CHAPTER
7
ENTROPY
1. Entropy
2. The Increase of Entropy Principle
3. Entropy Change of Pure Substances
4. Isentropic Processes
5. Property Diagram Involving Entropy
6. What is Entropy ?
7. The T ds Relations
8. Entropy Change of Liquids and Solids
9. The Entropy Change of Ideal Gases
10. Reversible Steady-Flow Work
11. Minimizing the Compressor Work
12. Isentropic Efficiencies of Steady-Flow Devices
13. Entropy Balance
2022 Spring semester
Objectives
• Apply the second law of thermodynamics to processes.
• Define a new property called entropy to quantify the second-law
effects.
• Establish the increase of entropy principle.
• Calculate the entropy changes that take place during processes for
pure substances, incompressible substances, and ideal gases.
• Examine a special class of idealized processes, called isentropic
processes, and develop the property relations for these processes.
• Derive the reversible steady-flow work relations.
• Develop the isentropic efficiencies for various steady-flow devices.
• Introduce and apply the entropy balance to various systems.
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7-1. ENTROPY
(7-1) Clasius inequality
Formal definition
of entropy
The equality in the Clausius inequality holds
for totally or just internally reversible cycles
and the inequality for the irreversible ones.
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7-1. ENTROPY
Property: A quantity whose
cyclic integral is zero.
Entropy is an extensive
property of a system.
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7-1. ENTROPY
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7-1. ENTROPY
A Special Case: Internally Reversible
Isothermal Heat Transfer Processes
(7-6)
This equation is particularly useful for
determining the entropy changes of
thermal energy reservoirs.
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7-2.THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE
The equality holds for an internally
reversible process and the inequality
for an irreversible process.
Some entropy is generated or created during an irreversible process,
and this generation is due entirely to the presence of irreversibilities.
The entropy generation Sgen is always a positive quantity or zero.
Can the entropy change of a system be negative?
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7-2.THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE
The increase of entropy principle
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7-2.THE INCREASE OF ENTROPY PRINCIPLE
Some Remarks about Entropy
1. Processes can occur in a certain direction
only, not in any direction. A process must
proceed in the direction that complies with the
increase of entropy principle, that is, Sgen ≥ 0.
A process that violates this principle is
impossible.
2. Entropy is a nonconserved property, and there
is no such thing as the conservation of
entropy principle. Entropy is conserved during
the idealized reversible processes only and
increases during all actual processes.
3. The performance of engineering systems is
degraded by the presence of irreversibilities,
and entropy generation is a measure of the
magnitudes of the irreversibilities during that
process. It is also used to establish criteria for
the performance of engineering devices.
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7-3. ENTROPY CHANGE OF PURE SUBSTANCES
Entropy is a property, and thus
the value of entropy of a system
is fixed once the state of the
system is fixed.
Entropy change
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7-3. ENTROPY CHANGE OF PURE SUBSTANCES
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7-4. ISENTROPIC PROCESSES
Isentropic process: A process during which the entropy remains constant.
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7-5. PROPERTY DIAGRAMS INVOLVING ENTROPY
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7-5. PROPERTY DIAGRAMS INVOLVING ENTROPY
Mollier diagram: The h-s diagram
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7-5. PROPERTY DIAGRAMS INVOLVING ENTROPY
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7-6. WHAT IS ENTROPY?
Boltzmann relation W the total number of
possible relevant
microstates of the
system
Gibbs’ formulation
pi sum of all microstates’ uncertainties,
i.e., probabilities
Boltzmann
constant
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7-6. WHAT IS ENTROPY?
The third law of
thermodynamics: The entropy
of a pure crystalline substance
at absolute zero temperature is
zero since there is no
uncertainty about the state of
the molecules at that instant.
The third law of
thermodynamics provides an
absolute reference point for the
determination of entropy.
The entropy determined relative
to this point is called absolute
entropy.
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7-6. WHAT IS ENTROPY?
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7-6. WHAT IS ENTROPY?
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7-7. THE T ds RELATIONS
The first T ds or Gibbs equation
The second T ds equation
(7-25) Differential changes in entropy
in terms of other properties
(7-26)
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7-7. THE T ds RELATIONS
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7-8. ENTROPY CHANGE OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
Liquids and solids can be
approximated as
incompressible substances
Since for liquids and solids
since their specific volumes
remain nearly constant
during a process.
(7-28)
For and isentropic process of an incompressible substance
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7-9. THE ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
From the first T ds relation From the second T ds relation
(7-31)
(7-32)
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7-9. THE ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)
Entropy change of an ideal gas on a unit–mole basis
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7-9. THE ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
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7-9. THE ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis)
We choose absolute zero as the reference
temperature and define a function s° as
On a unit–mass basis
On a unit–mole basis
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7-9. THE ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
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7-9. THE ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases
Constant Specific Heats (Approximate Analysis)
Setting this equation equal
to zero, we get
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7-9. THE ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
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7-9. THE ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
Isentropic Processes of Ideal Gases
Variable Specific Heats (Exact Analysis)
Relative Pressure and Relative Specific Volume
exp(s°/R) is
the relative
pressure Pr.
