Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach
8th Edition in SI Units
Yunus A. Çengel, Michael A. Boles
McGraw-Hill, 2015
CHAPTER 7
ENTROPY
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ENTROPY
Clasius
inequality
Formal
definition
of entropy
The equality in the Clausius inequality holds
for totally or just internally reversible cycles
and the inequality for the irreversible ones. 3
A quantity whose cyclic
integral is zero (i.e., a
property like volume)
Entropy is an extensive
property of a system.
A Special Case: Internally Reversible
Isothermal Heat Transfer Processes
This equation is particularly useful for determining
the entropy changes of thermal energy reservoirs. 4
THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE
The equality holds for an internally
reversible process and the inequality
for an irreversible process.
Some entropy is generated or created during an irreversible process,
and this generation is due entirely to the presence of irreversibilities.
The entropy generation Sgen is always a positive quantity or zero.
Can the entropy of a system during a process decrease?
5
The increase
of entropy
principle
6
ENTROPY CHANGE OF PURE SUBSTANCES
Entropy is a property, and thus
the value of entropy of a
system is fixed once the state
of the system is fixed.
Entropy change
8
ISENTROPIC PROCESSES
A process during which the entropy remains constant is called
an isentropic process.
9
PROPERTY DIAGRAMS INVOLVING ENTROPY
On a T-S
diagram, the
area under the
process curve
represents the
heat transfer for
internally
reversible
processes.
Mollier diagram: The h-s diagram
10
THE T ds RELATIONS
the first T ds, or Gibbs equation
the second T ds equation
Differential changes
in entropy in terms
of other properties
16
ENTROPY CHANGE OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
Liquids and solids can be
approximated as
incompressible substances
Since for liquids and solids since their specific volumes
remain nearly constant
during a process.
For and isentropic process of an incompressible substance
17
THE ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
From the first T ds relation From the second T ds relation
18
Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)
Entropy change of an ideal gas on a
unit–mole basis
19
Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis)
We choose absolute zero as the reference
temperature and define a function s° as
On a unit–mass basis
On a unit–mole basis
20
Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases
Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)
Setting this eq. equal to
zero, we get
22
Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases
Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis)
Relative Pressure and Relative Specific Volume
exp(s°/R) is The use of Pr data
the relative for calculating the
pressure Pr. final temperature
during an isentropic
process.
The use of vr data for
calculating the final
T/Pr is the relative
temperature during an
specific volume vr.
isentropic process 23
REVERSIBLE STEADY-FLOW WORK
When kinetic and
potential energies
are negligible
The larger the
specific
volume, the
For the steady flow of a liquid through a
greater the
device that involves no work interactions
(such as a pipe section), the work term is work
zero (Bernoulli equation): produced (or
consumed) by
a steady-flow
device. 24
Proof that Steady-Flow Devices Deliver the Most and Consume
the Least Work when the Process Is Reversible
Taking heat input and work output positive:
Actual
Reversible
Work-producing devices such as
turbines deliver more work, and work-
consuming devices such as pumps
and compressors require less work
when they operate reversibly. 26
MINIMIZING THE COMPRESSOR WORK
When kinetic and
potential energies
are negligible
Isentropic (Pvk = constant):
Polytropic (Pvn = constant):
Isothermal (Pv = constant):
The adiabatic compression (Pvk = constant)
requires the maximum work and the
isothermal compression (T = constant)
requires the minimum.
27
Multistage
Compression
with
Intercooling
The gas is compressed
in stages and cooled
between each stage by
passing it through a
heat exchanger called
an intercooler.
To minimize compression work during two-stage
compression, the pressure ratio across each
stage of the compressor must be the same. 28
ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES
OF STEADY-FLOW DEVICES
Isentropic Efficiency
of Turbines
30
Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps
When kinetic and
potential energies
are negligible
For a pump
(for liquids)
Isothermal efficiency
(when cooled)
Compressors
are sometimes
intentionally
cooled to
minimize the
work input. 34
Isentropic Efficiency
of Nozzles
If the inlet velocity of the
fluid is small relative to
the exit velocity, the
energy balance is
Then,
38
ENTROPY BALANCE
Entropy Change of a
System, ∆Ssystem
When the properties of the
system are not uniform
Energy and entropy
balances for a system.
44
Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer, Sin and Sout
1 Heat Transfer
Entropy transfer by heat transfer:
Entropy transfer by work:
No entropy accompanies work as it crosses the
system boundary. But entropy may be
generated within the system as work is
dissipated into a less useful form of energy. 45
2 Mass Flow
Entropy transfer by mass:
When the properties of the mass
change during the process
46
Entropy Generation, Sgen Entropy generation
outside system
boundaries can be
accounted for by
writing an entropy
balance on an
extended system that
includes the system
and its immediate
surroundings.
Mechanisms of entropy transfer for a
general system.
47
Closed Systems
The entropy change of a closed system during a process is equal to the
sum of the net entropy transferred through the system boundary by heat
transfer and the entropy generated within the system boundaries.
48
Control Volumes
The entropy of a
substance always
increases (or
remains constant in
the case of a
reversible process)
as it flows through a
single-stream,
adiabatic, steady-
flow device. 49
