Science: Kovid Khandelwal: +91 9891423276

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Control and Coordination
In animals, control and coordination are provided by nervous and muscular tissues.
All information from our environment is detected by the specialized tips of some nerve cells. These receptors
are usually located in our sense organs, such as the inner ear, the nose, the tongue, and so on. So gustatory
receptors will detect taste while olfactory receptors will detect smell.
This information acquired at the end of the dendritic tip of
a nerve cell sets off a chemical reaction that creates an
electrical impulse. This impulse travels from the dendrite
to the cell body, and then along the axon to its end. At the
end of the axon, the electrical impulse sets off the release
of some chemicals. These chemicals cross the gap, or
synapse, and start a similar electrical impulse in a dendrite
of the next neuron. This is a general scheme of how
nervous impulses travel in the body. A similar synapse finally allows delivery of such impulses from neurons
to other cells, such as muscles cells or gland. It is thus no surprise that nervous tissue is made up of an
organized network of nerve cells or neurons and is specialized for conducting information via electrical
impulses from one part of the body to another.
Parts of the neuron:
i. Dendrite- where information is acquired,
ii. Axon- through which information travels as an electrical impulse, and
iii. Nerve Ending/Synapse- where this impulse must be converted into a chemical signal for onward
transmission.

Reflex Action
‘Reflex’ is a word we use very commonly when we talk about some sudden action in response to something
in the environment.
Touching a flame is an urgent and dangerous situation for us, or in fact, for any animal! If we think it will take
us a lot of time because thinking is a complex activity, so it is bound to involve a complicated interaction of
many nerve impulses from many neurons. If this is the case, it is no surprise that the thinking tissue in our
body consists of dense networks of intricately arranged neurons. It sits in the forward end of the skull and
receives signals from all over the body which it thinks about before responding to them.
Obviously, to receive these signals, this thinking part of the brain in the skull must be connected to nerves
coming from various parts of the body. Similarly, if this part of the brain is to instruct muscles to move,
nerves must carry this signal back to different parts of the body. If all of this is to be done when we touch a
hot object, it may take enough time for us to get burnt!
the process of detecting the signal or the input and responding to it by an output action might be completed
quickly. Such a connection is commonly called a reflex arc. Nerves from all over the body meet in a bundle in

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Science: Kovid Khandelwal: +91 9891423276

the spinal cord on their way to the brain. Reflex arcs are formed in this spinal cord itself, although the
information input also goes on to reach the brain.
The sensory neuron detects information and transmits to the spinal cord, where the relay neuron transfers
this information to the motor neuron. The motor neuron is connected to the muscle cell which takes the
required action.
Of course, reflex arcs have evolved in animals because the thinking process of the brain is not fast enough.
In fact, many animals have very little or none of the complex neuron network needed for thinking. So it is
quite likely that reflex arcs have evolved as efficient ways of functioning in the absence of true thought
processes. However, even after complex neuron networks have come into existence, reflex arcs continue to
be more efficient for quick responses.

Human Brain
Spinal cord is made up of nerves which supply information to think about. Thinking involves more complex
mechanisms and neural connections. These are concentrated in the brain, which is the main coordinating
center of the body. The brain and spinal cord constitute the central nervous system. They receive
information from all parts of the body and integrate it.
Writing, talking, moving a chair, clapping at the end of a program are examples of voluntary actions which are
based on deciding what to do next. So, the
brain also must send messages to muscles.
This is the second way in which the
nervous system communicates with the
muscles. The communication between the
central nervous system and the other
parts of the body is facilitated by the
peripheral nervous system consisting of
cranial nerves arising from the brain and
spinal nerves arising from the spinal cord.
The brain thus allows us to think and take
actions based on that thinking. This is
accomplished through a complex design,
with different parts of the brain
responsible for integrating different inputs