T/Pr is the relative
specific volume vr.
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7-9. THE ENTROPY CHANGE OF IDEAL GASES
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7-10. REVERSIBLE STEADY-FLOW WORK
When kinetic and potential energies are
negligible
Bernoulli equation: Steady flow of a
liquid through a device that involves
no work interactions.
7-10. REVERSIBLE STEADY-FLOW WORK
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7-10. REVERSIBLE STEADY-FLOW WORK
EXAMPLE: Compressing a Substance in the
Liquid versus Gas Phases
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7-11. MINIMIZING THE COMPRESSOR WORK
When kinetic and potential
energies are negligible
Isentropic (Pvk = constant):
Polytropic (Pvn = constant):
Isothermal (Pv = constant):
The adiabatic compression (Pvk = constant)
requires the maximum work and the
isothermal compression (T = constant)
requires the minimum. Why?
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7-12. ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF STEADY-
FLOW DEVICES
The more closely the actual process
approximates the idealized isentropic
process, the better the device performs.
Thus, it would be desirable to have a
parameter that expresses quantitatively
how efficiently an actual device
approximates an idealized one. This
parameter is the isentropic or adiabatic
efficiency, which is a measure of the
deviation of actual processes from the
corresponding idealized ones.
Isentropic efficiencies are defined
differently for different devices since each
device is set up to perform different tasks.
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7-12. ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF STEADY-
FLOW DEVICES
Isentropic Efficiency of Turbines
For a turbine under steady
operation, the inlet state of the
working fluid and the exhaust
pressure are fixed.
The ideal process for an adiabatic
turbine is an isentropic process
between the inlet state and the
exhaust pressure.
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7-12. ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF STEADY-
FLOW DEVICES
Example
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7-12. ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF STEADY-
FLOW DEVICES
Isentropic Efficiencies of Compressors and Pumps
When kinetic and
potential energies
are negligible
For a pump
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7-12. ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF STEADY-
FLOW DEVICES
A realistic model process for
compressors that are
intentionally cooled during the
compression process is the
reversible isothermal process.
Isothermal efficiency
Can you use isentropic efficiency
for a non-adiabatic compressor?
Can you use isothermal efficiency
for an adiabatic compressor?
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7-12. ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF STEADY-
FLOW DEVICES
Example
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7-12. ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF STEADY-
FLOW DEVICES
Isentropic Efficiency of Nozzles
If the inlet velocity of the fluid is small
relative to the exit velocity, the energy
balance is
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7-12. ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCIES OF STEADY-
FLOW DEVICES
Example
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7-13. ENTROPY BALANCE
Entropy balance: The entropy change of a system
during a process is equal to the net entropy transfer
through the system boundary and the entropy
generated within the system.
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7-13. ENTROPY BALANCE
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7-13. ENTROPY BALANCE
Entropy Change of a System, ∆Ssystem
When the properties of the
system are not uniform
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7-13. ENTROPY BALANCE
Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer, Sin and Sout
1 Heat Transfer
Entropy transfer by heat transfer:
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7-13. ENTROPY BALANCE
Entropy transfer
by work
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7-13. ENTROPY BALANCE
Mechanisms of Entropy Transfer, Sin and Sout
2 Mass Flow
When the properties of the mass change during the process
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7-13. ENTROPY BALANCE
Entropy Generation, Sgen
Mechanisms of entropy
transfer for a general system.
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7-13. ENTROPY BALANCE
The total entropy generated during
a process can be determined by
applying the entropy balance to an
extended system that includes the
system itself and its immediate
surroundings where external
irreversibilities might be occurring .
The entropy change in this case is
equal to the sum of the entropy
change of the system and the
entropy change of the immediate
surroundings.
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7-13. ENTROPY BALANCE
Closed Systems
The entropy change of a closed system during a process is
equal to the sum of the net entropy transferred through the
system boundary by heat transfer and the entropy generated
within the system boundaries.
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7-13. ENTROPY BALANCE
Control Volumes
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7-13. ENTROPY BALANCE
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7-13. ENTROPY BALANCE
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7-13. ENTROPY BALANCE
EXAMPLES 7-17.
Entropy balance for heat
transfer through a wall
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7-13. ENTROPY BALANCE
Entropy balance for a throttling process
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7-13. ENTROPY BALANCE
Entropy Generated when a Hot Block is Dropped in a Lake
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7-13. ENTROPY BALANCE
(Ex) 7-20. Entropy Generation in a Heat Exchanger
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7-13. ENTROPY BALANCE
(Ex) 7-21. Entropy Generation Associated with Heat Transfer
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7-13. ENTROPY BALANCE
Entropy generation associated with a
heat transfer process
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Summary
Entropy
The Increase of entropy principle
Entropy change of pure substances
Isentropic processes
Property diagrams involving entropy
What is entropy?
The T ds relations
Entropy change of liquids and solids
The entropy change of ideal gases
Reversible steady-flow work
Minimizing the compressor work
Isentropic efficiencies of steady-flow devices
Entropy balance
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