gravity sustain the earth’s life
temperate grasslands (chaparral)
Two Secrets of Survival: Energy Flow and Matter
- Dominated by gasses
Recycle
- Savannah has a wet and dry season
- Temperate grassland has a hot - An ecosystem survives by a combination
summer and a cold winter of energy flow and matter recycling
Savannah Tropical grasslands Matter Cycling in Ecosystems
- A savannah is a rolling grassland scattered - Nutrient Cycles: Global Recycling
with shrubs and isolated trees, which can - Global Cycles recycle nutrients
be found between a tropical rainforest through the earth’s air, land, water,
and desert biome. Not enough rain falls and living organisms
on a savanna to support forests - Nutrients are the elements and
- Dry season: 4 inches of rain falls compounds that organisms need
- Summer: there is lots of rain to live, grow, and reproduce
- Lions, zebras, elephants, and giraffes and - Biogeochemical cycles move these
many types of ungulates (animals with substances through air, water, soil,
hooves) graze and hunt rock and living organisms
Chaparral Biome
- Very hot and dry
- The winter is very mild and is usually
about 100C
- Summer is so hot and dry at 400C that
fires and droughts are very common
- Organisms are well-adapted to hot&dry
weather: coyotes, jack rabbits, mule deer,
alligator lizards, horned toads, praying
mantis, and ladybugs
Biosphere: Interactions with other Earth System
components
Atmosphere: Life processes involve many The Carbon Cycle
chemical reactions which either extract or wmit - Carbon is found in carbohydrates, fats,
gases to and from the atmosphere (e.g. proteins, bones, cartilage, and shells
photosynthesis consumes carbon dioxide and - Carbon cycle = describes the route of
releases oxygen, whereas respiration does the carbon atoms through the environment
opposite). - Photosynthesis by plants, algae and
Hydrosphere: Evaporation of water from leaf cyanobacteria
surfaces (transpiration) transfers water to the - Removes carbon dioxide from air
atmosphere and water
- Produces oxygen and
Geosphere: The biosphere is connected to the
carbohydrates
geosphere through soils (mixtures of air, mineral
- Plants are a major reservoir of
matter, organic matter, and water). Plant activity
carbon
(e.g. root growth and organic acid production)
- Respiration returns carbon to the air and
are also for the mechanical and chemical
oceans
breakdown of the rocks
 Harmful Effects of Human Activities

The Nitrogen Cycle

- Nitrogen comprises 78% of our
atmosphere
- It is contained in proteins, DNA
and RNA
- Nitrogen cycle = describes the routes that
nitrogen atoms take through the
environment
- Nitrogen gas cannot be used by
organisms
- Nitrogen fixation = lightning or
nitrogen-fixing bacteria combine (fix)
nitrogen with hydrogen
- To form ammonium The Phosphorus Cycle
- Which can be used by plants
- Phosphorus (P) is a key component of cell
Nitrification and Denitrification membranes, DNA, RNA, ATP, and ADP
- Nitrification = bacteria convert - Phosphorus cycle = describes the routes
ammonium ions first into nitrite ions then that phosphorus atoms take through the
into nitrate ions environment
- Plants can take up these ions - Most phosphorus is within rocks
- Animals obtain nitrogen by eating - It is released by weathering
plantsor other animals - There is no significant
- Decomposers get it from dead and atmospheric component
decaying plants or other animals - With naturally low environmental
- Releasing ammonium ions to concentrations
nitrifying bacteria
- Denitrifying bacteria = convert nitrates in
soil or water to gaseous nitrogen
- Releasing it back into the
atmosphere
 As a general rule, only 10% of the energy is made
The Hydrologic Cycle available to the next consumer as one goes up in
- Water is essential for biochemical the pyramid.
reactions
- It is involved in nearly every
environmental system Where Do Humans Fit In?
- Hydrologic Cycle = summarizes how - As components of the biosphere, humans
liquid, gaseous and solid water flows are temporary receptacles of the matter
through the environment and energy that flows through the Earth
- Oceans are the main reservoir System
- Evaporation = water moves from aquatic - “You are what you eat, drink, and breathe”
and land systems into the atmosphere - Human health is, to some degree, a
- Transpiration = release of water vapor by function of how this flow of matter and
plants energy flows through, and interacts with,
- Precipitation, runoff, and surface water = the human body
water returns to earth as rain or snow - In many cases, problems of human health
and flows into streams, oceans, etc. are fundamentally linked to the natural
distribution of Earth materials

Sun is the major source of energy. When light The Bottom Line
energy reaches Earth, three things happen: - Considerations on how processes within
- Light is reflected back into space the Earth System interact are extremely
- Light is transmitted through an object important in the understanding of the
- Light energy is absorbed and captured real world
into photosynthesis, where energy - Understanding physical and chemical
transformation happens processes in the Earth System is as
important as understanding the biological
Energy transfer is governed by the laws of entities in terms of understanding
thermodynamics: biological systems (all are connected)
- Energy can neither be created not - Everything is connected with everything
destroyed else.
- No transfer of energy is 100% complete