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Science: Kovid Khandelwal: +91 9891423276

and outputs. The brain has three such major parts or regions, namely the fore-brain, mid-brain and hind-
brain.
The fore-brain is the main thinking part of the brain. It has regions which receive sensory impulses from
various receptors. Separate areas of the fore-brain are specialized for hearing, smell, sight and so on. There
are separate areas of association where this sensory information is interpreted by putting it together with
information from other receptors as well as with information that is already stored in the brain. Based on all
this a decision is made about how to respond and the information is passed on to the motor areas which
control the movement of voluntary muscles, for example, our leg muscles. However, certain sensations are
distinct from seeing or hearing, for example, how do we know that we have eaten enough? The sensation of
feeling full is because of a center associated with hunger, which is in a separate part of the fore-brain.
Our mouth waters when we see food we like without our meaning to. Our hearts beat without our thinking
about it. In fact, we cannot control these actions easily by thinking about them even if we wanted to. So, in
between the simple reflex actions like change in the size of the pupil, and the thought-out actions such as
moving a chair, there is another set of muscle movement over which we do not have any thinking control.
Many of these involuntary actions are controlled by the mid-brain and hind-brain. All these involuntary
actions including blood pressure, salivation and vomiting are controlled by the medulla in the hind-brain.
Activities like walking in a straight line, riding a bicycle, picking up a pencil. These are possible due to a part of
the hind-brain called the cerebellum. It is responsible for precision of voluntary actions and maintaining the
posture and balance of the body.
Part Location Function
Pons The pons is the major 1. Transferring information between the cerebellum and motor
structure of the brain cortex.
stem present between 2. Controlling the magnitude and frequency of the respiration.
the midbrain and medulla 3. It is also involved in controlling sleep cycles.
oblongata. 4. In addition, the pons is involved in sensations such as the
sense of taste, hearing, and balance.
Cerebrum The cerebrum is the It consists of the cerebral cortex and other subcortical structures.
largest part of the brain. It is composed of two cerebral hemispheres that are joined
Located in the fore brain. together by heavy dense bands of fiber called the corpus
callosum. It is further divided into four sections or lobes:
1. Frontal lobe: It is associated with parts of speech, planning,
reasoning, problem-solving and movement.
2. Parietal lobe: Helps in movement, the perception of stimuli
and orientation.
3. Occipital lobe: Related to visual processing.
4. Temporal lobe: Related to perception and recognition of
memory, auditory stimuli, and speech.

Thalamus The thalamus is a small 1. It is responsible for relaying sensory information from
structure located right the sense organs.
above the brain stem 2. It is also responsible for relaying motor information for
movement and coordination.
3. Thalamus is found in the limbic system within the cerebrum.
This limbic system is mainly responsible for the formation of
new memories and storing past experiences.
Hypothalamus The hypothalamus is a 1. Controlling the mood and emotions.
small and important part 2. Receiving the impulses, sense of taste and smell.
of the brain, located 3. Coordinating the messages from the autonomous nervous
exactly below the system.
thalamus. It is considered 4. Synthesizing of body’s essential hormones.

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Science: Kovid Khandelwal: +91 9891423276

the most important 5. Controlling body temperature, peristalsis, the rate of

region of the brain. heartbeat, and blood pressure.

Cerebellum The cerebellum is the 1. It senses equilibrium.

second largest part of the 2. Transfer of information.
brain which is in the 3. Fine control of the voluntary body movements.
posterior portion of the 4. The cerebellum is responsible for coordinating eye
medulla and pons. movements.
5. It predicts the future position of the body during a
movement.
6. The cerebellum is also essential for making fine adjustments
to motor actions.
7. Coordinating and maintaining body balance and posture
during walking, running, riding, swimming, etc.

Medulla The medulla oblongata is 1. It essentially controls the body’s autonomic functions such as
Oblongata a small structure present heartbeat, breathing, digestion, etc.
in the lowest region of 2. It plays a primary role in connecting the spinal cord, pons and
the brain. the cerebral cortex.
3. Also, it helps us in maintaining our posture and controlling
our reflexes.

How are these Tissues protected?

A delicate organ like the brain, which is so important for a variety of activities, needs to be carefully
protected. For this, the body is designed so that the brain sits inside a bony box or skull. Inside the box, the
brain is contained in a fluid-filled balloon which provides further shock absorption called the cerebrospinal
fluid. If you run your hand down the middle of your back, you will feel a hard, bumpy structure. This is the
vertebral column or backbone which protects the spinal cord.

How does the Nervous Tissue cause Action?

When a nerve impulse reaches the muscle, the muscle fibre must move. The simplest notion of movement at
the cellular level is that muscle cells will move by changing their shape so that they shorten. Muscle cells have
special proteins that change both their shape and their arrangement in the cell in response to nervous
electrical impulses. When this happens, new arrangements of these proteins give the muscle cells a shorter
form.

Coordination in Plants
Plants have neither a nervous system nor muscles to respond to stimuli.
The leaves of the sensitive plant move very quickly in response to touch. There is no growth involved in this
movement. On the other hand, the directional movement of a seedling is caused by growth. If it is prevented
from growing, it will not show any movement. So, plants show two different types of movement – one
dependent on growth and the other independent of growth.
These are known as Tropic and Nastic movements respectively.

Nastic Movements
The plants also use electrical-chemical means to convey information from cell to cell, but unlike in animals,
there is no specialised tissue in plants for the conduction of information. Instead of the specialised proteins

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Science: Kovid Khandelwal: +91 9891423276

found in animal muscle cells, plant cells change shape by changing the amount of water in them, resulting in
swelling or shrinking, and therefore in changing shapes.

Tropic Movements
Some plants like the pea plant climb up other plants or fences by means of tendrils. These tendrils are
sensitive to touch. When they come in contact with any support, the part of the tendril in contact with the
object does not grow as rapidly as the part of the tendril away from the object. This causes the tendril to
circle around the object and thus cling to it. More commonly, plants respond to stimuli slowly by growing in a
particular direction. Because this growth is directional, it appears as if the plant is moving.
Environmental triggers such as light, or gravity will change the directions that plant parts grow in. These
directional, or tropic, movements can be either towards the stimulus, or away from it. So, in two different
kinds of phototropic movement, shoots respond by bending towards light while roots respond by bending
away from it.
Plants show tropism in response to other stimuli as well. The roots of a plant always grow downwards while
the shoots usually grow upwards and away from the earth. This upward and downward growth of shoots and
roots, respectively, in response to the pull of earth or gravity is, obviously, geotropism.
Roots grow downwards in search of water and hence it can also be called Hydrotropism.
Chemotropism is the growth of pollen tubes towards ovules, about which we will learn more when we
examine the reproductive processes of living organisms.
Similarities between Tropic Movements and Nastic Movements
1. Both tropic movements and nastic movements are vital movements.
2. Both are the movements of curvature.
3. Both are induced movements.
4. Both types of movements are induced by external stimuli.
Difference between Tropic Movements and Nastic Movements
Tropic Nastic
Tropic movements are paratonic movements of Nastic movements are paratonic movements of
growth. variations.
Example: Movement of shoot towards the sunlight Drooping of the leaves of Mimosa pudica due to
(phototropic movement). touch (Thigmonastic movement).
Tropic movements are shown by plant organs with Nastic movements are shown by plant organs with
radial symmetry (such as root and stem). bilateral symmetrical (flat) such as leaves and
stomata.
Stimuli for the tropic movements are unidirectional The stimuli for the nastic movements may be
and never diffused. unidirectional or diffused.
The tropic movements are related to the direction Nastic movements are NOT related to the direction
of stimuli. of stimuli.
Tropic movements are comparatively slow Nastic movements are quick movements.
movements.

Plant Hormones
Stimulated cells release a chemical compound, this compound would diffuse all around the original cell. If
other cells around have the means to detect this compound using special molecules on their surfaces, then
they would be able to recognize information, and even transmit it. This will be slower, of course, but it can

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Science: Kovid Khandelwal: +91 9891423276

potentially reach all cells of the body, regardless of nervous connections, and it can be done steadily and
persistently. These compounds, or hormones used by multicellular organisms for control and coordination
show a great deal of diversity, as we would expect.
Different plant hormones help to coordinate growth, development and responses to the environment. They
are synthesised at places away from where they act and simply diffuse to the area of action.
Plant Hormone Function
Auxin When growing plants detect light, a hormone called auxin, synthesized at the shoot
tip, helps the cells to grow longer. When light is coming from one side of the plant,
auxin diffuses towards the shady side of the shoot. This concentration of auxin
stimulates the cells to grow longer on the side of the shoot which is away from light.
Thus, the plant appears to bend towards light.
Gibberellins These hormones are responsible for the cell growth in the stem, seed germination, and
flowering.
Cytokinins They promote cell division in plants. They also promote the opening of the stomata
and delay ageing in leaves.
Abscisic acid This hormone inhibits the growth of the plant. And therefore, it promotes dormancy in
seeds and buds. The detachment of fruits, flowers, and falling of leaves etc. are
promoted by this hormone.
Ethylene Helps in flowering and ripening of fruits.

Animal Hormones

Endocrine System
The endocrine system comprises of different endocrine glands and hormones. These endocrine glands in
animals help in the chemical coordination. They secrete chemicals called hormones. They are special
messengers that control many body functions, including hunger, body temperature, mood, growth and
development, metabolism, reproductive processes etc. The endocrine glands are ductless and hence are also
called as ductless glands.

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Science: Kovid Khandelwal: +91 9891423276

Hormones
Hormones are chemicals secreted by the endocrine glands directly into the bloodstream. Through the blood,
these hormones in animals reach their target organs to stimulate or inhibit specific physiological processes.
The site of production of the hormones is different and the site of action is different. Even though there are
different hormones in the bloodstream, each will act only on the specific target organ. There are around 20
major hormones in animals that are released by the endocrine glands into the blood, playing a major role in
many of the physiological processes happening in the body.

Endocrine Gland Function

Hypothalamus This gland forms an important link between the nervous system and the endocrine
system, via the pituitary gland.
Helps in maintaining the body temperature, controls sleep, hunger, thirst, emotions
and moods.
It also controls the release of 8 major hormones by the pituitary gland.
Controls the sexual behavior and reproduction.
Pituitary Gland The pituitary gland is very small in size but is called as the Master Gland, as many
endocrine glands are controlled by the hormones secreted by it. It also stimulates
other endocrine glands to produce hormones. Some of the hormones released by this
gland are growth hormone, thyroid stimulating hormone, MSH, LH, FSH etc.
Growth hormone is one of the hormones secreted by the pituitary. As its name
indicates, growth hormone regulates growth and development of the body. If there is
a deficiency of this hormone in childhood, it leads to dwarfism.
Thyroid Gland It is the largest endocrine gland that is shaped like a butterfly. It produces the
thyroxine hormone. Apart from that, it also plays a role in the bone growth,
development of the brain and nervous system in children. Iodine is important for the
synthesis of thyroxine.
Thyroxin regulates carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism in the body so as to
provide the best balance for growth. Iodine is essential for the synthesis of thyroxin. In
case iodine is deficient in our diet, there is a possibility that we might suffer from
goitre. One of the symptoms in this disease is a swollen neck.
Pineal gland This produces melatonin hormone that regulates the sleep patterns.
Adrenal gland Adrenaline is secreted directly into the blood and carried to different parts of the
body. The target organs or the specific tissues on which it acts include the heart. As a
result, the heart beats faster, resulting in supply of more oxygen to our muscles. The
blood to the digestive system and skin is reduced due to contraction of muscles
around small arteries in these organs. This diverts the blood to our skeletal muscles.
The breathing rate also increases because of the contractions of the diaphragm and
the rib muscles. All these responses together enable the animal body to be ready to
deal with the situation
Pancreas Insulin is a hormone which is produced by the pancreas and helps in regulating blood
sugar levels. If it is not secreted in proper amounts, the sugar level in the blood rises
causing many harmful effects. One such similar hormone is glucagon.
Testes These glands are present in males and produce testosterone hormone.
Ovaries These glands are present in females. The hormones produced by ovaries are oestrogen
and progesterone.
It is important that hormones should be secreted in precise quantities, we need a mechanism through which
this is done. The timing and amount of hormone released are regulated by feedback mechanisms. For
example, if the sugar levels in blood rise, they are detected by the cells of the pancreas which respond by
producing more insulin. As the blood sugar level falls, insulin secretion is reduced.